Globalization: a Very Short Introduction

6th Edition Manfred B. Steger

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Globalization: A Very Short Introduction
 VERY SHORT INTRODUCTIONS are for anyone wanting a stimulating
and accessible way into a new subject. They are written by experts, and
have been translated into more than 45 different languages.
The series began in 1995, and now covers a wide variety of topics in
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­ iscipline. The VSI library currently contains over 700 volumes—a
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Very Short Introductions available now:

ABOLITIONISM Richard S. Newman AMERICAN IMMIGRATION

THE ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS
Charles L. Cohen
ACCOUNTING Christopher Nobes
ADDICTION Keith Humphreys
ADOLESCENCE Peter K. Smith
THEODOR W. ADORNO
Andrew Bowie
ADVERTISING Winston Fletcher
AERIAL WARFARE Frank Ledwidge
AESTHETICS Bence Nanay
AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Jonathan Scott Holloway
AFRICAN AMERICAN RELIGION
Eddie S. Glaude Jr
AFRICAN HISTORY John Parker and
Richard Rathbone
AFRICAN POLITICS Ian Taylor
AFRICAN RELIGIONS
Jacob K. Olupona
AGEING Nancy A. Pachana
AGNOSTICISM Robin Le Poidevin
AGRICULTURE Paul Brassley and
Richard Soffe
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Hugh Bowden
ALGEBRA Peter M. Higgins
AMERICAN BUSINESS HISTORY
Walter A. Friedman
AMERICAN CULTURAL HISTORY
Eric Avila
AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS
Andrew Preston
AMERICAN HISTORY Paul S. Boyer
David A. Gerber
AMERICAN INTELLECTUAL
HISTORY
Jennifer Ratner-­Rosenhagen
THE AMERICAN JUDICIAL SYSTEM
Charles L. Zelden
AMERICAN LEGAL HISTORY
G. Edward White
AMERICAN MILITARY HISTORY
Joseph T. Glatthaar
AMERICAN NAVAL HISTORY
Craig L. Symonds
AMERICAN POETRY David Caplan
AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY
Donald Critchlow
AMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES
AND ELECTIONS L. Sandy Maisel
AMERICAN POLITICS
Richard M. Valelly
THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY
Charles O. Jones
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Robert J. Allison
AMERICAN SLAVERY
Heather Andrea Williams
THE AMERICAN SOUTH
Charles Reagan Wilson
THE AMERICAN WEST
Stephen Aron
AMERICAN WOMEN’S HISTORY
Susan Ware
AMPHIBIANS T. S. Kemp
ANAESTHESIA Aidan O’Donnell
ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
Michael Beaney
ANARCHISM Alex Prichard
ANCIENT ASSYRIA Karen Radner
ANCIENT EGYPT Ian Shaw
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART AND
ARCHITECTURE Christina Riggs
ANCIENT GREECE Paul Cartledge
ANCIENT GREEK AND ROMAN
SCIENCE Liba Taub
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
Amanda H. Podany
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY Julia Annas
ANCIENT WARFARE
Harry Sidebottom
ANGELS David Albert Jones
ANGLICANISM Mark Chapman
THE ANGLO-­SAXON AGE John Blair
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
Tristram D. Wyatt
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
Peter Holland
ANIMAL RIGHTS David DeGrazia
ANSELM Thomas Williams
THE ANTARCTIC Klaus Dodds
ANTHROPOCENE Erle C. Ellis
ANTISEMITISM Steven Beller
ANXIETY Daniel Freeman and
Jason Freeman
THE APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS
Paul Foster
APPLIED MATHEMATICS
Alain Goriely
THOMAS AQUINAS Fergus Kerr
ARBITRATION Thomas Schultz and
Thomas Grant
ARCHAEOLOGY Paul Bahn
ARCHITECTURE Andrew Ballantyne
THE ARCTIC Klaus Dodds and
Jamie Woodward
HANNAH ARENDT Dana Villa
ARISTOCRACY William Doyle
ARISTOTLE Jonathan Barnes
ART HISTORY Dana Arnold
ART THEORY Cynthia Freeland
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Margaret A. Boden
ASIAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Madeline Y. Hsu
ASTROBIOLOGY David C. Catling
ASTROPHYSICS James Binney
ATHEISM Julian Baggini
THE ATMOSPHERE Paul I. Palmer
AUGUSTINE Henry Chadwick
JANE AUSTEN Tom Keymer
AUSTRALIA Kenneth Morgan
AUTISM Uta Frith
AUTOBIOGRAPHY Laura Marcus
THE AVANT GARDE David Cottington
THE AZTECS Davíd Carrasco
BABYLONIA Trevor Bryce
BACTERIA Sebastian G. B. Amyes
BANKING John Goddard and
John O. S. Wilson
BARTHES Jonathan Culler
THE BEATS David Sterritt
BEAUTY Roger Scruton
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN
Mark Evan Bonds
BEHAVIOURAL ECONOMICS
Michelle Baddeley
BESTSELLERS John Sutherland
THE BIBLE John Riches
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
Eric H. Cline
BIG DATA Dawn E. Holmes
BIOCHEMISTRY Mark Lorch
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
David Macdonald
BIOGEOGRAPHY Mark V. Lomolino
BIOGRAPHY Hermione Lee
BIOMETRICS Michael Fairhurst
ELIZABETH BISHOP
Jonathan F. S. Post
BLACK HOLES Katherine Blundell
BLASPHEMY Yvonne Sherwood
BLOOD Chris Cooper
THE BLUES Elijah Wald
THE BODY Chris Shilling
THE BOHEMIANS David Weir
NIELS BOHR J. L. Heilbron
THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Brian Cummings
THE BOOK OF MORMON
Terryl Givens
BORDERS Alexander C. Diener and
Joshua Hagen
THE BRAIN Michael O’Shea
BRANDING Robert Jones
THE BRICS Andrew F. Cooper
BRITISH CINEMA Charles Barr
THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION
Martin Loughlin
THE BRITISH EMPIRE Ashley Jackson
BRITISH POLITICS Tony Wright
BUDDHA Michael Carrithers
BUDDHISM Damien Keown
BUDDHIST ETHICS Damien Keown
BYZANTIUM Peter Sarris
CALVINISM Jon Balserak
ALBERT CAMUS Oliver Gloag
CANADA Donald Wright
CANCER Nicholas James
CAPITALISM James Fulcher
CATHOLICISM Gerald O’Collins
CAUSATION Stephen Mumford and
Rani Lill Anjum
THE CELL Terence Allen and
Graham Cowling
THE CELTS Barry Cunliffe
CHAOS Leonard Smith
GEOFFREY CHAUCER David Wallace
CHEMISTRY Peter Atkins
CHILD PSYCHOLOGY Usha Goswami
CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
Kimberley Reynolds
CHINESE LITERATURE Sabina Knight
CHOICE THEORY Michael Allingham
CHRISTIAN ART Beth Williamson
CHRISTIAN ETHICS D. Stephen Long
CHRISTIANITY Linda Woodhead
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Russell Foster and Leon Kreitzman
CITIZENSHIP Richard Bellamy
CITY PLANNING Carl Abbott
CIVIL ENGINEERING
David Muir Wood
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
Thomas C. Holt
CLASSICAL LITERATURE William Allan
CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY
Helen Morales
CLASSICS Mary Beard and
John Henderson
CLAUSEWITZ Michael Howard
CLIMATE Mark Maslin
CLIMATE CHANGE Mark Maslin
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Susan Llewelyn and
Katie Aafjes-­van Doorn
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL
THERAPY Freda McManus
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
Richard Passingham
THE COLD WAR Robert J. McMahon
COLONIAL AMERICA Alan Taylor
COLONIAL LATIN AMERICAN
LITERATURE Rolena Adorno
COMBINATORICS Robin Wilson
COMEDY Matthew Bevis
COMMUNISM Leslie Holmes
COMPARATIVE LITERATURE
Ben Hutchinson
COMPETITION AND ANTITRUST
LAW Ariel Ezrachi
COMPLEXITY John H. Holland
THE COMPUTER Darrel Ince
COMPUTER SCIENCE
Subrata Dasgupta
CONCENTRATION CAMPS
Dan Stone
CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS
Ross H. McKenzie
CONFUCIANISM Daniel K. Gardner
THE CONQUISTADORS
Matthew Restall and
Felipe Fernández-­Armesto
CONSCIENCE Paul Strohm
CONSCIOUSNESS Susan Blackmore
CONTEMPORARY ART
Julian Stallabrass
CONTEMPORARY FICTION
Robert Eaglestone
CONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY
Simon Critchley
COPERNICUS Owen Gingerich
CORAL REEFS Charles Sheppard
CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY Jeremy Moon
CORRUPTION Leslie Holmes
COSMOLOGY Peter Coles
COUNTRY MUSIC Richard Carlin
CREATIVITY Vlad Glăveanu
CRIME FICTION Richard Bradford
CRIMINAL JUSTICE Julian V. Roberts
CRIMINOLOGY Tim Newburn
CRITICAL THEORY
Stephen Eric Bronner
THE CRUSADES
Christopher Tyerman
CRYPTOGRAPHY Fred Piper and
Sean Murphy
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY A. M. Glazer
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION
Richard Curt Kraus
DADA AND SURREALISM
David Hopkins
DANTE Peter Hainsworth and
David Robey
DARWIN Jonathan Howard
THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
Timothy H. Lim
DECADENCE David Weir
DECOLONIZATION Dane Kennedy
DEMENTIA Kathleen Taylor
DEMOCRACY Naomi Zack
DEMOGRAPHY Sarah Harper
DEPRESSION Jan Scott and
Mary Jane Tacchi
DERRIDA Simon Glendinning
DESCARTES Tom Sorell
DESERTS Nick Middleton
DESIGN John Heskett
DEVELOPMENT Ian Goldin
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
Lewis Wolpert
THE DEVIL Darren Oldridge
DIASPORA Kevin Kenny
CHARLES DICKENS Jenny Hartley
DICTIONARIES Lynda Mugglestone
DINOSAURS David Norman
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
Joseph M. Siracusa
DOCUMENTARY FILM
Patricia Aufderheide
DREAMING J. Allan Hobson
DRUGS Les Iversen
DRUIDS Barry Cunliffe
DYNASTY Jeroen Duindam
DYSLEXIA Margaret J. Snowling
EARLY MUSIC Thomas Forrest Kelly
THE EARTH Martin Redfern
