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Ancient Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction

 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

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ABOLITIONISM Richard S. Newman AMERICAN IMMIGRATION

THE ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS
Charles L. Cohen
ACCOUNTING Christopher Nobes
ADDICTION Keith Humphreys
ADOLESCENCE Peter K. Smith
THEODOR W. ADORNO
Andrew Bowie
ADVERTISING Winston Fletcher
AERIAL WARFARE Frank Ledwidge
AESTHETICS Bence Nanay
AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Jonathan Scott Holloway
AFRICAN AMERICAN RELIGION
Eddie S. Glaude Jr
AFRICAN HISTORY John Parker and
Richard Rathbone
AFRICAN POLITICS Ian Taylor
AFRICAN RELIGIONS
Jacob K. Olupona
AGEING Nancy A. Pachana
AGNOSTICISM Robin Le Poidevin
AGRICULTURE Paul Brassley
and Richard Soffe
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Hugh Bowden
ALGEBRA Peter M. Higgins
AMERICAN BUSINESS
HISTORY Walter A. Friedman
AMERICAN CULTURAL HISTORY
Eric Avila
AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS
Andrew Preston
AMERICAN HISTORY Paul S. Boyer
David A. Gerber
AMERICAN INTELLECTUAL
HISTORY
Jennifer Ratner-­Rosenhagen
THE AMERICAN JUDICIAL SYSTEM
Charles L. Zelden
AMERICAN LEGAL HISTORY
G. Edward White
AMERICAN MILITARY HISTORY
Joseph T. Glatthaar
AMERICAN NAVAL HISTORY
Craig L. Symonds
AMERICAN POETRY David Caplan
AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY
Donald Critchlow
AMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES
AND ELECTIONS L. Sandy Maisel
AMERICAN POLITICS
Richard M. Valelly
THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY
Charles O. Jones
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Robert J. Allison
AMERICAN SLAVERY
Heather Andrea Williams
THE AMERICAN SOUTH
Charles Reagan Wilson
THE AMERICAN WEST
Stephen Aron
AMERICAN WOMEN’S HISTORY
Susan Ware
AMPHIBIANS T. S. Kemp
ANAESTHESIA Aidan O’Donnell
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ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
Michael Beaney
ANARCHISM Alex Prichard
ANCIENT ASSYRIA Karen Radner
ANCIENT EGYPT Ian Shaw
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART AND
ARCHITECTURE Christina Riggs
ANCIENT GREECE Paul Cartledge
ANCIENT GREEK AND ROMAN
SCIENCE Liba Taub
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
Amanda H. Podany
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY Julia Annas
ANCIENT WARFARE
Harry Sidebottom
ANGELS David Albert Jones
ANGLICANISM Mark Chapman
THE ANGLO-SAXON AGE John Blair
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
Tristram D. Wyatt
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
Peter Holland
ANIMAL RIGHTS David DeGrazia
ANSELM Thomas Williams
THE ANTARCTIC Klaus Dodds
ANTHROPOCENE Erle C. Ellis
ANTISEMITISM Steven Beller
ANXIETY Daniel Freeman and
Jason Freeman
THE APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS
Paul Foster
APPLIED MATHEMATICS
Alain Goriely
THOMAS AQUINAS Fergus Kerr
ARBITRATION Thomas Schultz and
Thomas Grant
ARCHAEOLOGY Paul Bahn
ARCHITECTURE Andrew Ballantyne
THE ARCTIC Klaus Dodds and
Jamie Woodward
HANNAH ARENDT Dana Villa
ARISTOCRACY William Doyle
ARISTOTLE Jonathan Barnes
ART HISTORY Dana Arnold
ART THEORY Cynthia Freeland
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Margaret A. Boden
ASIAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Madeline Y. Hsu
ASTROBIOLOGY David C. Catling
ASTROPHYSICS James Binney
ATHEISM Julian Baggini
THE ATMOSPHERE Paul I. Palmer
AUGUSTINE Henry Chadwick
JANE AUSTEN Tom Keymer
AUSTRALIA Kenneth Morgan
AUTISM Uta Frith
AUTOBIOGRAPHY Laura Marcus
THE AVANT GARDE David Cottington
THE AZTECS Davíd Carrasco
BABYLONIA Trevor Bryce
BACTERIA Sebastian G. B. Amyes
BANKING John Goddard and
John O. S. Wilson
BARTHES Jonathan Culler
THE BEATS David Sterritt
BEAUTY Roger Scruton
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN
Mark Evan Bonds
BEHAVIOURAL ECONOMICS
Michelle Baddeley
BESTSELLERS John Sutherland
THE BIBLE John Riches
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
Eric H. Cline
BIG DATA Dawn E. Holmes
BIOCHEMISTRY Mark Lorch
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
David Macdonald
BIOGEOGRAPHY Mark V. Lomolino
BIOGRAPHY Hermione Lee
BIOMETRICS Michael Fairhurst
ELIZABETH BISHOP
Jonathan F. S. Post
BLACK HOLES Katherine Blundell
BLASPHEMY Yvonne Sherwood
BLOOD Chris Cooper
THE BLUES Elijah Wald
THE BODY Chris Shilling
THE BOHEMIANS David Weir
NIELS BOHR J. L. Heilbron
THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Brian Cummings
THE BOOK OF MORMON
Terryl Givens
BORDERS Alexander C. Diener and
Joshua Hagen
THE BRAIN Michael O’Shea
BRANDING Robert Jones
THE BRICS Andrew F. Cooper
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BRITISH CINEMA Charles Barr
THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION
Martin Loughlin
THE BRITISH EMPIRE Ashley Jackson
BRITISH POLITICS Tony Wright
BUDDHA Michael Carrithers
BUDDHISM Damien Keown
BUDDHIST ETHICS Damien Keown
BYZANTIUM Peter Sarris
CALVINISM Jon Balserak
ALBERT CAMUS Oliver Gloag
CANADA Donald Wright
CANCER Nicholas James
CAPITALISM James Fulcher
CATHOLICISM Gerald O’Collins
CAUSATION Stephen Mumford and
Rani Lill Anjum
THE CELL Terence Allen and
Graham Cowling
THE CELTS Barry Cunliffe
CHAOS Leonard Smith
GEOFFREY CHAUCER David Wallace
CHEMISTRY Peter Atkins
CHILD PSYCHOLOGY Usha Goswami
CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
Kimberley Reynolds
CHINESE LITERATURE Sabina Knight
CHOICE THEORY Michael Allingham
CHRISTIAN ART Beth Williamson
CHRISTIAN ETHICS D. Stephen Long
CHRISTIANITY Linda Woodhead
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Russell Foster and Leon Kreitzman
CITIZENSHIP Richard Bellamy
CITY PLANNING Carl Abbott
CIVIL ENGINEERING
David Muir Wood
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
Thomas C. Holt
CLASSICAL LITERATURE William Allan
CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY
Helen Morales
CLASSICS Mary Beard and
John Henderson
CLAUSEWITZ Michael Howard
CLIMATE Mark Maslin
CLIMATE CHANGE Mark Maslin
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Susan Llewelyn and
Katie Aafjes-van Doorn
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL
THERAPY Freda McManus
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
Richard Passingham
THE COLD WAR Robert J. McMahon
COLONIAL AMERICA Alan Taylor
COLONIAL LATIN AMERICAN
LITERATURE Rolena Adorno
COMBINATORICS Robin Wilson
COMEDY Matthew Bevis
COMMUNISM Leslie Holmes
COMPARATIVE LITERATURE
Ben Hutchinson
COMPETITION AND ANTITRUST
LAW Ariel Ezrachi
COMPLEXITY John H. Holland
THE COMPUTER Darrel Ince
COMPUTER SCIENCE
Subrata Dasgupta
CONCENTRATION CAMPS
Dan Stone
CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS
Ross H. McKenzie
CONFUCIANISM Daniel K. Gardner
THE CONQUISTADORS
Matthew Restall and
Felipe Fernández-Armesto
CONSCIENCE Paul Strohm
CONSCIOUSNESS Susan Blackmore
CONTEMPORARY ART
Julian Stallabrass
CONTEMPORARY FICTION
Robert Eaglestone
CONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY
Simon Critchley
COPERNICUS Owen Gingerich
CORAL REEFS Charles Sheppard
CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY
Jeremy Moon
CORRUPTION Leslie Holmes
COSMOLOGY Peter Coles
COUNTRY MUSIC Richard Carlin
CREATIVITY Vlad Glăveanu
CRIME FICTION Richard Bradford
CRIMINAL JUSTICE Julian V. Roberts
CRIMINOLOGY Tim Newburn
CRITICAL THEORY
Stephen Eric Bronner
THE CRUSADES Christopher Tyerman
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CRYPTOGRAPHY Fred Piper and
Sean Murphy
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY A. M. Glazer
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION
Richard Curt Kraus
DADA AND SURREALISM
David Hopkins
DANTE Peter Hainsworth and
David Robey
DARWIN Jonathan Howard
THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
Timothy H. Lim
DECADENCE David Weir
DECOLONIZATION Dane Kennedy
DEMENTIA Kathleen Taylor
DEMOCRACY Naomi Zack
DEMOGRAPHY Sarah Harper
DEPRESSION Jan Scott and
Mary Jane Tacchi
DERRIDA Simon Glendinning
DESCARTES Tom Sorell
DESERTS Nick Middleton
DESIGN John Heskett
DEVELOPMENT Ian Goldin
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
Lewis Wolpert
THE DEVIL Darren Oldridge
DIASPORA Kevin Kenny
CHARLES DICKENS Jenny Hartley
DICTIONARIES Lynda Mugglestone
DINOSAURS David Norman
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
Joseph M. Siracusa
DOCUMENTARY FILM
Patricia Aufderheide
DREAMING J. Allan Hobson
DRUGS Les Iversen
DRUIDS Barry Cunliffe
DYNASTY Jeroen Duindam
DYSLEXIA Margaret J. Snowling
EARLY MUSIC Thomas Forrest Kelly
THE EARTH Martin Redfern
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE Tim Lenton
ECOLOGY Jaboury Ghazoul
ECONOMICS Partha Dasgupta
EDUCATION Gary Thomas
EGYPTIAN MYTH Geraldine Pinch
