Globalization: a Very Short Introduction

6th Edition Manfred B. Steger

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Globalization: A Very Short Introduction
 VERY SHORT INTRODUCTIONS are for anyone wanting a stimulating
and accessible way into a new subject. They are written by experts, and
have been translated into more than 45 different languages.
The series began in 1995, and now covers a wide variety of topics in
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­ iscipline. The VSI library currently contains over 700 volumes—a
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Very Short Introductions available now:

ABOLITIONISM Richard S. Newman AMERICAN IMMIGRATION

THE ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS
Charles L. Cohen
ACCOUNTING Christopher Nobes
ADDICTION Keith Humphreys
ADOLESCENCE Peter K. Smith
THEODOR W. ADORNO
Andrew Bowie
ADVERTISING Winston Fletcher
AERIAL WARFARE Frank Ledwidge
AESTHETICS Bence Nanay
AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Jonathan Scott Holloway
AFRICAN AMERICAN RELIGION
Eddie S. Glaude Jr
AFRICAN HISTORY John Parker and
Richard Rathbone
AFRICAN POLITICS Ian Taylor
AFRICAN RELIGIONS
Jacob K. Olupona
AGEING Nancy A. Pachana
AGNOSTICISM Robin Le Poidevin
AGRICULTURE Paul Brassley and
Richard Soffe
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Hugh Bowden
ALGEBRA Peter M. Higgins
AMERICAN BUSINESS HISTORY
Walter A. Friedman
AMERICAN CULTURAL HISTORY
Eric Avila
AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS
Andrew Preston
AMERICAN HISTORY Paul S. Boyer
David A. Gerber
AMERICAN INTELLECTUAL
HISTORY
Jennifer Ratner-­Rosenhagen
THE AMERICAN JUDICIAL SYSTEM
Charles L. Zelden
AMERICAN LEGAL HISTORY
G. Edward White
AMERICAN MILITARY HISTORY
Joseph T. Glatthaar
AMERICAN NAVAL HISTORY
Craig L. Symonds
AMERICAN POETRY David Caplan
AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY
Donald Critchlow
AMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES
AND ELECTIONS L. Sandy Maisel
AMERICAN POLITICS
Richard M. Valelly
THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY
Charles O. Jones
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Robert J. Allison
AMERICAN SLAVERY
Heather Andrea Williams
THE AMERICAN SOUTH
Charles Reagan Wilson
THE AMERICAN WEST
Stephen Aron
AMERICAN WOMEN’S HISTORY
Susan Ware
AMPHIBIANS T. S. Kemp
ANAESTHESIA Aidan O’Donnell
ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
Michael Beaney
ANARCHISM Alex Prichard
ANCIENT ASSYRIA Karen Radner
ANCIENT EGYPT Ian Shaw
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART AND
ARCHITECTURE Christina Riggs
ANCIENT GREECE Paul Cartledge
ANCIENT GREEK AND ROMAN
SCIENCE Liba Taub
THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
Amanda H. Podany
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY Julia Annas
ANCIENT WARFARE
Harry Sidebottom
ANGELS David Albert Jones
ANGLICANISM Mark Chapman
THE ANGLO-­SAXON AGE John Blair
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
Tristram D. Wyatt
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
Peter Holland
ANIMAL RIGHTS David DeGrazia
ANSELM Thomas Williams
THE ANTARCTIC Klaus Dodds
ANTHROPOCENE Erle C. Ellis
ANTISEMITISM Steven Beller
ANXIETY Daniel Freeman and
Jason Freeman
THE APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS
Paul Foster
APPLIED MATHEMATICS
Alain Goriely