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE Tim Lenton
ECOLOGY Jaboury Ghazoul
ECONOMICS Partha Dasgupta
EDUCATION Gary Thomas
EGYPTIAN MYTH Geraldine Pinch
EIGHTEENTH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Paul Langford
THE ELEMENTS Philip Ball
EMOTION Dylan Evans
EMPIRE Stephen Howe
EMPLOYMENT LAW David Cabrelli
ENERGY SYSTEMS Nick Jenkins
ENGELS Terrell Carver
ENGINEERING David Blockley
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Simon Horobin
ENGLISH LITERATURE Jonathan Bate
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
John Robertson
ENTREPRENEURSHIP Paul Westhead
and Mike Wright
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Stephen Smith
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Robin Attfield
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
Elizabeth Fisher
ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
Andrew Dobson
ENZYMES Paul Engel
EPICUREANISM Catherine Wilson
EPIDEMIOLOGY Rodolfo Saracci
ETHICS Simon Blackburn
ETHNOMUSICOLOGY Timothy Rice
THE ETRUSCANS Christopher Smith
EUGENICS Philippa Levine
THE EUROPEAN UNION
Simon Usherwood and John Pinder
EUROPEAN UNION LAW
Anthony Arnull
EVANGELICALISM
John G. Stackhouse Jr.
EVIL Luke Russell
EVOLUTION Brian and
Deborah Charlesworth
EXISTENTIALISM Thomas Flynn
EXPLORATION Stewart A. Weaver
EXTINCTION Paul B. Wignall
THE EYE Michael Land
FAIRY TALE Marina Warner
FAMILY LAW Jonathan Herring
MICHAEL FARADAY
Frank A. J. L. James
FASCISM Kevin Passmore
FASHION Rebecca Arnold
FEDERALISM Mark J. Rozell and
Clyde Wilcox
FEMINISM Margaret Walters
FILM Michael Wood
FILM MUSIC Kathryn Kalinak
FILM NOIR James Naremore
FIRE Andrew C. Scott
THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Michael Howard
FLUID MECHANICS Eric Lauga
FOLK MUSIC Mark Slobin
FOOD John Krebs
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
David Canter
FORENSIC SCIENCE Jim Fraser
FORESTS Jaboury Ghazoul
FOSSILS Keith Thomson
FOUCAULT Gary Gutting
THE FOUNDING FATHERS
R. B. Bernstein
FRACTALS Kenneth Falconer
FREE SPEECH Nigel Warburton
FREE WILL Thomas Pink
FREEMASONRY Andreas Önnerfors
FRENCH LITERATURE John D. Lyons
FRENCH PHILOSOPHY
Stephen Gaukroger and Knox Peden
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
William Doyle
FREUD Anthony Storr
FUNDAMENTALISM Malise Ruthven
FUNGI Nicholas P. Money
THE FUTURE Jennifer M. Gidley
GALAXIES John Gribbin
GALILEO Stillman Drake
GAME THEORY Ken Binmore
GANDHI Bhikhu Parekh
GARDEN HISTORY Gordon Campbell
GENES Jonathan Slack
GENIUS Andrew Robinson
GENOMICS John Archibald
GEOGRAPHY John Matthews and
David Herbert
GEOLOGY Jan Zalasiewicz
GEOMETRY Maciej Dunajski
GEOPHYSICS William Lowrie
GEOPOLITICS Klaus Dodds
GERMAN LITERATURE Nicholas Boyle
GERMAN PHILOSOPHY
Andrew Bowie
THE GHETTO Bryan Cheyette
GLACIATION David J. A. Evans
GLOBAL CATASTROPHES Bill McGuire
GLOBAL ECONOMIC HISTORY
Robert C. Allen
GLOBAL ISLAM Nile Green
GLOBALIZATION Manfred B. Steger
GOD John Bowker
GÖDEL’S THEOREM A. W. Moore
GOETHE Ritchie Robertson
THE GOTHIC Nick Groom
GOVERNANCE Mark Bevir
GRAVITY Timothy Clifton
THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND
THE NEW DEAL Eric Rauchway
HABEAS CORPUS
Amanda L. Tyler
HABERMAS James Gordon Finlayson
THE HABSBURG EMPIRE
Martyn Rady
HAPPINESS Daniel M. Haybron
THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE
Cheryl A. Wall
THE HEBREW BIBLE AS
LITERATURE Tod Linafelt
HEGEL Peter Singer
HEIDEGGER Michael Inwood
THE HELLENISTIC AGE
Peter Thonemann
HEREDITY John Waller
HERMENEUTICS Jens Zimmermann
HERODOTUS Jennifer T. Roberts
HIEROGLYPHS Penelope Wilson
HINDUISM Kim Knott
HISTORY John H. Arnold
THE HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY
Michael Hoskin
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
William H. Brock
THE HISTORY OF CHILDHOOD
James Marten
THE HISTORY OF CINEMA
Geoffrey Nowell-­Smith
THE HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Doron Swade
THE HISTORY OF EMOTIONS
Thomas Dixon
THE HISTORY OF LIFE
Michael Benton
THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
Jacqueline Stedall
THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE
William Bynum
THE HISTORY OF PHYSICS
J. L. Heilbron
THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL
THOUGHT Richard Whatmore
THE HISTORY OF TIME
Leofranc Holford‑Strevens
HIV AND AIDS Alan Whiteside
HOBBES Richard Tuck
HOLLYWOOD Peter Decherney
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
Joachim Whaley
HOME Michael Allen Fox
HOMER Barbara Graziosi
HORMONES Martin Luck
HORROR Darryl Jones
HUMAN ANATOMY
Leslie Klenerman
HUMAN EVOLUTION Bernard Wood
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Jamie A. Davies
HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT Adrian Wilkinson
HUMAN RIGHTS Andrew Clapham
HUMANISM Stephen Law
HUME James A. Harris
HUMOUR Noël Carroll
IBN SĪNĀ (AVICENNA) Peter Adamson
THE ICE AGE Jamie Woodward
IDENTITY Florian Coulmas
IDEOLOGY Michael Freeden
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Paul Klenerman
INDIAN CINEMA
Ashish Rajadhyaksha
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Sue Hamilton
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Robert C. Allen
INFECTIOUS DISEASE Marta L. Wayne
and Benjamin M. Bolker
INFINITY Ian Stewart
INFORMATION Luciano Floridi
INNOVATION Mark Dodgson and
David Gann
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Siva Vaidhyanathan
INTELLIGENCE Ian J. Deary
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Vaughan Lowe
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Khalid Koser
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Christian Reus-­Smit
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
Christopher S. Browning
INSECTS Simon Leather
IRAN Ali M. Ansari
ISLAM Malise Ruthven
ISLAMIC HISTORY Adam Silverstein
ISLAMIC LAW Mashood A. Baderin
ISOTOPES Rob Ellam
ITALIAN LITERATURE
Peter Hainsworth and David Robey
HENRY JAMES Susan L. Mizruchi
JAPANESE LITERATURE Alan Tansman
JESUS Richard Bauckham
JEWISH HISTORY David N. Myers
JEWISH LITERATURE Ilan Stavans
JOURNALISM Ian Hargreaves
JAMES JOYCE Colin MacCabe
JUDAISM Norman Solomon
JUNG Anthony Stevens
THE JURY Renée Lettow Lerner
KABBALAH Joseph Dan
KAFKA Ritchie Robertson
KANT Roger Scruton
KEYNES Robert Skidelsky
KIERKEGAARD Patrick Gardiner
KNOWLEDGE Jennifer Nagel
THE KORAN Michael Cook
KOREA Michael J. Seth
LAKES Warwick F. Vincent
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Ian H. Thompson
LANDSCAPES AND
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Andrew Goudie and Heather Viles
LANGUAGES Stephen R. Anderson
LATE ANTIQUITY Gillian Clark
LAW Raymond Wacks
THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Peter Atkins
LEADERSHIP Keith Grint
LEARNING Mark Haselgrove
LEIBNIZ Maria Rosa Antognazza
C. S. LEWIS James Como
LIBERALISM Michael Freeden
LIGHT Ian Walmsley
LINCOLN Allen C. Guelzo
LINGUISTICS Peter Matthews
LITERARY THEORY Jonathan Culler
LOCKE John Dunn
LOGIC Graham Priest
LOVE Ronald de Sousa
MARTIN LUTHER Scott H. Hendrix
MACHIAVELLI Quentin Skinner
MADNESS Andrew Scull
MAGIC Owen Davies
MAGNA CARTA Nicholas Vincent
MAGNETISM Stephen Blundell
MALTHUS Donald Winch
MAMMALS T. S. Kemp
MANAGEMENT John Hendry
NELSON MANDELA Elleke Boehmer
MAO Delia Davin
MARINE BIOLOGY Philip V. Mladenov
MARKETING
Kenneth Le Meunier-­FitzHugh
THE MARQUIS DE SADE John Phillips
MARTYRDOM Jolyon Mitchell
MARX Peter Singer
MATERIALS Christopher Hall
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Richard Earl
MATHEMATICAL FINANCE
Mark H. A. Davis
MATHEMATICS Timothy Gowers
MATTER Geoff Cottrell
THE MAYA Matthew Restall and
Amara Solari
THE MEANING OF LIFE
Terry Eagleton
MEASUREMENT David Hand
MEDICAL ETHICS Michael Dunn and
Tony Hope
MEDICAL LAW Charles Foster
MEDIEVAL BRITAIN John Gillingham
and Ralph A. Griffiths
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
Elaine Treharne
MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
John Marenbon
MEMORY Jonathan K. Foster
METAPHYSICS Stephen Mumford
METHODISM William J. Abraham
THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION
Alan Knight
MICROBIOLOGY Nicholas P. Money
MICROBIOMES Angela E. Douglas
MICROECONOMICS Avinash Dixit
MICROSCOPY Terence Allen
THE MIDDLE AGES Miri Rubin
MILITARY JUSTICE Eugene R. Fidell
MILITARY STRATEGY
Antulio J. Echevarria II
JOHN STUART MILL Gregory Claeys
MINERALS David Vaughan
MIRACLES Yujin Nagasawa
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Adam Sharr
MODERN ART David Cottington
MODERN BRAZIL Anthony W. Pereira
MODERN CHINA Rana Mitter
MODERN DRAMA
Kirsten E. Shepherd-­Barr
MODERN FRANCE
Vanessa R. Schwartz
MODERN INDIA Craig Jeffrey
MODERN IRELAND Senia Pašeta
MODERN ITALY Anna Cento Bull
MODERN JAPAN
Christopher Goto-­Jones
MODERN LATIN AMERICAN
LITERATURE
Roberto González Echevarría
MODERN WAR Richard English
MODERNISM Christopher Butler
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Aysha Divan
and Janice A. Royds
MOLECULES Philip Ball