EIGHTEENTH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Paul Langford
THE ELEMENTS Philip Ball
EMOTION Dylan Evans
EMPIRE Stephen Howe
EMPLOYMENT LAW David Cabrelli
ENERGY SYSTEMS Nick Jenkins
ENGELS Terrell Carver
ENGINEERING David Blockley
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Simon Horobin
ENGLISH LITERATURE Jonathan Bate
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
John Robertson
ENTREPRENEURSHIP Paul Westhead
and Mike Wright
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Stephen Smith
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Robin Attfield
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
Elizabeth Fisher
ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
Andrew Dobson
ENZYMES Paul Engel
EPICUREANISM Catherine Wilson
EPIDEMIOLOGY Rodolfo Saracci
ETHICS Simon Blackburn
ETHNOMUSICOLOGY Timothy Rice
THE ETRUSCANS Christopher Smith
EUGENICS Philippa Levine
THE EUROPEAN UNION
Simon Usherwood and John Pinder
EUROPEAN UNION LAW
Anthony Arnull
EVANGELICALISM
John G. Stackhouse Jr.
EVIL Luke Russell
EVOLUTION Brian and
Deborah Charlesworth
EXISTENTIALISM Thomas Flynn
EXPLORATION Stewart A. Weaver
EXTINCTION Paul B. Wignall
THE EYE Michael Land
FAIRY TALE Marina Warner
FAMILY LAW Jonathan Herring
MICHAEL FARADAY
Frank A. J. L. James
FASCISM Kevin Passmore
FASHION Rebecca Arnold
FEDERALISM Mark J. Rozell and
Clyde Wilcox
FEMINISM Margaret Walters
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FILM Michael Wood
FILM MUSIC Kathryn Kalinak
FILM NOIR James Naremore
FIRE Andrew C. Scott
THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Michael Howard
FLUID MECHANICS Eric Lauga
FOLK MUSIC Mark Slobin
FOOD John Krebs
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
David Canter
FORENSIC SCIENCE Jim Fraser
FORESTS Jaboury Ghazoul
FOSSILS Keith Thomson
FOUCAULT Gary Gutting
THE FOUNDING FATHERS
R. B. Bernstein
FRACTALS Kenneth Falconer
FREE SPEECH Nigel Warburton
FREE WILL Thomas Pink
FREEMASONRY Andreas Önnerfors
FRENCH CINEMA Dudley Andrew
FRENCH LITERATURE John D. Lyons
FRENCH PHILOSOPHY
Stephen Gaukroger and Knox Peden
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
William Doyle
FREUD Anthony Storr
FUNDAMENTALISM Malise Ruthven
FUNGI Nicholas P. Money
THE FUTURE Jennifer M. Gidley
GALAXIES John Gribbin
GALILEO Stillman Drake
GAME THEORY Ken Binmore
GANDHI Bhikhu Parekh
GARDEN HISTORY Gordon Campbell
GENES Jonathan Slack
GENIUS Andrew Robinson
GENOMICS John Archibald
GEOGRAPHY John Matthews and
David Herbert
GEOLOGY Jan Zalasiewicz
GEOMETRY Maciej Dunajski
GEOPHYSICS William Lowrie
GEOPOLITICS Klaus Dodds
GERMAN LITERATURE Nicholas Boyle
GERMAN PHILOSOPHY
Andrew Bowie
THE GHETTO Bryan Cheyette
GLACIATION David J. A. Evans
GLOBAL CATASTROPHES Bill McGuire
GLOBAL ECONOMIC HISTORY
Robert C. Allen
GLOBAL ISLAM Nile Green
GLOBALIZATION Manfred B. Steger
GOD John Bowker
GÖDEL’S THEOREM A. W. Moore
GOETHE Ritchie Robertson
THE GOTHIC Nick Groom
GOVERNANCE Mark Bevir
GRAVITY Timothy Clifton
THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND
THE NEW DEAL Eric Rauchway
HABEAS CORPUS Amanda L. Tyler
HABERMAS James Gordon Finlayson
THE HABSBURG EMPIRE
Martyn Rady
HAPPINESS Daniel M. Haybron
THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE
Cheryl A. Wall
THE HEBREW BIBLE AS LITERATURE
Tod Linafelt
HEGEL Peter Singer
HEIDEGGER Michael Inwood
THE HELLENISTIC AGE
Peter Thonemann
HEREDITY John Waller
HERMENEUTICS Jens Zimmermann
HERODOTUS Jennifer T. Roberts
HIEROGLYPHS Penelope Wilson
HINDUISM Kim Knott
HISTORY John H. Arnold
THE HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY
Michael Hoskin
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
William H. Brock
THE HISTORY OF CHILDHOOD
James Marten
THE HISTORY OF CINEMA
Geoffrey Nowell-Smith
THE HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Doron Swade
THE HISTORY OF EMOTIONS
Thomas Dixon
THE HISTORY OF LIFE
Michael Benton
THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
Jacqueline Stedall
THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE
William Bynum
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THE HISTORY OF PHYSICS
J. L. Heilbron
THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL
THOUGHT Richard Whatmore
THE HISTORY OF TIME
Leofranc Holford‑Strevens
HIV AND AIDS Alan Whiteside
HOBBES Richard Tuck
HOLLYWOOD Peter Decherney
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
Joachim Whaley
HOME Michael Allen Fox
HOMER Barbara Graziosi
HORACE Llewelyn Morgan
HORMONES Martin Luck
HORROR Darryl Jones
HUMAN ANATOMY
Leslie Klenerman
HUMAN EVOLUTION Bernard Wood
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Jamie A. Davies
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Adrian Wilkinson
HUMAN RIGHTS Andrew Clapham
HUMANISM Stephen Law
HUME James A. Harris
HUMOUR Noël Carroll
IBN SĪNĀ (AVICENNA) Peter Adamson
THE ICE AGE Jamie Woodward
IDENTITY Florian Coulmas
IDEOLOGY Michael Freeden
IMAGINATION
Jennifer Gosetti-Ferencei
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Paul Klenerman
INDIAN CINEMA
Ashish Rajadhyaksha
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Sue Hamilton
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Robert C. Allen
INFECTIOUS DISEASE Marta L. Wayne
and Benjamin M. Bolker
INFINITY Ian Stewart
INFORMATION Luciano Floridi
INNOVATION Mark Dodgson and
David Gann
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Siva Vaidhyanathan
INTELLIGENCE Ian J. Deary
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Vaughan Lowe
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Khalid Koser
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Christian Reus-Smit
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
Christopher S. Browning
INSECTS Simon Leather
INVASIVE SPECIES Julie Lockwood and
Dustin Welbourne
IRAN Ali M. Ansari
ISLAM Malise Ruthven
ISLAMIC HISTORY Adam Silverstein
ISLAMIC LAW Mashood A. Baderin
ISOTOPES Rob Ellam
ITALIAN LITERATURE
Peter Hainsworth and David Robey
HENRY JAMES Susan L. Mizruchi
JAPANESE LITERATURE Alan Tansman
JESUS Richard Bauckham
JEWISH HISTORY David N. Myers
JEWISH LITERATURE Ilan Stavans
JOURNALISM Ian Hargreaves
JAMES JOYCE Colin MacCabe
JUDAISM Norman Solomon
JUNG Anthony Stevens
THE JURY Renée Lettow Lerner
KABBALAH Joseph Dan
KAFKA Ritchie Robertson
KANT Roger Scruton
KEYNES Robert Skidelsky
KIERKEGAARD Patrick Gardiner
KNOWLEDGE Jennifer Nagel
THE KORAN Michael Cook
KOREA Michael J. Seth
LAKES Warwick F. Vincent
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Ian H. Thompson
LANDSCAPES AND
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Andrew Goudie and Heather Viles
LANGUAGES Stephen R. Anderson
LATE ANTIQUITY Gillian Clark
LAW Raymond Wacks
THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Peter Atkins
LEADERSHIP Keith Grint
LEARNING Mark Haselgrove
LEIBNIZ Maria Rosa Antognazza
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C. S. LEWIS James Como
LIBERALISM Michael Freeden
LIGHT Ian Walmsley
LINCOLN Allen C. Guelzo
LINGUISTICS Peter Matthews
LITERARY THEORY Jonathan Culler
LOCKE John Dunn
LOGIC Graham Priest
LOVE Ronald de Sousa
MARTIN LUTHER Scott H. Hendrix
MACHIAVELLI Quentin Skinner
MADNESS Andrew Scull
MAGIC Owen Davies
MAGNA CARTA Nicholas Vincent
MAGNETISM Stephen Blundell
MALTHUS Donald Winch
MAMMALS T. S. Kemp
MANAGEMENT John Hendry
NELSON MANDELA Elleke Boehmer
MAO Delia Davin
MARINE BIOLOGY Philip V. Mladenov
MARKETING
Kenneth Le Meunier-FitzHugh
THE MARQUIS DE SADE John Phillips
MARTYRDOM Jolyon Mitchell
MARX Peter Singer
MATERIALS Christopher Hall
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Richard Earl
MATHEMATICAL FINANCE
Mark H. A. Davis
MATHEMATICS Timothy Gowers
MATTER Geoff Cottrell
THE MAYA Matthew Restall and
Amara Solari
THE MEANING OF LIFE
Terry Eagleton
MEASUREMENT David Hand
MEDICAL ETHICS Michael Dunn and
Tony Hope
MEDICAL LAW Charles Foster
MEDIEVAL BRITAIN John Gillingham
and Ralph A. Griffiths
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
Elaine Treharne
MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
John Marenbon
MEMORY Jonathan K. Foster
METAPHYSICS Stephen Mumford
METHODISM William J. Abraham
THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION
Alan Knight
MICROBIOLOGY Nicholas P. Money
MICROBIOMES Angela E. Douglas
MICROECONOMICS Avinash Dixit
MICROSCOPY Terence Allen
THE MIDDLE AGES Miri Rubin
MILITARY JUSTICE Eugene R. Fidell
MILITARY STRATEGY
Antulio J. Echevarria II
JOHN STUART MILL Gregory Claeys
MINERALS David Vaughan
MIRACLES Yujin Nagasawa
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Adam Sharr
MODERN ART David Cottington
MODERN BRAZIL Anthony W. Pereira
MODERN CHINA Rana Mitter
MODERN DRAMA
Kirsten E. Shepherd-Barr
MODERN FRANCE
Vanessa R. Schwartz
MODERN INDIA Craig Jeffrey
MODERN IRELAND Senia Pašeta
MODERN ITALY Anna Cento Bull
MODERN JAPAN
Christopher Goto-Jones
MODERN LATIN AMERICAN
LITERATURE