THOMAS AQUINAS Fergus Kerr
ARBITRATION Thomas Schultz and
Thomas Grant
ARCHAEOLOGY Paul Bahn
ARCHITECTURE Andrew Ballantyne
THE ARCTIC Klaus Dodds and
Jamie Woodward
HANNAH ARENDT Dana Villa
ARISTOCRACY William Doyle
ARISTOTLE Jonathan Barnes
ART HISTORY Dana Arnold
ART THEORY Cynthia Freeland
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Margaret A. Boden
ASIAN AMERICAN HISTORY
Madeline Y. Hsu
ASTROBIOLOGY David C. Catling
ASTROPHYSICS James Binney
ATHEISM Julian Baggini
THE ATMOSPHERE Paul I. Palmer
AUGUSTINE Henry Chadwick
JANE AUSTEN Tom Keymer
AUSTRALIA Kenneth Morgan
AUTISM Uta Frith
AUTOBIOGRAPHY Laura Marcus
THE AVANT GARDE David Cottington
THE AZTECS Davíd Carrasco
BABYLONIA Trevor Bryce
BACTERIA Sebastian G. B. Amyes
BANKING John Goddard and
John O. S. Wilson
BARTHES Jonathan Culler
THE BEATS David Sterritt
BEAUTY Roger Scruton
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN
Mark Evan Bonds
BEHAVIOURAL ECONOMICS
Michelle Baddeley
BESTSELLERS John Sutherland
THE BIBLE John Riches
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
Eric H. Cline
BIG DATA Dawn E. Holmes
BIOCHEMISTRY Mark Lorch
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
David Macdonald
BIOGEOGRAPHY Mark V. Lomolino
BIOGRAPHY Hermione Lee
BIOMETRICS Michael Fairhurst
ELIZABETH BISHOP
Jonathan F. S. Post
BLACK HOLES Katherine Blundell
BLASPHEMY Yvonne Sherwood
BLOOD Chris Cooper
THE BLUES Elijah Wald
THE BODY Chris Shilling
THE BOHEMIANS David Weir
NIELS BOHR J. L. Heilbron
THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Brian Cummings
THE BOOK OF MORMON
Terryl Givens
BORDERS Alexander C. Diener and
Joshua Hagen
THE BRAIN Michael O’Shea
BRANDING Robert Jones
THE BRICS Andrew F. Cooper
BRITISH CINEMA Charles Barr
THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION
Martin Loughlin
THE BRITISH EMPIRE Ashley Jackson
BRITISH POLITICS Tony Wright
BUDDHA Michael Carrithers
BUDDHISM Damien Keown
BUDDHIST ETHICS Damien Keown
BYZANTIUM Peter Sarris
CALVINISM Jon Balserak
ALBERT CAMUS Oliver Gloag
CANADA Donald Wright
CANCER Nicholas James
CAPITALISM James Fulcher
CATHOLICISM Gerald O’Collins
CAUSATION Stephen Mumford and
Rani Lill Anjum
THE CELL Terence Allen and
Graham Cowling
THE CELTS Barry Cunliffe
CHAOS Leonard Smith
GEOFFREY CHAUCER David Wallace
CHEMISTRY Peter Atkins
CHILD PSYCHOLOGY Usha Goswami
CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
Kimberley Reynolds
CHINESE LITERATURE Sabina Knight
CHOICE THEORY Michael Allingham
CHRISTIAN ART Beth Williamson
CHRISTIAN ETHICS D. Stephen Long
CHRISTIANITY Linda Woodhead
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Russell Foster and Leon Kreitzman
CITIZENSHIP Richard Bellamy
CITY PLANNING Carl Abbott
CIVIL ENGINEERING
David Muir Wood
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
Thomas C. Holt
CLASSICAL LITERATURE William Allan
CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY
Helen Morales
CLASSICS Mary Beard and
John Henderson
CLAUSEWITZ Michael Howard
CLIMATE Mark Maslin
CLIMATE CHANGE Mark Maslin
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Susan Llewelyn and
Katie Aafjes-­van Doorn
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL
THERAPY Freda McManus
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
Richard Passingham
THE COLD WAR Robert J. McMahon
COLONIAL AMERICA Alan Taylor
COLONIAL LATIN AMERICAN