MONASTICISM Stephen J. Davis
THE MONGOLS Morris Rossabi
MONTAIGNE William M. Hamlin
MOONS David A. Rothery
MORMONISM
Richard Lyman Bushman
MOUNTAINS Martin F. Price
MUHAMMAD Jonathan A. C. Brown
MULTICULTURALISM Ali Rattansi
MULTILINGUALISM John C. Maher
MUSIC Nicholas Cook
MUSIC AND TECHNOLOGY
Mark Katz
MYTH Robert A. Segal
NANOTECHNOLOGY Philip Moriarty
NAPOLEON David A. Bell
THE NAPOLEONIC WARS
Mike Rapport
NATIONALISM Steven Grosby
NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE
Sean Teuton
NAVIGATION Jim Bennett
NAZI GERMANY Jane Caplan
NEGOTIATION Carrie Menkel-­Meadow
NEOLIBERALISM Manfred B. Steger
and Ravi K. Roy
NETWORKS Guido Caldarelli and
Michele Catanzaro
THE NEW TESTAMENT
Luke Timothy Johnson
THE NEW TESTAMENT AS
LITERATURE Kyle Keefer
NEWTON Robert Iliffe
NIETZSCHE Michael Tanner
NINETEENTH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Christopher Harvie and
H. C. G. Matthew
THE NORMAN CONQUEST
George Garnett
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green
NORTHERN IRELAND
Marc Mulholland
NOTHING Frank Close
NUCLEAR PHYSICS Frank Close
NUCLEAR POWER Maxwell Irvine
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Joseph M. Siracusa
NUMBER THEORY Robin Wilson
NUMBERS Peter M. Higgins
NUTRITION David A. Bender
OBJECTIVITY Stephen Gaukroger
OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY
Geoff Cottrell
OCEANS Dorrik Stow
THE OLD TESTAMENT
Michael D. Coogan
THE ORCHESTRA D. Kern Holoman
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Graham Patrick
ORGANIZATIONS Mary Jo Hatch
ORGANIZED CRIME
Georgios A. Antonopoulos and
Georgios Papanicolaou
ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY
A. Edward Siecienski
OVID Llewelyn Morgan
PAGANISM Owen Davies
PAKISTAN Pippa Virdee
THE PALESTINIAN-­ISRAELI
CONFLICT Martin Bunton
PANDEMICS Christian W. McMillen
PARTICLE PHYSICS Frank Close
PAUL E. P. Sanders
IVAN PAVLOV Daniel P. Todes
PEACE Oliver P. Richmond
PENTECOSTALISM William K. Kay
PERCEPTION Brian Rogers
THE PERIODIC TABLE Eric R. Scerri
PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD
Timothy Williamson
PHILOSOPHY Edward Craig
PHILOSOPHY IN THE ISLAMIC
WORLD Peter Adamson
PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY
Samir Okasha
PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
Raymond Wacks
PHILOSOPHY OF MIND
Barbara Gail Montero
PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICS
David Wallace
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Samir Okasha
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
Tim Bayne
PHOTOGRAPHY Steve Edwards
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Peter Atkins
PHYSICS Sidney Perkowitz
PILGRIMAGE Ian Reader
PLAGUE Paul Slack
PLANETARY SYSTEMS
Raymond T. Pierrehumbert
PLANETS David A. Rothery
PLANTS Timothy Walker
PLATE TECTONICS Peter Molnar
PLATO Julia Annas
POETRY Bernard O’Donoghue
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY David Miller
POLITICS Kenneth Minogue
POLYGAMY Sarah M. S. Pearsall
POPULISM Cas Mudde and
Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser
POSTCOLONIALISM
Robert J. C. Young
POSTMODERNISM
Christopher Butler
POSTSTRUCTURALISM
Catherine Belsey
POVERTY Philip N. Jefferson
PREHISTORY Chris Gosden
PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
Catherine Osborne
PRIVACY Raymond Wacks
PROBABILITY John Haigh
PROGRESSIVISM Walter Nugent
PROHIBITION W. J. Rorabaugh
PROJECTS Andrew Davies
PROTESTANTISM Mark A. Noll
PSEUDOSCIENCE Michael D. Gordin
PSYCHIATRY Tom Burns
PSYCHOANALYSIS Daniel Pick
PSYCHOLOGY Gillian Butler and
Freda McManus
PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC
Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis
PSYCHOPATHY Essi Viding
PSYCHOTHERAPY Tom Burns and
Eva Burns-­Lundgren
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Stella Z. Theodoulou and Ravi K. Roy
PUBLIC HEALTH Virginia Berridge
PURITANISM Francis J. Bremer
THE QUAKERS Pink Dandelion
QUANTUM THEORY
John Polkinghorne
RACISM Ali Rattansi
RADIOACTIVITY Claudio Tuniz
RASTAFARI Ennis B. Edmonds
READING Belinda Jack
THE REAGAN REVOLUTION Gil Troy
REALITY Jan Westerhoff
RECONSTRUCTION Allen C. Guelzo
THE REFORMATION Peter Marshall
REFUGEES Gil Loescher
RELATIVITY Russell Stannard
RELIGION Thomas A. Tweed
RELIGION IN AMERICA Timothy Beal
THE RENAISSANCE Jerry Brotton
RENAISSANCE ART
Geraldine A. Johnson
RENEWABLE ENERGY Nick Jelley
REPTILES T. S. Kemp
REVOLUTIONS Jack A. Goldstone
RHETORIC Richard Toye
RISK Baruch Fischhoff and John Kadvany
RITUAL Barry Stephenson
RIVERS Nick Middleton
ROBOTICS Alan Winfield
ROCKS Jan Zalasiewicz
ROMAN BRITAIN Peter Salway
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Christopher Kelly
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
David M. Gwynn
ROMANTICISM Michael Ferber
ROUSSEAU Robert Wokler
RUSSELL A. C. Grayling
THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY
Richard Connolly
RUSSIAN HISTORY Geoffrey Hosking
RUSSIAN LITERATURE Catriona Kelly
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
S. A. Smith
SAINTS Simon Yarrow
SAMURAI Michael Wert
SAVANNAS Peter A. Furley
SCEPTICISM Duncan Pritchard
SCHIZOPHRENIA Chris Frith and
Eve Johnstone
SCHOPENHAUER
Christopher Janaway
SCIENCE AND RELIGION
Thomas Dixon and Adam R. Shapiro
SCIENCE FICTION David Seed
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Lawrence M. Principe
SCOTLAND Rab Houston
SECULARISM Andrew Copson
SEXUAL SELECTION Marlene Zuk and
Leigh W. Simmons
SEXUALITY Véronique Mottier
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Stanley Wells
SHAKESPEARE’S COMEDIES
Bart van Es
SHAKESPEARE’S SONNETS AND
POEMS Jonathan F. S. Post
SHAKESPEARE’S TRAGEDIES
Stanley Wells
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
Christopher Wixson
MARY SHELLEY Charlotte Gordon
THE SHORT STORY Andrew Kahn
SIKHISM Eleanor Nesbitt
SILENT FILM Donna Kornhaber
THE SILK ROAD James A. Millward
SLANG Jonathon Green
SLEEP Steven W. Lockley and
Russell G. Foster
SMELL Matthew Cobb
ADAM SMITH Christopher J. Berry
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
John Monaghan and Peter Just
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Richard J. Crisp
SOCIAL WORK Sally Holland and
Jonathan Scourfield
SOCIALISM Michael Newman
SOCIOLINGUISTICS John Edwards
SOCIOLOGY Steve Bruce
SOCRATES C. C. W. Taylor
SOFT MATTER Tom McLeish
SOUND Mike Goldsmith
SOUTHEAST ASIA James R. Rush
THE SOVIET UNION Stephen Lovell
THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
Helen Graham
SPANISH LITERATURE Jo Labanyi
THE SPARTANS Andrew J. Bayliss
SPINOZA Roger Scruton
SPIRITUALITY Philip Sheldrake
SPORT Mike Cronin
STARS Andrew King
STATISTICS David J. Hand
STEM CELLS Jonathan Slack
STOICISM Brad Inwood
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
David Blockley
STUART BRITAIN John Morrill
SUBURBS Carl Abbott
THE SUN Philip Judge
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Stephen Blundell
SUPERSTITION Stuart Vyse
SYMMETRY Ian Stewart
SYNAESTHESIA Julia Simner
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY Jamie A. Davies
SYSTEMS BIOLOGY Eberhard O. Voit
TAXATION Stephen Smith
TEETH Peter S. Ungar
TERRORISM Charles Townshend
THEATRE Marvin Carlson
THEOLOGY David F. Ford
THINKING AND REASONING
Jonathan St B. T. Evans
THOUGHT Tim Bayne
TIBETAN BUDDHISM
Matthew T. Kapstein
TIDES David George Bowers and
Emyr Martyn Roberts
TIME Jenann Ismael
TOCQUEVILLE Harvey C. Mansfield
LEO TOLSTOY Liza Knapp
TOPOLOGY Richard Earl
TRAGEDY Adrian Poole
TRANSLATION Matthew Reynolds
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES
Michael S. Neiberg
TRIGONOMETRY Glen Van Brummelen
THE TROJAN WAR Eric H. Cline
TRUST Katherine Hawley
THE TUDORS John Guy
TWENTIETH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Kenneth O. Morgan
TYPOGRAPHY Paul Luna
THE UNITED NATIONS
Jussi M. Hanhimäki
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
David Palfreyman and Paul Temple
THE U.S. CIVIL WAR Louis P. Masur
THE U.S. CONGRESS Donald A. Ritchie
THE U.S. CONSTITUTION
David J. Bodenhamer
THE U.S. SUPREME COURT
Linda Greenhouse
UTILITARIANISM
Katarzyna de Lazari-­Radek and
Peter Singer
UTOPIANISM Lyman Tower Sargent
VATICAN II Shaun Blanchard and
Stephen Bullivant
VETERINARY SCIENCE James Yeates
THE VIKINGS Julian D. Richards
VIOLENCE Philip Dwyer
THE VIRGIN MARY
Mary Joan Winn Leith
THE VIRTUES Craig A. Boyd and
Kevin Timpe
VIRUSES Dorothy H. Crawford
VOLCANOES Michael J. Branney and
Jan Zalasiewicz
VOLTAIRE Nicholas Cronk
WAR AND RELIGION Jolyon Mitchell
and Joshua Rey
WAR AND TECHNOLOGY Alex Roland
WATER John Finney
WAVES Mike Goldsmith
WEATHER Storm Dunlop
THE WELFARE STATE David Garland
WITCHCRAFT Malcolm Gaskill
WITTGENSTEIN A. C. Grayling WORLD WAR II
WORK Stephen Fineman Gerhard L. Weinberg
WORLD MUSIC Philip Bohlman WRITING AND SCRIPT
WORLD MYTHOLOGY David Leeming Andrew Robinson
THE WORLD TRADE ZIONISM Michael Stanislawski
ORGANIZATION Amrita Narlikar ÉMILE ZOLA Brian Nelson