Roberto González Echevarría
MODERN WAR Richard English
MODERNISM Christopher Butler
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Aysha Divan
and Janice A. Royds
MOLECULES Philip Ball
MONASTICISM Stephen J. Davis
THE MONGOLS Morris Rossabi
MONTAIGNE William M. Hamlin
MOONS David A. Rothery
MORMONISM
Richard Lyman Bushman
MOUNTAINS Martin F. Price
MUHAMMAD Jonathan A. C. Brown
MULTICULTURALISM Ali Rattansi
MULTILINGUALISM John C. Maher
MUSIC Nicholas Cook
MUSIC AND TECHNOLOGY
Mark Katz
MYTH Robert A. Segal
NANOTECHNOLOGY Philip Moriarty
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NAPOLEON David A. Bell
THE NAPOLEONIC WARS
Mike Rapport
NATIONALISM Steven Grosby
NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE
Sean Teuton
NAVIGATION Jim Bennett
NAZI GERMANY Jane Caplan
NEGOTIATION Carrie Menkel-Meadow
NEOLIBERALISM Manfred B. Steger
and Ravi K. Roy
NETWORKS Guido Caldarelli and
Michele Catanzaro
THE NEW TESTAMENT
Luke Timothy Johnson
THE NEW TESTAMENT AS
LITERATURE Kyle Keefer
NEWTON Robert Iliffe
NIETZSCHE Michael Tanner
NINETEENTH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Christopher Harvie and
H. C. G. Matthew
THE NORMAN CONQUEST
George Garnett
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green
NORTHERN IRELAND
Marc Mulholland
NOTHING Frank Close
NUCLEAR PHYSICS Frank Close
NUCLEAR POWER Maxwell Irvine
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Joseph M. Siracusa
NUMBER THEORY
Robin Wilson
NUMBERS Peter M. Higgins
NUTRITION David A. Bender
OBJECTIVITY Stephen Gaukroger
OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY
Geoff Cottrell
OCEANS Dorrik Stow
THE OLD TESTAMENT
Michael D. Coogan
THE ORCHESTRA D. Kern Holoman
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Graham Patrick
ORGANIZATIONS Mary Jo Hatch
ORGANIZED CRIME
Georgios A. Antonopoulos and
Georgios Papanicolaou
ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY
A. Edward Siecienski
OVID Llewelyn Morgan
PAGANISM Owen Davies
PAKISTAN Pippa Virdee
THE PALESTINIAN-ISRAELI
CONFLICT Martin Bunton
PANDEMICS Christian W. McMillen
PARTICLE PHYSICS Frank Close
PAUL E. P. Sanders
IVAN PAVLOV Daniel P. Todes
PEACE Oliver P. Richmond
PENTECOSTALISM William K. Kay
PERCEPTION Brian Rogers
THE PERIODIC TABLE Eric R. Scerri
PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD
Timothy Williamson
PHILOSOPHY Edward Craig
PHILOSOPHY IN THE ISLAMIC
WORLD Peter Adamson
PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY
Samir Okasha
PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
Raymond Wacks
PHILOSOPHY OF MIND
Barbara Gail Montero
PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICS
David Wallace
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Samir Okasha
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
Tim Bayne
PHOTOGRAPHY Steve Edwards
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Peter Atkins
PHYSICS Sidney Perkowitz
PILGRIMAGE Ian Reader
PLAGUE Paul Slack
PLANETARY SYSTEMS
Raymond T. Pierrehumbert
PLANETS David A. Rothery
PLANTS Timothy Walker
PLATE TECTONICS Peter Molnar
PLATO Julia Annas
POETRY Bernard O’Donoghue
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
David Miller
POLITICS Kenneth Minogue
POLYGAMY Sarah M. S. Pearsall
POPULISM Cas Mudde and
Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser
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POSTCOLONIALISM
Robert J. C. Young
POSTMODERNISM Christopher Butler
POSTSTRUCTURALISM
Catherine Belsey
POVERTY Philip N. Jefferson
PREHISTORY Chris Gosden
PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
Catherine Osborne
PRIVACY Raymond Wacks
PROBABILITY John Haigh
PROGRESSIVISM Walter Nugent
PROHIBITION W. J. Rorabaugh
PROJECTS Andrew Davies
PROTESTANTISM Mark A. Noll
PSEUDOSCIENCE Michael D. Gordin
PSYCHIATRY Tom Burns
PSYCHOANALYSIS Daniel Pick
PSYCHOLOGY Gillian Butler and
Freda McManus
PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC
Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis
PSYCHOPATHY Essi Viding
PSYCHOTHERAPY Tom Burns and
Eva Burns-Lundgren
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Stella Z. Theodoulou and Ravi K. Roy
PUBLIC HEALTH Virginia Berridge
PURITANISM Francis J. Bremer
THE QUAKERS Pink Dandelion
QUANTUM THEORY
John Polkinghorne
RACISM Ali Rattansi
RADIOACTIVITY Claudio Tuniz
RASTAFARI Ennis B. Edmonds
READING Belinda Jack
THE REAGAN REVOLUTION Gil Troy
REALITY Jan Westerhoff
RECONSTRUCTION Allen C. Guelzo
THE REFORMATION Peter Marshall
REFUGEES Gil Loescher
RELATIVITY Russell Stannard
RELIGION Thomas A. Tweed
RELIGION IN AMERICA Timothy Beal
THE RENAISSANCE Jerry Brotton
RENAISSANCE ART
Geraldine A. Johnson
RENEWABLE ENERGY Nick Jelley
REPTILES T. S. Kemp
REVOLUTIONS Jack A. Goldstone
RHETORIC Richard Toye
RISK Baruch Fischhoff and John Kadvany
RITUAL Barry Stephenson
RIVERS Nick Middleton
ROBOTICS Alan Winfield
ROCKS Jan Zalasiewicz
ROMAN BRITAIN Peter Salway
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Christopher Kelly
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
David M. Gwynn
ROMANTICISM Michael Ferber
ROUSSEAU Robert Wokler
RUSSELL A. C. Grayling
THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY
Richard Connolly
RUSSIAN HISTORY Geoffrey Hosking
RUSSIAN LITERATURE Catriona Kelly
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
S. A. Smith
SAINTS Simon Yarrow
SAMURAI Michael Wert
SAVANNAS Peter A. Furley
SCEPTICISM Duncan Pritchard
SCHIZOPHRENIA Chris Frith and
Eve Johnstone
SCHOPENHAUER
Christopher Janaway
SCIENCE AND RELIGION
Thomas Dixon and Adam R. Shapiro
SCIENCE FICTION David Seed
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Lawrence M. Principe
SCOTLAND Rab Houston
SECULARISM Andrew Copson
SEXUAL SELECTION Marlene Zuk and
Leigh W. Simmons
SEXUALITY Véronique Mottier
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Stanley Wells
SHAKESPEARE’S COMEDIES
Bart van Es
SHAKESPEARE’S SONNETS AND
POEMS Jonathan F. S. Post
SHAKESPEARE’S TRAGEDIES
Stanley Wells
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
Christopher Wixson
MARY SHELLEY Charlotte Gordon
THE SHORT STORY Andrew Kahn
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi
SIKHISM Eleanor Nesbitt
SILENT FILM Donna Kornhaber
THE SILK ROAD James A. Millward
SLANG Jonathon Green
SLEEP Steven W. Lockley and
Russell G. Foster
SMELL Matthew Cobb
ADAM SMITH Christopher J. Berry
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
John Monaghan and Peter Just
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Richard J. Crisp
SOCIAL WORK Sally Holland and
Jonathan Scourfield
SOCIALISM Michael Newman
SOCIOLINGUISTICS John Edwards
SOCIOLOGY Steve Bruce
SOCRATES C. C. W. Taylor
SOFT MATTER Tom McLeish
SOUND Mike Goldsmith
SOUTHEAST ASIA James R. Rush
THE SOVIET UNION Stephen Lovell
THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
Helen Graham
SPANISH LITERATURE Jo Labanyi
THE SPARTANS Andrew J. Bayliss
SPINOZA Roger Scruton
SPIRITUALITY Philip Sheldrake
SPORT Mike Cronin
STARS Andrew King
STATISTICS David J. Hand
STEM CELLS Jonathan Slack
STOICISM Brad Inwood
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
David Blockley
STUART BRITAIN John Morrill
SUBURBS Carl Abbott
THE SUN Philip Judge
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Stephen Blundell
SUPERSTITION Stuart Vyse
SYMMETRY Ian Stewart
SYNAESTHESIA Julia Simner
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY Jamie A. Davies
SYSTEMS BIOLOGY Eberhard O. Voit
TAXATION Stephen Smith
TEETH Peter S. Ungar
TERRORISM Charles Townshend
THEATRE Marvin Carlson
THEOLOGY David F. Ford
THINKING AND REASONING
Jonathan St B. T. Evans
THOUGHT Tim Bayne
TIBETAN BUDDHISM
Matthew T. Kapstein
TIDES David George Bowers and
Emyr Martyn Roberts
TIME Jenann Ismael
TOCQUEVILLE Harvey C. Mansfield
LEO TOLSTOY Liza Knapp
TOPOLOGY Richard Earl
TRAGEDY Adrian Poole
TRANSLATION Matthew Reynolds
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES
Michael S. Neiberg
TRIGONOMETRY
Glen Van Brummelen
THE TROJAN WAR Eric H. Cline
TRUST Katherine Hawley
THE TUDORS John Guy
TWENTIETH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Kenneth O. Morgan
TYPOGRAPHY Paul Luna
THE UNITED NATIONS
Jussi M. Hanhimäki
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
David Palfreyman and Paul Temple
THE U.S. CIVIL WAR Louis P. Masur
THE U.S. CONGRESS Donald A. Ritchie
THE U.S. CONSTITUTION
David J. Bodenhamer
THE U.S. SUPREME COURT
Linda Greenhouse
UTILITARIANISM
Katarzyna de Lazari-Radek and
Peter Singer
UTOPIANISM Lyman Tower Sargent
VATICAN II Shaun Blanchard and
Stephen Bullivant
VETERINARY SCIENCE James Yeates
THE VICTORIANS Martin Hewitt
THE VIKINGS Julian D. Richards
VIOLENCE Philip Dwyer
THE VIRGIN MARY
Mary Joan Winn Leith
THE VIRTUES Craig A. Boyd and
Kevin Timpe
VIRUSES Dorothy H. Crawford
VOLCANOES Michael J. Branney and
Jan Zalasiewicz
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