LITERATURE Rolena Adorno
COMBINATORICS Robin Wilson
COMEDY Matthew Bevis
COMMUNISM Leslie Holmes
COMPARATIVE LITERATURE
Ben Hutchinson
COMPETITION AND ANTITRUST
LAW Ariel Ezrachi
COMPLEXITY John H. Holland
THE COMPUTER Darrel Ince
COMPUTER SCIENCE
Subrata Dasgupta
CONCENTRATION CAMPS
Dan Stone
CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS
Ross H. McKenzie
CONFUCIANISM Daniel K. Gardner
THE CONQUISTADORS
Matthew Restall and
Felipe Fernández-­Armesto
CONSCIENCE Paul Strohm
CONSCIOUSNESS Susan Blackmore
CONTEMPORARY ART
Julian Stallabrass
CONTEMPORARY FICTION
Robert Eaglestone
CONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY
Simon Critchley
COPERNICUS Owen Gingerich
CORAL REEFS Charles Sheppard
CORPORATE SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY Jeremy Moon
CORRUPTION Leslie Holmes
COSMOLOGY Peter Coles
COUNTRY MUSIC Richard Carlin
CREATIVITY Vlad Glăveanu
CRIME FICTION Richard Bradford
CRIMINAL JUSTICE Julian V. Roberts
CRIMINOLOGY Tim Newburn
CRITICAL THEORY
Stephen Eric Bronner
THE CRUSADES
Christopher Tyerman
CRYPTOGRAPHY Fred Piper and
Sean Murphy
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY A. M. Glazer
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION
Richard Curt Kraus
DADA AND SURREALISM
David Hopkins
DANTE Peter Hainsworth and
David Robey
DARWIN Jonathan Howard
THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
Timothy H. Lim
DECADENCE David Weir
DECOLONIZATION Dane Kennedy
DEMENTIA Kathleen Taylor
DEMOCRACY Naomi Zack
DEMOGRAPHY Sarah Harper
DEPRESSION Jan Scott and
Mary Jane Tacchi
DERRIDA Simon Glendinning
DESCARTES Tom Sorell
DESERTS Nick Middleton
DESIGN John Heskett
DEVELOPMENT Ian Goldin
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
Lewis Wolpert
THE DEVIL Darren Oldridge
DIASPORA Kevin Kenny
CHARLES DICKENS Jenny Hartley
DICTIONARIES Lynda Mugglestone
DINOSAURS David Norman
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
Joseph M. Siracusa
DOCUMENTARY FILM
Patricia Aufderheide
DREAMING J. Allan Hobson
DRUGS Les Iversen
DRUIDS Barry Cunliffe
DYNASTY Jeroen Duindam
DYSLEXIA Margaret J. Snowling
EARLY MUSIC Thomas Forrest Kelly
THE EARTH Martin Redfern
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE Tim Lenton
ECOLOGY Jaboury Ghazoul
ECONOMICS Partha Dasgupta
EDUCATION Gary Thomas
EGYPTIAN MYTH Geraldine Pinch
EIGHTEENTH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Paul Langford
THE ELEMENTS Philip Ball
EMOTION Dylan Evans
EMPIRE Stephen Howe
EMPLOYMENT LAW David Cabrelli
ENERGY SYSTEMS Nick Jenkins
ENGELS Terrell Carver
ENGINEERING David Blockley
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Simon Horobin
ENGLISH LITERATURE Jonathan Bate
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
John Robertson
ENTREPRENEURSHIP Paul Westhead
and Mike Wright
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Stephen Smith
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Robin Attfield
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
Elizabeth Fisher
ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS
Andrew Dobson
ENZYMES Paul Engel
EPICUREANISM Catherine Wilson
EPIDEMIOLOGY Rodolfo Saracci
ETHICS Simon Blackburn
ETHNOMUSICOLOGY Timothy Rice
THE ETRUSCANS Christopher Smith
EUGENICS Philippa Levine
THE EUROPEAN UNION
Simon Usherwood and John Pinder
EUROPEAN UNION LAW
Anthony Arnull
EVANGELICALISM
John G. Stackhouse Jr.