Available soon:
IMAGINATION THE VICTORIANS
Jennifer Gosetti-­Ferencei Martin Hewitt

For more information visit our website

www.oup.com/vsi/
 Manfred B. Steger

GLOBALIZATION
A Very Short Introduction
sixth edition
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Manfred B. Steger 2023
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First edition published 2003
Second edition published 2009
Third edition published 2013
Fourth edition published 2017
Fifth edition published 2020
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022951456
ISBN 978–0–19–288619–4
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
In memory of Roland Robertson (1938–2022),
Model scholar, colleague, friend
Contents

Preface to the sixth edition xix

List of illustrations xxiii

List of maps xxv

List of figures xxvii

List of tables xxix

List of abbreviations xxxi

1 What is globalization? 1

2 Globalization in history 12

3 The economic and technological dimensions of globalization 34

4 The political dimension of globalization 66

5 The cultural dimension of globalization 83

6 The ecological dimension of globalization 95

7 Ideological confrontations over globalization 111

8 Present and future trends 127

References and further reading 137

Index 145
Preface to the sixth edition

It is a gratifying experience to present readers with the sixth

edition of a short book that has been so well received—­not only in
the English-­speaking world, but around the world in more than
20 languages. The necessary task of updating and expanding this
edition has been difficult in light of major global problems such as
pandemics, soaring inflation, social inequality, climate change,
cyber attacks, mass migrations, trade wars, job precarity, and the
resurgence of nationalisms. Hence, it seems appropriate to refer to
the present era as the ‘Great Unsettling’—shorthand for the
intensifying global dynamics of volatility, insecurity, and
dislocation. Two recent events, in particular, have added to this
disconcerting moment in human history.

First, starting in 2020, the COVID-­19 pandemic swept across the

world, uprooting the lives of its 7.8 billion inhabitants. By early
2023, official numbers showed that over 600 million people had
contracted multiple variants of the disease, resulting in more than
7 million confirmed deaths. But the actual toll is likely much higher.
Fortunately, effective vaccines were developed very quickly and by
August 2022, more than 12 billion shots had been administered. For
globalization scholars, this once-­in-­a-­century health crisis proved to
be an especially challenging research topic, since it required a
multi-­disciplinary approach to understanding the complexities
involved in the spread and possible containment of the virus.
 Second, Great Power competitions have been heating up in recent
years. China, Russia, and India increasingly challenge US world
leadership on multiple fronts. The Russian annexation of the
Crimean Peninsula in 2014 and China’s forward posture in the
South China Sea, plus its political crackdown on Hong Kong,
marked a new era of geopolitical conflict. Mounting tensions came
to a head in 2022 with Russia’s full-­blown invasion of Ukraine.
This major act of aggression was met with the imposition of
unprecedented economic sanctions levied by a US-­led broad
coalition of countries against the Russian Federation. In response,
President Putin vowed retaliation and escalated the war. For the
first time since the end of the Cold War, a global nuclear
confrontation appeared to be a distinct possibility.

Keeping such a complex topic as globalization brief and accessible

in our era of the Great Unsettling becomes even more challenging
in the case of a very short introduction. For this reason, the
Globalization

authors of the few existing introductions to the subject tend to

concentrate on only one or two aspects of globalization—­usually
the emergence of the global economy, its history, structure,
development, and supposed benefits and shortcomings. To be
sure, a single-­focus approach is helpful in explaining the impact
and consequences of new techno-­economic networks connecting
people across borders and the transnational flows of goods,
services, and labour. At the same time, however, such narrow
accounts often leave the reader with a limited understanding of
the full dimensions and complexity of globalization.

After all, the transformative powers of global interconnectedness

reach deeply into all aspects of contemporary social life. Hence,
the present volume makes the case that globalization also contains
important political, cultural, ecological, and ideological aspects.
Indeed, globalization occurs in people’s heads as much as in the
world ‘out there’. Subjective globalization becomes visible in
emotionally charged stories that describe and define that very

xx
process. The political forces behind these competing discourses
resort to digitized media platforms to endow the buzzword with
certain norms, values, and understandings. These not only
legitimize and advance their specific power interests, but also
shape the personal and collective identities of billions of people.
Thus, it is mostly the normative question of whether globalization
ought to be considered a ‘good’ or a ‘bad’ thing that has spawned
heated debates in classrooms, boardrooms, and on the streets.

Some commentators applaud globalization for its proven ability to

lift millions of people out of poverty, facilitate instant
communication, and grant almost limitless access to information
and Big Data. Nowhere has the success of globalization been more
visible than in the impressive rise of the East Asian powerhouses
China, Korea, and Japan. Other experts condemn globalization as

Preface to the sixth edition

a destructive force that annihilates traditional communal values,
wrecks our planet, and stretches social disparities beyond
sustainable levels. Regardless of which position is favoured,
readers would be well advised to maintain a critical stance
towards both interpretations.