VOLTAIRE Nicholas Cronk WORK Stephen Fineman

WAR AND RELIGION Jolyon Mitchell
and Joshua Rey
WAR AND TECHNOLOGY
Alex Roland
WATER John Finney
WAVES Mike Goldsmith
WEATHER Storm Dunlop
THE WELFARE STATE David Garland
WITCHCRAFT Malcolm Gaskill
WITTGENSTEIN A. C. Grayling
WORLD MUSIC Philip Bohlman
WORLD MYTHOLOGY David Leeming
THE WORLD TRADE
ORGANIZATION
Amrita Narlikar
WORLD WAR II Gerhard L. Weinberg
WRITING AND SCRIPT
Andrew Robinson
ZIONISM Michael Stanislawski
ÉMILE ZOLA Brian Nelson

Available soon:
CIVIL WARS Monica Duffy Toft COMPARATIVE LAW Sabrina Ragone
THE GULAG Alan Barenberg & Guido Smorto

For more information visit our website

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OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

Julia Annas

ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
A Very Short Introduction
s ec o n d ed i t i o n
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,

United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
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© Julia Annas 2023
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

Preface

The prospect of writing a very short introduction to ancient

philosophy has attracted and intrigued me for some time. I would
like to thank Shelley Cox for her encouragement and comments,
as well as Christopher Gill, Laura Owen, David Owen, and a
reader for Oxford University Press. I would like to thank Cindy
Holder for help with the proofs and index. Needless to say, the
shortcomings rest with me. I would like to dedicate this book to
the memory of my friend Jean Hampton, who I hope would have
enjoyed it.

Preface to second edition

Returning to this book after several years, I’ve been given the
chance to improve it. I have brought it up to date at several points,
rearranged material, omitting material that is now of less interest,
and generally aimed to refresh the presentation. The basic
approach remains the same: ancient philosophy is best introduced
as philosophy, rather than as a parade of ideas. I hope that I’ve
succeeded.

A very short introduction should have modest aims. It is also,

however, an opportunity to give readers direct ways into the
subject, and lead them straight off to what is most important
about the subject. I’ve tried to get the reader engaged with ancient
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

philosophy in the way that matters, as a tradition of discussion

and conversation, conversation which I hope will continue after
the reader has finished this book.

Because I have focused on outstanding and revealing features of

ancient philosophy, I have not tried to follow a standard
chronological account of the tradition. Not only does the very
short nature of this book make that a bad idea (since the tradition
is too rich to cram into a very short account), but there is no
shortage of books available that will help the beginner deepen
their interest in ancient philosophy. The list of Further reading
indicates good places to start; beginners have never been better
served with reference books, translations, and companions than
they are today.

I will be introducing ancient philosophy not by introducing

Ancient Philosophy

philosophers individually and indicating their ‘greatest

philosophical hits’, but by introducing us into the conversations
that philosophers in the ancient Graeco-­Roman world had with
one another, and with people outside philosophical traditions.
These are conversations about how best to live our lives, how to
think about the kind of beings we are, how to reason well, how to
assess what we know, and, ultimately, how to understand the
world that we all live in. These are conversations that we get
drawn into from our everyday lives. Philosophy takes them up,
and as we engage with the questions, answers, and reasoning that
develop, we find that we’re thinking about our own issues in a
deeper and more complex way.

xvi
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Contents

List of illustrations xviii

Who are we discussing? A brief chronological sketch xix

1 How to be happy 1

2 Humans and beasts: understanding ourselves 23

3 Reason, knowledge, and scepticism 42

4 Logic and reality 64

5 When did it all begin? (And what is it anyway?) 85

Timeline 107

Further reading 109

Notes 113

Index 117
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

List of illustrations

1 The Choice of Heracles 7 Socrates 49

by Paolo de Matteis, © British Museum
1712 4
Leeds Museums and Galleries, 8 Aristotle 54
UK/Bridgeman Images Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Photo: AKG London
2 Epicurus, on the Boscoreale
cup (Louvre) 12 9 Buddha from Gandhara
Photo © RMN-­Grand Palais/Hervé period 58
Lewandowski Norton Simon Museum.