To be sure, we should take comfort in the fact that the world is

becoming a more interdependent place with the potential of
enhancing ordinary people’s lives. Boosting our mobility and
connectivity across political borders and cultural divides
represents an exciting development. We should also welcome
sensible and compassionate policies that allow for the global flow
of migrants and refugees. The same goes for technological
progress—­as long as it remains accountable to democratic citizens
rather than reducing them to the status of digitally exploitable
‘users’. Globalization should go hand in hand with the betterment
of all people, especially those living in the disadvantaged regions
of the global South. Most of all, securing sustainable forms of
globalization demands that we take better care of our beautiful
planet and all its sentient beings.

xxi
 Let me end this Preface by recording my debts of gratitude. First,
I want to thank my colleagues and students at the University of
Hawai’i-­Mānoa. Additional thanks are due to Paul James,
professor of globalization and cultural diversity at the Institute for
Culture and Society at Western Sydney University. I owe much to
his steady intellectual encouragement and deep friendship.
I appreciate the helpful feedback and support from numerous
colleagues around the world who share my enthusiasm for the
study of globalization. I want to express my sincere appreciation
to numerous readers, reviewers, and audiences who, for nearly
three decades, have made insightful comments in response to my
public lectures and publications on globalization.

I appreciate Dr Tommaso Durante’s competent research

assistance on this edition as well as his formidable visual artist’s
eye for choosing some illustrations. Tommaso’s pioneering ‘Visual
Archive Project of the Global Imaginary’ can be found at:
Globalization

<https://www.the-­visual-­archive-­project-­of-­the-­global-­imaginary.
com/visual-­global-­imaginary>.

Luciana O’Flaherty and Jenny Nugee, my editors at Oxford

University Press, have been shining examples of professionalism.
Finally, a big thank you goes to my soul mate Perle Besserman—­as
well as the Steger, Besserman-­Trigère, and Blanchette families—­
for their love and support. Many people have contributed to
improving the quality of this book; its remaining flaws are my own
responsibility.

xxii
List of illustrations
1 The globalization scholars and
the elephant 8
© Manfred B. Steger
2 Assyrian clay tablets with
cuneiform writing,
c.1900–1800 bce 19
Granger Historical Picture
Archive/Alamy Stock Photo
3 The Great Wall of China 20
© Daniel Prudek/123RF
4 The sale of the island of
Manhattan in 1626 25
North Wind Picture Archives/
Alamy Stock Photo
5 Earthrise 30
Courtesy of NASA Earth
Observatory
6 BuzzFeed writer Matt
‘Doubi’ Stopera and Li
‘Brother Orange’ Hongjun
visit Tiananmen Square in
Beijing 39
© Qingqing Chen/BuzzFeed
7 The 1944 Bretton Woods
Conference 42
Everett Collection Historical/Alamy
Stock Photo
8 HMM Algeciras: the biggest
container ship in the world
(2020) 46
Martin Witte/Alamy Stock Photo
9 The Security Council of the
United Nations in session 67
506 collection/Alamy Stock Photo
10 Central American migrants,
including children, behind the
fence of a makeshift US
detention centre in El Paso,
Texas, 29 March 2019 75
Sergio Flores/The Washington
Post/Getty Images
11 Jihad versus McWorld: selling
fast food in Indonesia 88
Firdia Lisnawati/AP/Shutterstock
12 The greenhouse effect 102
© Union of Concerned
Scientists, USA
 13 Pope Francis I addresses
the UN General Assembly
on climate change,
25 September 2015 103
Justin Lane/EPA/Shutterstock
14 Police confronting WTO
protesters in downtown Seattle,
30 November 1999 116
© Nick Cobbing
Globalization
xxiv
15 The burning twin towers of
the World Trade Center, 11
September 2001 120
Stacy Walsh Rosenstock/Alamy Stock
Photo
16 Empty Leicester Square, West
End, London, during a 2020
COVID-19 shutdown 128
Jamie Lorriman/Alamy Stock Photo
List of maps

1 Early human migration 16 (2013), ‘Mapping Global Value

Chains’, OECD Trade Policy Papers,
No. 159, OECD Publishing, Paris,
2 Major world trade networks,
<https://doi.org/10.1787/
1000–1450 22 5k3v1trgnbr4-­en>

3 Countries falling into recession 5 The Syrian refugee crisis 73

as a result of the Global Source: based on information from
Financial Crisis, 2007–9 52 <UNOCHA.org>

4 The Nutella® global value 6 The European Union,

chain 61 2020 79
Reproduced with permission Ssolbergj/Wikimedia
from De Backer, K. and S. Miroudot (CC BY-­SA 3.0)
List of figures

A Four forms of globalization 4 of interrelated power

© Manfred B. Steger centres 81
P. Willets, “Transnational actors and
B A minute on the Internet international organizations in global
politics” in J. Baylis and S. Smith, ed.,
in 2021 36
The Globalization of World Politics, 2E,
Lori Lewis Via Statista (CC) Oxford University Press, Copyright © 2001

C Number of international F Major manifestations

migrants, 2020 72 and consequences of
© IOM GMDAC 2021 global environmental
degradation 99
D The nation-state in a
globalizing world 77
G Global spread of COVID-19,
J. Scholte, “The Globalization of World
January–March 2020 128
Politics” in J. Baylis and S. Smith, ed., The
Globalization of World Politics, 2E, Oxford Ruobing Su/Business Insider
University Press, Copyright © 2001
H Daily time spent online
E Incipient global globally, 2022 134
governance: a network Anadolu Agency © 2021
List of tables
1 Transnational corporations
versus countries:
a comparison (2022) 58
2 The American way of life,
2017–22 86
3 The declining number of
languages around the world,
1500s–2000s 94
Source: Globalization Research
Center at the University of
Hawai’i-­Mānoa, 2008.
4 Annual consumption patterns
(per capita) in selected
countries, 2017–22 98
5 Major global environmental
treaties/conferences,
1972–2021 108
6 The top-­10 carbon dioxide
emitters, 2020 109
7 Long-­term global CO2
emissions, 1750–2020 110
List of abbreviations

AI Artificial Intelligence
APEC Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BWR Bretton Woods regime
bce Before the Common Era
ce Common Era
CEO chief executive officer
CFCs chlorofluorocarbons
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
COVID-­19 Coronavirus Disease 2019
ECB European Central Bank
ESDC European Sovereign Debt Crisis
EU European Union
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
G20 Group of Twenty
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP gross domestic product
GFC Global Financial Crisis
GHGs Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions
GJM Global Justice Movement
GPS Global Positioning System
ICT information and communications technology
IMF International Monetary Fund
 INGO international non-­governmental organization
ISIL Islamic State of Iraq and Levant
ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria
MERCOSUR Mercado Común del Sur (Southern
Common Market)
MSF/DWB Médecins Sans Frontières/Doctors
Without Borders
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO non-­governmental organization
NYC New York City
OAU Organization of African Unity
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development
OLED TV Organic Light Emitting Diode Television
OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Globalization

OWS Occupy Wall Street

SAPs Structural Adjustment Programmes
TNCs transnational corporations
TPP Trans-­Pacific Partnership
UAE United Arab Emirates
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization
UNIPCC United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change
US United States (of America)
WC Washington Consensus
WEF World Economic Forum
WHO World Health Organization
WSF World Social Forum
xxxii
Chapter 1
What is globalization?

The earliest appearance of the term ‘globalization’ in the English

language can be traced back to the 1930s. But it was not until the
1990s that the concept took the world by storm. The new
buzzword captured the increasingly interconnected nature of
social life on our planet and foregrounded the global integration
of markets turbocharged by the ICT revolution. Three decades on,
globalization has remained a hot topic. Today, one can track
millions of references to the term in both virtual and printed
spaces that range from enthusiastic embrace to blanket
condemnation. In recent years, critical voices have become louder
in the light of the nationalist resurgence around the world and the
devastating COVID-­19 pandemic that has disrupted seemingly
indestructible global networks.

To make sense of these conflicting perspectives on globalization,

let us start with matters of definition. Both the popular press and
academic literature have been using ‘globalization’ in confusing
ways to describe a process, a condition, a system, a force, or an
age. Given that these concepts have very different meanings, a
sloppy conflation of ‘process’ and ‘condition’ produces circular
definitions that explain little. The often-­repeated truism that
globalization (the process?) leads to more globalization
(the condition?) does not allow us to draw meaningful distinctions
between causes and effects.
1
 Key concepts: globality, global imaginary, globalism,
globalization
To equip our definitional toolbox, let us distinguish between four
different, but related, concepts. First, globality signifies a social
condition characterized by tight global economic, political,
cultural, and environmental interconnections and flows that
challenge most of the currently existing borders and boundaries.
Yet, we should not assume that globality is already upon us
because it is an evolving condition. Nor does it suggest a fixed
endpoint that precludes any further development. In fact, we
could easily imagine different social manifestations of globality:
one might be based primarily on values of individualism,
competition, and deregulated capitalism, while another might
draw on more communal arrangements, cooperative values, and
the democratic regulation of economic arrangements.
Globalization

Second, global imaginary refers to people’s growing consciousness

of the world as a single whole. This does not mean that nation and
locality have lost their power to provide people with a sense of
home and identity. But it would be a mistake to close one’s eyes to
the weakening of the national imaginary, as it was historically
constructed in the 19th and 20th centuries. The intensification of
global consciousness destabilizes and unsettles the nation-­state
framework within which people imagine their communal
existence.

The rising global imaginary is linked to the rise of globalisms, our

third concept. These new political ideologies articulate the
overarching global imaginary into concrete policy agendas and
political programmes. Globalisms spin stories about our
increasingly interconnected world that serve particular power
interests and contain value judgements about whether
globalization should be considered a good or bad thing. We shall
explore the various types of globalism in Chapter 7.

2
Our final, and most significant term, globalization, is a spatial
concept referring to a set of social processes that is transforming
our present social condition of conventional nationality into one
of globality. Like ‘modernization’ and other verbal nouns that end
in the suffix ‘-ization’, the concept suggests a dynamic that evolves
along discernible patterns but can also go into reverse at certain
historical junctures. The root term ‘global’ indicates processes that
operate at the transnational level such as the operation of global
markets, worldwide investment flows, or the global dissemination
of new styles of music such as Techno or K-­Pop.

Yet another set of globalizing processes operates below the scale of

the ‘global’. In other words, globalization also takes place deep
inside ‘regional’, ‘national’, and ‘local’ arenas. Rather than
becoming irrelevant, these subglobal spaces get entangled with
the global to produce multi-­spatial forms of human contact.

What is globalization?
Globalization experts often refer to this complex interplay
between the global and the local (and national) as glocalization.
Think, for example, of major cities like Shanghai or Sydney that
combine their specific urban environments with global standards
for residential high-­rise buildings, shopping malls, cultural events,
and so on. Many people still have trouble recognizing that
globalization affects all geographical scales ranging from the local
to the global. Hence, it is crucial to bear in mind that globalization
also manifests as glocalization.

Forms of globalization
These spatial complexities confirm that globalization should not
be seen as a monolithic process. Rather, it is a set of dynamics that
assumes four distinct, but interrelated, social forms (see Figure A).

The first social form, embodied globalization, manifests as the

interconnectedness and mobility of people across our planet. As
we shall discuss in Chapters 2 and 3, this is the oldest form of
globalization and remains enduringly relevant in the
3
 THE FOUR FORMS OF GLOBALIZATION
PEOPLE, IDEAS, THINGS, ORGANIZATIONS

(2) DISEMBODIED
IDEAS
(data, information,
images)

(3) OBJECTIFIED
(1) EMBODIED GLOBALIZATION
THINGS
PEOPLE Economic, political, cultural (tradable
(tourists, refugees, dynamics occur within and commodities,
business travellers) across all four forms greenhouse gases,
viruses)
(4) INSTITUTIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS (empires, states,
military, corporations, churches,
clubs)

A. Four forms of globalization.

contemporary movement of refugees, migrants, travellers,

entrepreneurs, temporary workers, tourists, and so on. Concrete
Globalization

21st-­century examples include African political refugees crossing

the Mediterranean into Europe and Central American migrants
trying to trek across the Rio Grande valley into the United States
in search of more sustainable lives. Privileged tourists can now
complete intercontinental trips in mere hours in the comfort and
security of a first-­class aeroplane cabin. Only a century ago, the
same journey would have taken several gruelling and dangerous
weeks spent on a combination of ships, trains, motorcars, and
horse- or oxen-­drawn carriages.

The second form, disembodied globalization, is characterized by

the worldwide interconnectedness and mobility of ideas, data,
and information. As we shall observe in Chapters 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8,
these include words, images, and electronic texts, and encoded
capital such as blockchain enabled crypto-­currencies like Bitcoin
and Ethereum. This form has taken an enormous qualitative leap
with the digital revolution, prompting commentators to speak of a
‘new era of digital globalization’. There is little doubt that
disembodied dynamics are emerging as the dominant form of
4
globalization in the 21st century. Worldwide digitization has been
greatly accelerated by the coronavirus-­induced explosion of work
and communication online.

The third form, objectified globalization, refers to the worldwide

interconnectedness and mobility of things and objects. As
discussed in Chapters 2, 3, 6, and 8, it includes tiny particles like
GHGs and COVID-­19 viruses, as well as large goods travelling on
the ancient Silk Road from China to the Roman Empire or
modern standardized shipping containers criss-­crossing the
world’s oceans. Consider, for example, traded commodities such
as a ‘pre-­loved’ pair of Levi’s jeans produced in the sweatshops
of Bangladesh and destined for the coolest fashion temples of
Milan; treasures of antiquity sold at skyrocketing prices at an
international Internet auction in London; or your latest iPhone
assembled and distributed via powerful global value chains.

What is globalization?
These contemporary manifestations of objectified globalization
depend on digitally controlled delivery systems (such as amazon.
com) that might offer AI-­driven, drone-­operated services in
the near future.

The fourth form, institutional globalization, corresponds to the

worldwide interconnectedness and mobility of social and political
institutions. As discussed in Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, it includes
empires, states, TNCs, NGOs, churches, clubs, and so on. Its
history can be traced back at least as far as the expansionist
empires of Egypt, Persia, China, and Rome, and the proselytizing
of the agents of Christendom and Islam more than a millennium
ago. More recent examples include the half-­million US military
personnel stationed around the world; the global franchises of fast
food enterprises like Subway or KFC; the hundreds of worldwide
fan clubs of football favourites like Manchester United or Bayern
Munich; and China’s mind-­boggling ‘One Belt One Road’
initiative—­a monumental infrastructure project designed to
extend Chinese economic and political influence across Asia,
Africa, and Europe.
5
 Qualities and dimensions of globalization
These four forms of globalization contain four distinct qualities or
characteristics. First, they involve both the creation of new social
networks and the multiplication of existing connections that cut
across traditional political, economic, cultural, and geographical
boundaries. For example, today’s giant media corporations
combine conventional TV coverage with multiple apps that feed
into digital devices and social media sites that have long
transcended nationally based services.

A second quality inherent in these four principal forms of

globalization is the expansion or stretching of social relations,
mobilities, and connections. Today’s financial markets reach around
the globe, and electronic trading occurs around the clock. Gigantic
physical and virtual shopping malls cater to consumers who can
Globalization

afford commodities from all regions of the world—­including

products whose various components were manufactured in
different countries and involve global supply chains.

Third, all forms of globalization also involve the intensification

and acceleration of worldwide social interactions. As the Spanish
sociologist Manuel Castells has pointed out, we have witnessed
the creation of a global network society fuelled by what he calls
communication power. This new form of power draws its strength
from digital technological innovations that are reshaping the
social landscape of human life.

Fourth, globalization does not merely unfold on an objective,

material level but also involves the subjective plane of human
consciousness and imagination. Without erasing local and
national attachments, the compression of space and time has
increasingly made the whole planet the frame of reference for
human thought and action. In other words, globalization involves
both the macro-­structures of a global community and the

6
micro-­structures of global personhood. Mediated by digital
technology largely controlled by large TNCs, the global extends
deep into the core of the personal self, facilitating the creation of
multiple and more fluid individual and collective identities.

All of these forms and qualities of globalization operate across the

familiar social dimensions of everyday life: economics, politics,
culture, ideology, and so on. However, given the increasing
differentiation and specialization of knowledge creation,
globalization dynamics tend to be analysed and explained in a
rather one-­dimensional manner. Dominated by economic
perspectives on globalization, the debate over the relative
importance of various domains has been raging for decades.

The ancient Buddhist parable of the blind scholars and their

encounter with the elephant helps to illustrate the academic

What is globalization?
controversy over the significance of various dimensions of
globalization. Since the blind scholars did not know what the
elephant looked like, they resolved to obtain a mental picture, and
thus the knowledge they desired, by touching the animal. Feeling
its trunk, one blind man argued that the elephant was like a
gigantic snake. Another man, rubbing along its enormous leg,
likened the animal to a rough column of massive proportions. The
third person took hold of its tail and insisted that the elephant
resembled a large, flexible brush. The fourth man felt its sharp
tusks and declared it to be like a great spear. Each of the blind
scholars held firmly to his own idea of what constituted an
elephant. Since their scholarly reputation was riding on the
veracity of their respective findings, the blind men never ceased
arguing over the true nature of the elephant (see Figure 1).

The academic quarrel over which dimension contains the essence

of globalization represents a postmodern version of the parable of
the blind men and the elephant. Scholars who equate
globalization with a singular process clash with others over which
aspect of social life constitutes its primary domain. Many experts
7
 1. The globalization scholars and the elephant.

argue that economic processes lie at the core of globalization.

Others privilege political, cultural, or ideological aspects. Still
Globalization

others point to environmental processes as being the essence

of globalization. Like the blind men in the parable, each
globalization researcher is partly right by correctly identifying one
important dimension of the phenomenon in question. However,
their collective mistake lies in their dogmatic attempts to reduce
such a complex phenomenon as globalization to one or two
domains that correspond to their own expertise.

The rise of Global Studies

To make matters even more complex, globalization is a
geographically uneven set of processes that not only connect but
sometimes also disrupt existing relations. Moreover, people living
in various parts of the world are affected quite differently by today’s
gigantic compression of space and time. Unsurprisingly, then,
scholars who approach the study of globalization from different
academic fields not only hold different views with regard to
primary dimensions of globalization, they also disagree on its scale,
causation, chronology, impact, trajectories, and policy outcomes.
8
For this reason, they have raised myriad research questions that
run in all directions. How does globalization proceed? What is
driving it? Does it have one major dimension or is there a
combination of equally significant domains? Is globalization a
continuation of modernity or is it a radical break? Does it create
new forms of inequality and hierarchy or offer new opportunities
for poor and marginalized people? Notice that whenever
researchers try to bring their object of enquiry into sharper focus,
they also heighten the danger of provoking scholarly
disagreements. Our subject is no exception.