3 Arete (Virtue) from the 10 A late representation of

Library of Celsus 15 Anaximander 88
Haluk Cigsar/Alamy Landesmuseum, Trier, Germany
Stock Photo

11 Philosophers discussing and

4 Bust of Euripides 24 arguing together 99
National Galleries Scotland, World History Archive/Alamy
Purchased from Filippo Albacini Stock Photo

5 Medea by Eugène Delacroix, 12 Bust of a philosopher from

1838 37 Aphrodisias 103
Musée des Beaux-­Arts, Lille. Photo: Copyright © 2019 New York
AKG London University Excavations at Aphrodisias
(G. Petruccioli)
6 Medea by Frederick Sandys,
1886–8 38 13 Philosopher next to a praying
Birmingham Museums and figure 104
Art Gallery/Bridgeman Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome. Photo:
Art Library Hirmer Verlag Gmb
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

Who are we discussing?

A brief chronological
sketch

If you are new to the subject you may appreciate a quick

chronological sketch of the tradition you are being introduced to,
so one follows. There is also a timeline placing the major figures in
ancient philosophy, not all of whom can be adequately dealt with
in this book, though many are discussed in the text and the
text-­boxes. (Within their home city a Greek was known by their
own name, that of their father, and sometimes their district;
further afield they were known by their name and that of their
home city.)

Ancient philosophy is traditionally held to begin in the 6th

century bce , in the Greek cities of coastal Asia Minor (modern
Turkey). A large number of philosophers are generally grouped as
‘Presocratics’; their activities cover the 6th and 5th centuries.
Of these, Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, from Miletus,
present rational accounts of the universe, in terms of a small
number of explanatory principles. Pythagoras of Samos began a
very different tradition, one emphasizing mysticism and authority,
and also mathematics as a basic explanatory feature of the world.
The Pythagorean tradition developed in two ways: as an exploration
of mathematics and music, and as a secretive cult. Heraclitus of
Ephesus also produced an account of the world as a whole in
notoriously obscure aphorisms which relate the self to the world.
Xenophanes of Colophon begins a long concern with knowledge
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 03/10/23, SPi

and its grounds, urging us to reflect on the basis of our claims

about many things, including the gods.

Parmenides and Zeno of Elea became famous for arguments

which apparently cannot be refuted, but which reach conclusions
impossible to accept. Given Parmenides’ argument, the results of
our senses cannot be accepted, and we are left apparently
stranded by using our reasoning. Zeno’s notorious paradoxes leave
us in the same state. These arguments provoked a crisis in
philosophical accounts of the world. Philosophers now had to
become more sophisticated in responding to Parmenides,
beginning an overt distinction between the world of our
experience and the world revealed by philosophical argument.
We can see this in the cosmologies of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae,
Empedocles of Acragas, and the Atomists Leucippus and
Democritus of Abdera.
Ancient Philosophy

In the second half of the 5th century, intellectuals called sophists

developed some philosophical skills, particularly in argument, and
philosophical interests, particularly in ethical and social thought.
The best known are Protagoras of Abdera, Hippias of Elis, Gorgias
of Leontini, and Prodicus of Cos.

Some of these people are not strictly Presocratics, since their lives
overlapped with that of Socrates of Athens, but Socrates is
generally held to mark a turning point in ancient philosophy. He
wrote nothing but greatly influenced a number of followers,
including Aristippus of Cyrene (a founder of hedonism, the idea
that our aim should be pleasure) and Antisthenes of Athens
(a founder of Cynicism, the idea that our needs should be as minimal
as possible). Socrates’ emphasis on questioning and argument
made him the key symbolic figure of the Philosopher to the
ancient world. He was, at the end of his life, executed by his fellow
Athenians on the grounds of ‘corrupting the young’ and not
believing in the gods; this made him the symbolic figure of

xx
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philosophy as misunderstood and persecuted by political forces,

something which has had resonance in many places and at
many times.

Socrates’ most famous follower is Plato of Athens, the best-­known

ancient philosopher, who wrote a number of philosophical
dialogues famous for their literary skill. Plato founded the first
philosophical school, the Academy. At this point philosophy comes
to focus on Athens rather than being spread over the large
number of cities just mentioned; and it comes to be done in
philosophical schools. These are loose associations of people
discussing together rather than formal structures like modern
universities, but they produce schools of thought: if you attend
Plato’s school, the Academy, you are identifying as an Academic,
and from now on it is schools which debate more than individuals.

A brief chronological sketch

Plato’s most famous follower and student, Aristotle of Stagira,
founded his own school, the Lyceum, in Athens after Plato’s death.
Plato and Aristotle tend to dominate our accounts of ancient
philosophy because we have extensive work from both of them,
Plato in finished form, Aristotle in the form of lecture and
research notes. With some philosophers after Aristotle we are not
so lucky and have to rely on reports of their ideas; this is true of
the ‘Hellenistic’ period.

This period (traditionally from 323 bce , the death of Alexander

the Great, to the end of the Roman republic at the end of the 1st
century bce ) is marked by the emergence of two new philosophical
schools, those of Epicurus and of the Stoics, and also of
philosophical movements which were not institutionalized as
schools, such as the Cynics, who practised ‘street philosophy’, and
rejected many basic social conventions, and also Pyrrho, the first
sceptic. Plato’s school practised a different, ‘Academic’ form of
scepticism in this period. As this period drew to an end, some
philosophers chose to synthesize thoughts from different schools
rather than continue familiar debates.

xxi
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During the 1st century bce to the 2nd century ce , the early Roman
empire, the existing schools continue, and philosophy flourishes in
a variety of places, with Athens no longer its centre. There is
renewed interest in Pythagoras, and a new interest in Plato
emerges, thinking of Plato’s ideas positively as a system of
‘Platonism’, rather than as dialogues inviting engagement.
Commentaries on Plato emerge, as engaging with texts becomes a
new way of doing philosophy.

Late antiquity sees the emergence, in the 2nd to 3rd centuries, of

an original new school, that of Plotinus, which identifies itself as
Platonist, but goes beyond systematizing Plato’s ideas and creates
an original way of thinking about the world and ourselves; it is
often called ‘Neoplatonism’. We have Plotinus’ works whole,
together with those of later Neoplatonists, and commentaries on
Plato and Aristotle. We also have extensive works which relate
Ancient Philosophy

themselves to earlier philosophers, such as Sextus Empiricus’

revived Pyrrhonist scepticism, and very lengthy works by Galen,
a doctor with philosophical interests.

The major western Christian thinker Augustine is influenced by

later Platonism, but, being unable to read philosophical works in
the original Greek, has lost direct touch with the original
arguments. The language of ancient philosophy had originally
been Greek, and this continued into the Roman period, although a
few Roman philosophers, such as Cicero and Seneca, chose to
write philosophically in Latin. Greek Christian philosophers in the
eastern empire never lost continuity with ancient culture,
including philosophy, but in the western empire there was severe
loss of ancient traditions until the ‘Middle Ages’.

xxii
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/09/23, SPi

Chapter 1
How to be happy

You need to choose

The Choice of Heracles (the Roman Hercules) was familiar and
widely spread in ancient Greek and Roman culture. We first find
the story in Xenophon of Athens, an acquaintance of Socrates who
wrote accounts of conversations with him. Xenophon ascribes the
story to Prodicus of Cos, a so-­called ‘sophist’ of the 5th century.
It becomes a familiar point of reference in ethical discussions.

As Xenophon tells it, Socrates is talking to a friend, Aristippus,

who believes in going for what you want when you want it.
Deferring your gratifications is a silly policy—­if you want it now,
get it now! Socrates objects that as a policy this may be dangerous.
If you are unable to control your desires you may end up at the
mercy of people who can, and who use the self-­mastery that they
have, and you don’t, to compete with you successfully and
eventually to gain control over your life. Aristippus, though,
doubts this. He can, he says, lead a life which is devoted to
self-­gratification and yet manage to avoid being dominated by
others. This is the way to happiness, he insists.

Socrates still disagrees. It isn’t, he thinks, just a matter of evading

what others can do to you. It’s a matter of how you regard your
own life. To make the point he tells Prodicus’ story. The divine

1
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/09/23, SPi

hero Heracles, at the start of his adult life, came to a crossroads.

Two women came along, each urging him to take one of the
opposing ways. One was self-­consciously fashionable, bold, and
made up; she urged him to take the easy road of satisfying desires
and going through life doing what he wanted, deliberating only as
to how to do so with least effort. My friends, she said, call me
Happiness, though my enemies call me Vice. The other woman,
solemn and modest in manner, appealed by her words rather than
her manner, and urged him to follow her, Virtue, even though her
way was one of effort and frequent frustration rather than easy
success. What I offer, she said, is worthwhile but requires work
and self-­denial; vice offers an easy road to happiness, but the
initial appeal fades and leaves you with nothing worth having.
Virtue, though, is the way to achievement and respect, which
forms real happiness.
Ancient Philosophy

The Choice of Heracles forms a frequent subject in Western art.

The version illustrated in Figure 1 by Paolo de Matteis was
commissioned in 1712 by the philosopher Anthony Ashley Cooper,
third earl of Shaftesbury, to provide an illustration for his own
book on virtue. It and many similar depictions reinforce
something about the telling of the story that makes modern
readers uncomfortable: ethical choice is depicted as two females
competing for a man. Moreover, even though one point is that
what matters is the reality of happiness, not its mere appearance,
this point is itself depicted by the competing attractions of the two
females, one being, on due consideration, more attractive than the
other—­an obviously sexist choice of metaphor.

But apart from this, we may feel puzzled as to why this story
should be famous. The point it makes seems extremely obvious
without a story. Clearly, we may think, if you are asked to choose
between virtue and vice, you should choose virtue, but that’s the
easy part; the hard part is working out what virtue is, and how to
achieve it. If we think this, it is probably because the ancient
ethical framework may be unfamiliar. But it is now becoming ever
2
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/09/23, SPi

The sophists

‘Sophists’ is the term used for a number of intellectuals in the

5th century bce who, while they did not form a unified intellectual
tradition, represented a new departure. They travelled around
various cities, teaching for money a variety of intellectual skills,
the most saleable being skills in rhetoric and argument which
would give the learner an advantage in public life. Although
some of their concerns fit into the philosophical tradition, they
have remained on its edge because Plato immortalized them in
many of his dialogues as pompous, incompetent fools, a foil to his
own hero Socrates. Plato’s depiction is gleefully unfair, but we
lack enough independent evidence to counter it in any detail.

The most famous sophists were Hippias of Elis, Prodicus of Cos,

Thrasymachus of Chalcedon, and Protagoras of Abdera. Hippias
was famous for the large number of his accomplishments and

How to be happy
Prodicus for his study of language. Thrasymachus is portrayed in
the Republic as holding an account of justice which aggressively
reduces it to the interest of the stronger. Protagoras is the only
one who held an important philosophical thesis, namely
relativism, the view that for a belief to be true is just for it to
appear true to the person who holds it. Plato refutes this view in
his dialogue Theaetetus (see p. 61 below).

Plato despises the sophists for many reasons. He rejects their

views, particularly relativism, and he thinks that teaching
intellectual skills for money debases these by turning them into
commodities, valued for what they do for you rather than
respected for their own sake. He also thinks that, just because
they do not take it seriously, the sophists are in fact incompetent
at philosophical argument. In his presentation of them, of
course, they certainly are.

3
 Ancient Philosophy

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/09/23, SPi

4

1. Heracles deciding between austere Virtue and tempting Pleasure.

 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/09/23, SPi

more accessible, as virtue becomes more familiar in both

philosophy and ordinary discourse. We are now, it turns out, in quite
a good position to appreciate the claims of Virtue on Heracles.

Virtue and Vice are offering Heracles differing roads to happiness.

Prodicus was one of the first thinkers to make something
important explicit; we are all, in our lives, aiming at happiness.
We find this thought also in the philosophers Democritus and
Plato. Indeed, Plato stresses that it would be ludicrous to deny
that happiness is our overall goal in life, the destination on
everyone’s road.

But Prodicus also made a mark by emphasizing something else.

When you are starting out on adult life, aiming at happiness, and
doing so consciously, you will be faced with a choice. You can’t
have it all. You need to choose. You can’t go through life gratifying

How to be happy
your desires and still hope to achieve anything worthwhile, or to
live a life that you or others can respect.

Recognizing explicitly that your aim in life is happiness brings

with it the realization that you have to reflect on and order your
life in one way rather than another. Life presents you with the
alternatives; you have to make the decisions. Centuries later
Cicero, a Roman politician and sophisticated intellectual, still
thought that the story said something profound about everybody’s
life and their attitude to it. You can’t have everything you want in
life, because some options exclude others, and when you are young
the choices you make affect all of your life afterwards. Of course it
is young people, for whom this point is most important, who are
the least likely to welcome awareness of it. Presumably that is why
the story features a divine hero.

Happiness and pleasure

Vice doesn’t offer Heracles success in battle or riches by devious
means. She offers him the pleasures of food, drink, and sex,
5
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 15/09/23, SPi

pooh-­poohing any need for self-­control and stressing what a

pleasant and easy life she offers. Virtue stresses goals that are long
term and require self-­control and respect for what is good and
worthwhile. In most versions of the story Virtue’s opponent is
simply called Pleasure.

In our traditions of moral philosophy it may seem strange that

pleasure is the bad, rejected way of getting happiness. John Stuart
Mill, a major founder of the Utilitarian tradition, actually defines
happiness as pleasure and the absence of pain. Doing the right
thing, he claims, is doing what will produce most pleasure and
least pain.

Even if we do not see happiness as actually constituted by pleasure

it still seems somewhat odd to see happiness as achieved by virtue
as opposed to pleasure. Here we can see that ancient ethical
Ancient Philosophy

thought gives a different, distinctive role to happiness in ethical

thinking.

Happiness in ancient ethical thinking is not a matter of feeling

good or being pleased; it is not a feeling or emotion at all. It is
your life as a whole which is said to be happy or not, and so
discussions of happiness are discussions of the happy life. It is
unfortunate that what we call happy are not just lives but also
moments and fleeting experiences. Modern discussions of
happiness tend to get confused because such different things are
being considered as though they could all be happy in the same
way. In ancient ethics happiness enters ethical discussion by a very
different route from the common one that happiness is ‘feeling
good’ about your life.

Sometimes you step back from your routines of daily life and think
about your life as a whole. You may be forced to do this by a crisis,
or it might be that passing a stage in your life, such as leaving
adolescence—­as in the Heracles story—­makes you think about
what you are doing in your life overall, what your values are, and
6
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
objects whose names occur in ancient literature, we lose half the
pleasure of reading it. In reading the New Testament, I can
certainly say for myself, that I derive more pleasure from the
narrative of the woman who poured the contents of the alabaster
box over the head of Jesus, now that I know what an alabastron
is, and how its contents would be extracted; and in the same way
I appreciate the remark made by the silversmith in the Acts, that
all Asia and the world worshipped the Ephesian Diana, now that I
know her image to be stamped not on the coins of Ephesus only,
but on many other cities throughout Asia also. Here, I think, we
have pleasure and profit combined in one. Instances are
abundant where monuments illustrate profane authors. The
reader of Aristophanes will be pleased to recognise among the
earliest figures on vases that of the ἱππαλεκτρυών, the cock-
horse, or horse-cock, which cost Bacchus a sleepless night to
conceive what manner of fowl it might be. “The Homeric scholar
again,” it has been said, “must contemplate with interest the
ancient pictures of Trojan scenes on the vases, and can hardly
fail to derive some assistance in picturing them to his own
imagination, by seeing how they were reproduced in that of the
Greeks themselves in the days of Æschylus and Pindar[25].”
24. Figrelius, quoted in the Museum of Classical Antiquities, Vol. I. p. 4.