One successful way of trying to improve the quality of

communication among globalization researchers and develop a
common framework has been the establishment of Global Studies
starting in the 1990s. Although it has been extensively studied
in traditional fields, globalization falls outside the established

What is globalization?
disciplinary framework. It is only of secondary concern in these
conventional disciplines organized around different master concepts:
‘society’ in sociology; ‘resources’ and ‘scarcity’ in economics; ‘culture’
in anthropology; ‘space’ in geography; ‘the past’ in history; ‘power’
and ‘governance’ in political science, and so on. By contrast, global
studies places ‘globalization’—a contested keyword without a firm
disciplinary home—­at the core of its intellectual enterprise.

Today, Global Studies has emerged as a popular field of academic

enquiry organized around four major conceptual pillars:
globalization, transdisciplinarity, space and time, and critical
thinking. Hundreds of Global Studies programmes have been
established in universities on all continents. They invite millions of
students to study globalization across traditional disciplinary
boundaries in the social sciences, humanities, and even the natural
sciences. The surging field covers vast literatures on related
subjects that are usually studied in isolation from each other. The
greatest challenge facing Global Studies lies, therefore, in bringing
together the various strands of knowledge in ways that do justice to
the fluidity and interdependencies of our fast-­changing world.
9
 International Relations versus Global Studies?

In the academic world, the term ‘international relations’ (IR)

refers to a subfield of Political Science dedicated to the
systematic study of changing connections among territorial
states and nationally bounded societies. Thus, IR scholars treated
the nation-­state as the main actor—­and thus the central unit of
analysis and the principal mover—­of world politics. This
framework is called methodological nationalism because it focuses
on the self-­interested actions of nation-­states—­especially with
regard to security issues—­and often at the expense of other
crucial dimensions such as culture, ecology, and ideology. By
contrast, Global Studies relies on methodological globalism. This
framework treats transnational interconnections, mobilities, and
imaginations as the basic units of analysis. Although Global
Studies scholars acknowledge the enduring importance of
states, they also emphasize the growing significance of non-­state
Globalization

actors on the world stage such as NGOs, TNCs, churches,

educational institutions, and other civil society organizations.
Finally, Global Studies scholars also engage themes often
neglected in IR, such as ecology, social space, media and
communication, ideology, history, gender, race, ethnicity,
technology, and poverty.

Our examination of the key concepts, forms, qualities, and

dimensions of globalization—­embedded in a new Global Studies
academic framework—­have prepared us to respond to the
question that frames this chapter: ‘What is globalization?’ So let
us attempt to formulate a general definition that satisfies experts
and neophytes alike:

10
 Globalization refers to the multidimensional and uneven
expansion of social relations and consciousness across
world-­space and world-­time.

Given the subtitle of our book, however, we ought to do better. So

here is a very short definition of globalization in a mere
eight words:

Globalization is about planetary interconnectivities, mobilities,

and imaginations.

What is globalization?

11
Chapter 2
Globalization in history

In this chapter, we consider an important objection raised by

Global Studies scholars sensitive to historical matters: is
globalization really a new phenomenon that is fundamentally
different from the centuries-­old process of modernization? Some
critics have responded to this question in the negative, contending
that even a cursory look at history suggests that there is not much
that is new about contemporary globalization. Hence, before we
explore in some detail the major dimensions of globalization, we
should give this argument a fair hearing. After all, a critical
investigation of globalization’s alleged novelty and its relationship
to modernity is closely related to yet another question hotly
debated by globalization experts: what would a suitable historical
chronology and periodization of globalization look like?

The definition of globalization we arrived at in Chapter 1 stresses

its dynamic and multidimensional nature. In fact, the spatial
expansion of social relations and the corresponding rise of the
global imaginary are gradual processes with deep historical roots.
The computer and software engineers who developed our mobile
devices or the self-­driving cars of the future stand on the shoulders
of earlier innovators who created the steam engine, the cotton gin,
the telegraph, the phonograph, the telephone, the typewriter, the
internal-­combustion engine, and electrical appliances. These
products, in turn, owe their existence to much earlier
12
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 TO CLEAR VEGETABLES FROM INSECTS.

Lay them for half an hour or more into a pan of strong brine, with
the stalk ends uppermost; this will destroy the small snails and other
insects which cluster in the leaves, and they will fall out and sink to
the bottom. A pound and a half of salt to the gallon of water will
answer for this purpose, and if strained daily it will last for some time.
 TO BOIL VEGETABLES GREEN.

After they have been properly prepared and washed, throw them
into plenty of boiling water which has been salted and well skimmed;
and keep them uncovered and boiling fast until they are done, taking
every precaution against their being smoked. Should the water be
very hard, a small half-teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, may be
added with the salt, for every two quarts, and will greatly improve the
colour of the vegetables; but if used in undue proportion it will injure
them; green peas especially will be quickly reduced to a mash if
boiled with too large a quantity.
Water, 1 gallon; salt, 2 oz.; soda, 1/4 oz.; or carbonate of soda, 1
teaspoonful.
 POTATOES.

(Remarks on their properties and importance.)

There is no vegetable commonly cultivated in this country, we
venture to assert, which is comparable in value to the potato when it
is of a good sort, has been grown in a suitable soil, and is properly
cooked and served. It must be very nutritious, or it would not sustain
the strength of thousands of people whose almost sole food it
constitutes, and who, when they can procure a sufficient supply of it
to satisfy fully the demands of hunger, are capable of accomplishing
the heaviest daily labour. It may not be wise to depend for
subsistence on a root of which the crop unhappily is so frequently in
these days destroyed or greatly injured by disease, and for which it
is so difficult to find a substitute that is equally cheap, wholesome
and satisfying; but we can easily comprehend the predilection of an
entire people for a tuber which combines, like the potato, the solidity
almost of bread, with the healthful properties[103] of various other
fresh vegetables, without their acidity; and which can also be cooked
and served in so many different forms. The wretched manner in
which it is dressed in many English houses renders it comparatively
valueless, and accounts in a measure for the prodigality with which it
is thrown away when cold, even in seasons when its price is highest.
[104]
103. The late Dr. Pereira has stated in his excellent work on diet, page 370, that
Dr. Baly, who has published some interesting observations on the anti-
scorbutic quality of the potato, says, “As ordinarily cooked, it is an admirable
preservative against the scurvy,” for which it appears to be also a cure, see
the same work.

104. We cannot refrain from a few words of remark here on the daily waste of
wholesome food in this country which constitutes one of the most serious
domestic abuses that exist amongst us; and one which it is most painful to
witness while we see at the same time the half-starvation of large masses of
our people. It is an evil which the steady and resolute opposition of the
educated classes would soon greatly check; and which ought not vainly to
appeal to their good sense and good feeling, augmenting, as it must, the
privations of the scantily-fed poor; for the “waste” of one part of the
community cannot fail to increase the “want” of the remainder.
 TO BOIL POTATOES.

(As in Ireland.)
Potatoes, to boil well together, should be all of the same sort, and
as nearly equal in size as may be. Wash off the mould, and scrub
them very clean with a hard brush, but neither scoop nor apply a
knife to them in any way, even to clear the eyes.[105] Rinse them
well, and arrange them compactly in a saucepan, so that they may
not lie loose in the water, and that a small quantity may suffice to
cover them. Pour this in cold, and when it boils, throw in about a
large teaspoonful of salt to the quart, and simmer the potatoes until
they are nearly done, but for the last two or three minutes let them
boil rapidly. When they are tender quite through, which may be
known by probing them with a fork, pour all the water from them
immediately, lift the lid of the saucepan to allow the steam to escape,
and place them on a trivet, high over the fire, or by the side of it, until
the moisture has entirely evaporated; then peel, and send them to
table as quickly as possible, either in a hot napkin, or in a dish, of
which the cover is so placed that the steam can pass off. There
should be no delay in serving them after they are once taken from
the fire. Irish families always prefer them served in their skins. Some
kinds will be sufficiently boiled in twenty minutes, others in not less
than three quarters of an hour.
105. “Because,” in the words of our clever Irish correspondent, “the water through
these parts is then admitted into the very heart of the vegetable; and the
latent heat, after cooking, is not sufficient to throw it off; this renders the
potatoes very unwholesome.”

20 minutes to 1 hour, or more.

Obs. 1.—The water in which they are boiled should barely cover
the potatoes. After it is poured off, they should be steamed for twenty
minutes or half an hour, if large.
Obs. 2.—Habitual potato-eaters know well that this vegetable is
never so good as when served in the skin the instant it is taken from
the fire, dished in a hot napkin, or sent to table without a cover over
it. It should also be clean and dry that it may at pleasure be taken in
the fingers and broken like bread, or held in the dinner napkin while
the inside is scooped out with the fork, thus forming it into a sort of
cup. The large Yorkshire Regents dressed and eaten in this way
afford in themselves an almost sufficient meal. We have found from
long daily experience, that those which averaged three, or at the
utmost four to the pound, were the best in quality, and remained so
to quite the end of their season: they required as the spring
advanced, an hour’s boiling or more.
 TO BOIL POTATOES.

(The Lancashire way.)

Pare the potatoes, cover them with cold water, and boil them
slowly until they are quite tender, but watch them carefully, that they
may not be overdone; drain off the water entirely, strew some salt
over them, leave the saucepan uncovered by the side of the fire, and
shake it forcibly every minute or two, until the whole of the potatoes
appear dry and floury. Lancashire cooks dress the vegetable in this
way to perfection, but it is far from an economical mode, as a large
portion of the potato adheres to the saucepan; it has, however, many
admirers.
 TO BOIL NEW POTATOES.

These are never good unless freshly dug. Take them of equal size,
and rub off the skins with a brush or a very coarse cloth, wash them
clean, and put them without salt into boiling, or at least, quite hot
water; boil them softly, and when they are tender enough to serve,
pour off the water entirely, strew some fine salt over them, give them
a shake, and let them stand by the fire in the saucepan for a minute;
then dish and serve them immediately. Some cooks throw in a small
slice of fresh butter, with the salt, and toss them gently in it after it is
dissolved. This is a good mode, but the more usual one is to send
melted butter to table with them, or to pour white sauce over them
when they are very young, and served early in the season.
Very small, 10 to 15 minutes: moderate sized, 15 to 20 minutes.
Obs.—We always, for our own eating, have new potatoes
steamed for ten minutes or longer after the water is poured from
them, and think they are much improved by the process. They
should be thoroughly boiled before this is done.
 NEW POTATOES IN BUTTER.

Rub off the skins, wash the potatoes well and wipe them dry; put
them with three ounces of good butter, for a small dish, and with four
ounces or more for a large one, into a well-tinned stewpan or Keep
them well shaken or tossed, that they may be equally done, and
throw in some salt when they begin to stew. This is a good mode of
dressing them when they are very young and watery.
 TO BOIL POTATOES.

(Captain Kater’s Receipt.)

Wash, wipe, and pare the potatoes, cover them with cold water,
and boil them gently until they are done, pour off the water, and
sprinkle a little fine salt over them; then take each potato separately
with a spoon, and lay it into a clean warm cloth, twist this so as to
press all the moisture from the vegetable, and render it quite round;
turn it carefully into a dish placed before the fire, throw a cloth over,
and when all are done, send them to table quickly. Potatoes dressed
in this way are mashed without the slightest trouble; it is also by far
the best method of preparing them for puddings or for cakes.
 TO ROAST OR BAKE POTATOES.

Scrub and wash exceedingly clean some potatoes nearly assorted

in size; wipe them very dry, and roast them in a Dutch oven before
the fire, placing them at a distance from it, and keeping them often
turned; or arrange them in a coarse dish, and bake them in a
moderate oven. Dish them neatly in a napkin, and send them very
hot to table; serve cold butter with them. 1-3/4 to upwards of 2 hours.
 SCOOPED POTATOES. (ENTREMETS.[106])

106. Or second course dish.

Wash and wipe some large

potatoes of a firm kind, and with
a small scoop adapted to the
purpose,[107] form as many
diminutive ones as will fill a dish;
cover them with cold water, and when they have boiled very gently
for five minutes pour it off, and put more cold water to them; after
they have simmered a second time for five minutes, drain the water
quite away, place the cover of the saucepan so as to leave an inch
or more of open space for the moisture to evaporate, and let them
steam by the side of the fire from four to five minutes longer. Dish
them carefully, pour white sauce over them, and serve them in the
second course. Old potatoes thus prepared, have often been made
to pass for new ones, at the best tables, at the season in which the
fresh vegetable was dearest.[108] The time required to boil them will
of course vary with their quality; we give the method which we have
found very successful.
107. This may be procured of any ironmonger.

108. Vegetables and fruit are now so generally forced and brought so early into
our markets, that there is little need of these expedients at present.
 CRISPED POTATOES, OR POTATO-RIBBONS. (ENTREMETS.)

(Or to serve with Cheese.)

Wash well, and wipe, some potatoes of good flavour; cut them up
into slices of from half to a whole inch thick, free them from the skins,
and then pare them round and round in very thin, and very long
ribbons. Lay them into a pan of cold water, and half an hour before
they are wanted for table lift them on to a sieve that they may be well
drained. Fry them in good butter, which should be very hot when
they are thrown in, until they are quite crisp, and lightly browned;
drain and dry them on a soft cloth, pile them in a hot dish, strew over
them a mixed seasoning of salt and cayenne in fine powder, and
serve them without delay. For the second course, dress them in the
same manner, but omit the cayenne. Five or six minutes will fry
them.
 FRIED POTATOES. (ENTREMETS.)

(A Plainer Receipt.)
After having washed them, wipe and pare some raw potatoes, cut
them in slices of equal thickness, or into thin shavings, and throw
them into plenty of boiling butter, or very pure clarified dripping. Fry
them of a fine light brown, and very crisp; lift them out with a
skimmer, drain them on a soft warm cloth, dish them very hot, and
sprinkle fine salt over them. This is an admirable way of dressing
potatoes, very common on the Continent, but less so in England
than it deserves to be. Pared in ribbons or shavings of equal width,
as in the receipt above, and served dry and well fried, lightly piled in
a dish, they make a handsome appearance, and are excellent
eating. If sliced they should be something less than a quarter of an
inch thick.
 MASHED POTATOES.

Boil them perfectly tender quite through, pour off the water, and
steam them very dry by the directions already given in the receipt of
page 310, peel them quickly, take out every speck, and while they
are still hot, press the potatoes through an earthen cullender, or
bruise them to a smooth mash with a strong wooden fork or spoon,
but never pound them in a mortar, as that will reduce them to a close
heavy paste. Let them be entirely free from lumps, for nothing can be
more indicative of carelessness or want of skill on the part of the
cook, than mashed potatoes sent to table full of these. Melt in a
clean saucepan a slice of good butter with a few spoonsful of milk,
or, better still, of cream; put in the potatoes after having sprinkled
some fine salt upon them, and stir the whole over a gentle fire with a
wooden spoon, until the ingredients are well-mixed, and the whole is
very hot. It may then be served directly; or heaped high in a dish, left
rough on the surface, and browned before the fire; or it may be
pressed into a well buttered mould of handsome form, which has
been strewed with the finest bread-crumbs, and shaken free from the
loose ones, then turned out, and browned in a Dutch or common
oven. More or less liquid will be required to moisten sufficiently
potatoes of various kinds.
Potatoes mashed, 2 lbs.; salt, 1 teaspoonful; butter, 1 to 2 oz.; milk
or cream, 1/4 pint.
Obs.—Mashed potatoes are often moulded with a cup, and then
equally browned: any other shape will answer the purpose as well,
and many are of better appearance.

ENGLISH POTATO BALLS, OR CROQUETTES.

Boil some floury potatoes very dry, mash them as smoothly as

possible, season them well with salt and white pepper, warm them
with about an ounce of butter to the pound, or rather more if it will not
render them too moist, and a few spoonsful of good cream. Boil
them very dry; let them cool a little, roll them into balls, sprinkle over
them vermicelli crushed slightly with the hand, and fry them a fine
light brown. They may be dished round a shape of plain mashed
potatoes, or piled on a napkin by themselves. They may likewise be
rolled in egg and fine bread-crumbs instead of in the vermicelli, or in
ground rice, which answers very well for them.
 POTATO BOULETTES. (ENTREMETS.)

(Good.)
Boil some good potatoes as dry as possible, or let them be
prepared by Captain Kater’s receipt; mash a pound of them very
smoothly, and mix with them while they are still warm, two ounces of
fresh butter, a teaspoonful of salt, a little nutmeg, the beaten and
strained yolks of four eggs, and last of all the whites thoroughly
whisked. Mould the mixture with a teaspoon and drop it into a small
pan of boiling butter, or of very pure lard, and fry the boulettes for
five minutes over a moderate fire: they should be of a fine pale
brown, and very light. Drain them well and dish them on a hot
napkin.
Potatoes, 1 lb.; butter, 2 oz.; salt, 1 teaspoonful; eggs, 4: 5
minutes.
Obs.—These boulettes are exceeding light and delicate, and make
an excellent dish for the second course; but we think that a few
spoonsful of sweet fresh cream boiled with them until the mixture
becomes dry, would both enrich them and improve their flavour. They
should be dropped into the pan with the teaspoon, as they ought to
be small, and they will swell in the cooking.
 POTATO RISSOLES.

(French.)
Mash and season the potatoes with salt, and white pepper or
cayenne, and mix with them plenty of minced parsley, and a small
quantity of green onions, or eschalots; add sufficient yolks of eggs to
bind the mixture together, roll it into small balls, and fry them in
plenty of lard or butter over a moderate fire, or they will be too much
browned before they are done through. Ham, or any other kind of
meat finely minced, may be substituted for the herbs, or added to
them.
 POTATOES À LA MAÎTRE D’HÔTEL.

Boil in the usual manner some potatoes of a firm kind, peel, and
let them cool; then cut them equally into quarter-inch slices. Dissolve
in a very clean stewpan or saucepan from two to four ounces of
good butter, stir to it a small dessertspoonful of flour, and shake the
pan over the fire for two or three minutes; add by slow degrees a
small cupful of boiling water, some pepper, salt, and a tablespoonful
of minced parsley; put in the potatoes, and toss them gently over a
clear fire until they are quite hot, and the sauce adheres well to
them: at the instant of serving add a dessertspoonful of strained
lemon-juice. Pale veal gravy may be substituted for the water; and
the potatoes after being thickly sliced, may be quickly cut of the
same size with a small round cutter.
 POTATOES À LA CRÈME.

Prepare the potatoes as above, and toss them gently in a quarter

of a pint or more of thick white sauce or of common bechamel, with
or without the addition of the minced parsley.