25. Edinburgh Review, u. s.

Further, not only is ancient literature, but also modern art,

aided by archæology. It is well known how, in the early part of the
thirteenth century, Niccola Pisano was so attracted by a bas-
relief of Meleager, which had been lying in Pisa for ages
unheeded, “that it became the basis of his studies and the germ
of true taste in Italy.” In the Academy of St Luke at Rome, and in
the schools established shortly afterwards at Florence by
Lorenzo de’ Medici, the professors were required to point out to
the students the beauty and excellence of the works of ancient
art, before they were allowed to exercise their own skill and
imagination. Under the fostering patronage of this illustrious man
and of his not less illustrious son a galaxy of great artists lighted
up all Europe with their splendour. Leon Batista Alberti, one of
the greatest men of his age, and especially great in architecture,
was most influential in bringing back his countrymen to the study
of the monuments of antiquity. He travelled to explore such as
were then known, and tells us that he shed tears on beholding
the state of desolation in which many of them lay. The prince of
painters, Raffaelle,

timuit quo sospite vinci

Rerum magna parens et moriente mori,

and the prince of sculptors, Michael Angelo, both drew their

inspiration from the contemplation of the art-works of antiquity.
The former was led to improve the art of painting by the frescoes
of the baths of Titus, the latter by the sight of a mere torso
imbibed the principles of proportion and effect which were so
admirably developed in that fragment[26]. And not only the arts of
sculpture and painting, but those which enter into our daily life,
are furthered by the wise consideration of the past. Who can
have witnessed the noble exhibitions in Hyde Park or at
Kensington without feeling how much the objects displayed were
indebted to Hellenic art? In reference to the former of these Mr
Wornum says: “Repudiate the idea of copying as we will, all our
vagaries end in a recurrence to Greek shapes; all the most
beautiful forms in the Exhibition, (whether in silver, in bronze, in
earthenware, or in glass,) are Greek shapes; it is true often
disfigured by the accessory decorations of the modern styles, but
still Greek in their essential form[27].”
26. For this and the preceding facts see the Museum of Classical Antiquities, Vol. I.
pp. 13-15. The frescoes of the baths of Titus have subsequently lost their
brilliancy. See Quatremère de Quincy’s Life of Raphael, p. 263. Hazlitt’s
Translation. (Bogue’s European Library).

27. The Exhibition as a Lesson in Taste, p. xvii.*** (Printed at the end of the Art-
Journal Illustrated Catalogue, 1851).

And yet I must, in concluding this Introductory Lecture, most

strongly recommend to you the study of archæology, not only for
its illustration of ancient literature, not only for its furtherance of
modern art, but also, and even principally, for its own sake. “Hæc
studia adolescentiam alunt, senectutem oblectant, secundas res
ornant, adversis perfugium ac solatium præbent; delectant domi,
non impediunt foris, pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur,
rusticantur[28].” Every one who follows a pursuit in addition to the
routine duties of life has, by so doing, a happiness and an
advantage of which others know little. The more elevated the
pursuit, the more exquisite the happiness and the more solid the
advantage. Now if

The proper study of mankind is man,

then most assuredly archæology is one of the most proper

pursuits which man can follow. For she is the interpreter of the
remains which man in former ages has left behind him. By her
we read his history, his arts, his civilisation; by her magical
charms the past rises up again and becomes a present; the tide
of time flows back with us in imagination; the power of
association transports us from place to place, from age to age,
suddenly and in a moment. Again the glories of the nations of the
old world shine forth;

Again their godlike heroes rise to view,

And all their faded garlands bloom anew.

28. Cicero pro Archia poeta, c. vii.

To adopt and adapt the words of one who is both a learned

archæologist and a learned astronomer of this University, I feel
that I may, under any and all circumstances, impress upon your
minds the utility and pleasure of “every species and every
degree of archæological enquiry.” For “history must be looked
upon as the great instructive school in the philosophical
regulation of human conduct,” as well as the teacher “of moral
precepts” for all ages to come; and no “better aid can be
appealed to for” the discovery, for “the confirmation, and for the
demonstration of the facts of history, than the energetic pursuit of
archæology”[29].
29. See an address delivered at an Archæological meeting at Leicester, by John Lee,
Esq., LL.D. (Journal of Archæol. Association for 1863, p. 37).
 NOTES.

Pp. 15-20. Nearly everything contained in the text relating to

pre-historic Europe will be found in the Revue Archéologique for
1864, and in Sir C. Lyell’s Antiquity of Man, London, 1863; see
also for Thetford, Antiq. Commun. Vol. I. pp. 339-341, (Cambr.
Antiq. Soc. 1859); but the following recent works (as I learn from
Mr Bonney, who is very familiar with this class of antiquities) will
also be found useful to the student:
Prehistoric Times. By John Lubbock, F.R.S. London, 1865.
8vo.
The Primeval Antiquities of Denmark. By Prof. Worsäe.
London, 1849. 8vo. (Engl. Transl.).
Les Habitations Lacustres. Par F. Troyon. Lausanne, 1860.
Les Constructions Lacustres du Lac de Neufchâtel. Par E.
Desor. Neufchâtel, 1864.
Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes. Par Boucher de
Perthes. Paris, 1847.
Die Pfahlbauten. Von Dr Ferd. Keller. Ber. I-V. (Mittheilungen
der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich). 1854, sqq. 4to.
Die Pfahlbauten in den Schweizer-Seeen. Von I. Staub. Zurich,
1864. 8vo.
Besides these there are several valuable papers in the
Transactions of the Royal, Geological, and Antiquarian Societies
(by Messrs John Evans, Prestwich, and others), the Natural
History Review, and other Periodicals.
 p. 26. For the literature relating to ancient Egypt see Mr R. S.
Poole’s article on Egypt, in Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I.
p. 512.
pp. 29-31. Besides the works of Robinson, De Saulcy, Lewin,
Thrupp, and others, the following books may be mentioned as
more especially devoted to the archæology of Jerusalem:
The Holy City. By George Williams, B.D. (Second edition,
including an architectural History of the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre by the Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S. 1849.)
Jerusalem Explored. By Ermete Pierotti. Translated by T. G.
Bonney, M.A. 1864.
Le Temple de Jérusalem. Par le Comte Melchior de Vogüé,
1865. The Count considers none of the present remains of the
Temple to be earlier than the time of Herod.
To these I should add Mr Williams’ and Mr Bonney’s tracts,
directed against the views of Mr Fergusson, in justification of
those of Dr Pierotti.
p. 31, l. 20. From some remarks made to me by my learned
friend, Count de Vogüé, I fear that this is not so certain a
characteristic of Phœnician architecture as has been commonly
supposed. He assigns some of the bevelled stones which occur
in Phœnicia to the age of the Crusades.
p. 31, last line. For the very remarkable Phœnician
sarcophagus discovered in 1855, and for various references to
authorities on Phœnician antiquities, see Smith’s Dict. of the
Bible, Vol. II. p. 868, and Vol. III. p. 1850.
p. 36. As a general work on Greek and Roman Coins Eckhel’s
Doctrina Numorum Veterum (Vindobonæ, 1792-1828, with
Steinbuchel’s Addenda, 8 Vols. 4to.) still remains the standard,
though now getting a little out of date.
The same remark must be made of Mionnet’s great work,
Description de Médailles Antiques, Grecques et Romaines,
Paris, 1806-1813 (7 Vols.), with a supplement of 9 Vols. Paris,
1818-1837, giving a very useful Bibliothèque Numismatique at
the end; to which must be added his Poids des Médailles
Grecques, Paris, 1839. These seventeen volumes comprise the
Greek coins: the other part of his work, De la Rareté et du Prix
des Médailles Romaines, Paris, 1827, in two volumes, is now
superseded.
Since Mionnet’s time certain departments of Greek and other
ancient numismatics have been much more fully worked out,
especially by the following authors:
De Luynes (coins of Satraps; also of Cyprus); L. Müller (coins
of Philip and Alexander; of Lysimachus; also of Ancient Africa);
Pinder (Cistophori); Beulé (Athenian coins); Lindsay (Parthian
coins); Longpérier, and more recently Mordtmann (coins of the
Sassanidæ); Carelli’s plates described by Cavedoni (coins of
Magna Græcia, &c.); other works of Cavedoni (Various coins);
Friedländer (Oscan coins); Sambon (coins of South Italy); De
Saulcy, Levy, Madden (Jewish coins); V. Langlois (Armenian,
also early Arabian coins); J. L. Warren (Greek Federal coins;
also more recently, copper coins of Achæan League); R. S.
Poole (coins of the Ptolemies); Waddington (Unedited coins of
Asia Minor).
For Roman and Byzantine coins (including Æs grave and
Contorniates) see the works of Marchi and Tessieri, Cohen,
Sabatier, and De Saulcy.
Others, as Prokesch-Osten, Leake, Smyth, Hobler, and Fox,
have published their collections or the unedited coins of them;
and all the numismatic periodicals contain various previously
unedited Greek and Roman and other ancient coins.
p. 40. Fabretti’s work is entitled, Glossarium Italicum in quo
omnia vocabula continentur ex Umbricis, Sabinis, Oscis, Volscis,
Etruscis, cæterisque monumentis collecta, et cum
interpretationibus variorum explicantur (Turin, 1858-1864). Many
figures of the antiquities, on which the words occur, are given in
their places.
 p. 43. Cromlechs in some, if not in all cases, appear to be the
skeletons of barrows.
p. 44. The following works will be found useful for the student
of early British antiquities:
Pictorial History of England, Vol. I. Lond. 1838.
Archæological Index to remains of Antiquity of the Celtic,
Romano-British, and Anglo-Saxon periods. By J. Y. Akerman,
F.S.A. London, 1847 (with a classified index of the Papers in the
Archæologia, Vols. I-XXXI.).
Ten years’ diggings in Celtic and Saxon Grave Hills in the
Counties of Derby, Stafford, and York, from 1848-1858. By
Thomas Bateman. London, 1861. A most useful work, which will
indicate the existence of many others. In connection with this see
Dr Thurnam’s paper on British and Gaulish skulls in Memoirs of
Anthropological Soc. Vol. I. p. 120.
The Land’s End District, its Antiquities, Natural History, &c. By
Richard Edmonds. London, 1862.
Catalogue of the Antiquities of Stone, Earthen, and Vegetable
Materials, in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. By W. B.
Wilde, M.R.I.A. Dublin, 1857.
The Coins of the Ancient Britons. By John Evans, F.S.A. The
plates by F. W. Fairholt, F.S.A. London, 1864. By far the best and
most complete work hitherto published on the subject.
Also, the Transactions of various learned Societies in Great
Britain and Ireland, among which the Archæologia Cambrensis is
deserving of special mention.
For the Romano-British Antiquities may be added Horsley’s
Britannia Romana, 1732; Roy’s Military Antiquities of the
Romans in Britain, 1793; Lysons’ Relliquiæ Britannico-Romanæ.
London, 1813, 4 Vols. fol.
Monographs on York, by Mr Wellbeloved; on Richborough and
other towns, by Mr C. R. Smith; on Aldborough, by Mr H. E.
Smith; on Wroxeter, by Mr Wright; on Caerleon, by Mr Lee; on
Cirencester, by Messrs Buckman and Newmarch; on Hadrian’s
wall, by Dr Bruce; on various excavations in Cambridgeshire, by
the Hon. R. C. Neville.
p. 45. For the Roman Roads, &c. in Cambridgeshire, see Prof.
Charles C. Babington’s Ancient Cambridgeshire, Cambr. 1853
(Cambr. Ant. Soc).
— No doubt need have been expressed about Wroxeter, which
should hardly have been called ‘our little Pompeii’; the area of
Wroxeter being greater, however less considerable the remains.
See Wright’s Guide to Uriconium, p. 88. Shrewsbury, 1860. For
various examples of Roman wall-painting in Britain see Reliq.
Isur. by H. E. Smith, p. 18, 1852.
p. 46. For Romano-British coins see
Coins of the Romans relating to Britain, described and
illustrated. By J. Y. Akerman, F.S.A. London, 1844.
Petrie’s Monumenta Historica Britannica, Pl. I-XVII. London,
1848 (for beautiful figures).
Others, published by Mr C. R. Smith in his valuable
Collectanea Antiqua; also by Mr Hobler, in his Records of Roman
History, exhibited on Coins. London, 1860. Others in the
Numismatic Chronicle, in the Transactions of the Cambridge
Antiquarian Society, and perhaps elsewhere.
For medieval and modern numismatics in general we may
soon, I trust, have a valuable manual (the MS. of which I have
seen) from the pen of my learned friend, the Rev. W. G. Searle.
He has favoured me with the following notes:
On medieval and modern coins generally we have
Appel, Repertorium zur Münzkunde des Mittelalters und der
neuern Zeit, 6 Vols. 8vo. Pesth, 1820-1829.
Barthélémy, Manuel de Numismatique du moyen âge et
moderne. Paris, 1851. 12mo.
The bibliography up to 1840 we get in
 Lipsius, Biblioth. Numaria, Leipz. 1801 (2 Vols.) 8vo., and in
Leitzmann, Verzeichniss aller seit 1800 erschienenen Numism.
Werke, Weissensee, 1841, 8vo.
On medieval coins, their types and geography, we have
J. Lelewel, La Numismatique du Moyen-âge, considérée sous
le rapport du type. Paris, 1835, 2 vols. 8vo. Atlas 4to.
Then there are the great Numismatic Periodicals:
Revue Numism. 8vo. Paris, 1836.
Revue de la Num. Belge, 8vo. Brussels, 1841.
Leitzmann, Numismatische Zeitung, 4to. Weissensee, 1834.
On Bracteates:
Mader, Versuch über die Bracteaten. Prague, 1797, 4to.
And the great Coin Catalogues of
Welzl v. Wellenheim. 3 vols. 8vo. Vienna, 1844 ff. (c. 40,000
coins).
v. Reichel at St Petersburgh, in at least 9 parts.
On current coins we have
Lud. Fort, Neueste Münzkunde, engravings and descr. 8vo.
Leipzig, 1851 ff.
p. 45. For almost everything relating to ivories and for a great
deal on the subjects which follow, see Handbook of the Arts of
the Middle Ages and Renaissance, Translated from the French
of M. Jules Labarte, with notes, and copiously illustrated,
London, 1855, which will lead the student to the great authorities
for medieval art, as Du Sommerard, &c. I have also examined
and freely used Histoire des Arts industriels au moyen âge et à
l’époque de la Renaissance, Par Jules Labarte. Paris, 1864, 8vo.
2 volumes; accompanied by an album in quarto with descriptions
of the plates, also in two volumes.
 p. 47. For examples of medieval calligraphy and illuminations
see Mr Westwood’s Palæographia Sacra Pictoria, (Lond. 1845),
and his Illuminated Illustrations of the Bible, (London, 1846).
p. 48. A good deal of information about Celtic, Romano-British,
and medieval pottery will be found in Mr Jewitt’s Life of
Wedgwood, London, 1865. For ancient pottery in general
(excluding however the medieval) see Dr Birch’s Ancient Pottery
and Porcelain, London, 1858, which will conduct the student to
the most authentic sources of information. In connection with this
should be studied Mr Bunbury’s article in the Edinburgh Review
for 1858, to which Mr Oldfield’s paper on Sir W. Temple’s vases
in the Transactions of the Royal Soc. of Lit. Vol. VI. pp. 130-149
(1859), may be added.
—— For medieval sculpture see Flaxman’s Lectures. The
‘horrible and burlesque’ style of the earlier ages was discarded in
the thirteenth century, when the art revived in Italy. Italian artists
executed various sepulchral statues in this country, which
possess considerable merit, as do others by native artists, but
the great beauty of our sepulchral monuments consists in their
architectural decorations.
p. 49. For the coinage of the British Islands see the works of
Ruding, Hawkins, and Lindsay, also for the Saxon coins found in
great numbers in Scandinavia, Hildebrand and Schröder.
Humphreys’ popular work on the coinage of the British Empire,
so far as the plates are concerned, is useful, but the author is
deficient in scholarship.
p. 52. For the statements here made on oil-painting see
Bryan’s Dict. of Painters and Engravers, by Stanley, (London,
1849), under Van Eyck, and Sir C. L. Eastlake’s Materials for a
History of Oil-painting. (London 1847.)
p. 53. For medieval brasses, see
Bowtell, Monumental Brasses and Slabs. London, 1847, 8vo.
——— Monumental Brasses of England, a Series of
engravings in wood. London, 1849.
 Haines, Manual of Monumental Brasses. 2 parts. London,
1861, 8vo. This contains also a list of all the brasses known to
him as existing in the British Isles. Mr Way has given an account
of foreign sepulchral brasses in Archæol. Journ., Vol. VII.
p. 56. Several English frescoes are described and figured in
the Journal of the Archæological Association, passim.
p. 62, l. 13. The omission of ancient costume has been pointed
out to me. The actually existing specimens however are mostly
very late; with the exception of a few articles of dress found in
Danish sepulchres of the bronze period, or in Irish peat bogs of
uncertain date, the episcopal vestments of Becket now
preserved at Sens are the earliest which occur to my
recollection; and there are few articles of dress, I believe, so
early as these. However both ancient and medieval costume is
well known from the representations on monuments of various
kinds. See inter alia Hope’s Costume of the Ancients; Becker’s
Gallus and Charicles; Strutt’s Dress of the English People, edited
by Planché, (Lond. 1842); Shaw’s Dresses and Decorations of
the Middle Ages.
p. 67. The statement about Patin is made on the authority of a
note in Warton’s edition of Pope’s Works, Vol. III. p. 306. (London
1797.)
p. 68. The remark about the crab was made to me by the late
Mr Burgon, and I do not know whether it has ever been printed;
its truth seems pretty certain. For the Rhodian symbol see my
paper in the Numismatic Chronicle for 1864, pp. 1-6.

PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION,

An Introduction to the Study of Greek Fictile Vases; their
Classification, Subjects, and Nomenclature. Being the
substance of the Disney Professor’s Lectures for 1865, and
of those which he purposes to deliver in 1866.
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
Transcriber’s Notes:
Missing or obscured punctuation was
silently corrected.
Typographical errors were silently
corrected.
Inconsistent spelling and
hyphenation were made consistent
only when a predominant form was
found in this book.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN
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