EVIL Luke Russell
EVOLUTION Brian and
Deborah Charlesworth
EXISTENTIALISM Thomas Flynn
EXPLORATION Stewart A. Weaver
EXTINCTION Paul B. Wignall
THE EYE Michael Land
FAIRY TALE Marina Warner
FAMILY LAW Jonathan Herring
MICHAEL FARADAY
Frank A. J. L. James
FASCISM Kevin Passmore
FASHION Rebecca Arnold
FEDERALISM Mark J. Rozell and
Clyde Wilcox
FEMINISM Margaret Walters
FILM Michael Wood
FILM MUSIC Kathryn Kalinak
FILM NOIR James Naremore
FIRE Andrew C. Scott
THE FIRST WORLD WAR
Michael Howard
FLUID MECHANICS Eric Lauga
FOLK MUSIC Mark Slobin
FOOD John Krebs
FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
David Canter
FORENSIC SCIENCE Jim Fraser
FORESTS Jaboury Ghazoul
FOSSILS Keith Thomson
FOUCAULT Gary Gutting
THE FOUNDING FATHERS
R. B. Bernstein
FRACTALS Kenneth Falconer
FREE SPEECH Nigel Warburton
FREE WILL Thomas Pink
FREEMASONRY Andreas Önnerfors
FRENCH LITERATURE John D. Lyons
FRENCH PHILOSOPHY
Stephen Gaukroger and Knox Peden
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
William Doyle
FREUD Anthony Storr
FUNDAMENTALISM Malise Ruthven
FUNGI Nicholas P. Money
THE FUTURE Jennifer M. Gidley
GALAXIES John Gribbin
GALILEO Stillman Drake
GAME THEORY Ken Binmore
GANDHI Bhikhu Parekh
GARDEN HISTORY Gordon Campbell
GENES Jonathan Slack
GENIUS Andrew Robinson
GENOMICS John Archibald
GEOGRAPHY John Matthews and
David Herbert
GEOLOGY Jan Zalasiewicz
GEOMETRY Maciej Dunajski
GEOPHYSICS William Lowrie
GEOPOLITICS Klaus Dodds
GERMAN LITERATURE Nicholas Boyle
GERMAN PHILOSOPHY
Andrew Bowie
THE GHETTO Bryan Cheyette
GLACIATION David J. A. Evans
GLOBAL CATASTROPHES Bill McGuire
GLOBAL ECONOMIC HISTORY
Robert C. Allen
GLOBAL ISLAM Nile Green
GLOBALIZATION Manfred B. Steger
GOD John Bowker
GÖDEL’S THEOREM A. W. Moore
GOETHE Ritchie Robertson
THE GOTHIC Nick Groom
GOVERNANCE Mark Bevir
GRAVITY Timothy Clifton
THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND
THE NEW DEAL Eric Rauchway
HABEAS CORPUS
Amanda L. Tyler
HABERMAS James Gordon Finlayson
THE HABSBURG EMPIRE
Martyn Rady
HAPPINESS Daniel M. Haybron
THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE
Cheryl A. Wall
THE HEBREW BIBLE AS
LITERATURE Tod Linafelt
HEGEL Peter Singer
HEIDEGGER Michael Inwood
THE HELLENISTIC AGE
Peter Thonemann
HEREDITY John Waller
HERMENEUTICS Jens Zimmermann
HERODOTUS Jennifer T. Roberts
HIEROGLYPHS Penelope Wilson
HINDUISM Kim Knott
HISTORY John H. Arnold
THE HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY
Michael Hoskin
THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
William H. Brock
THE HISTORY OF CHILDHOOD
James Marten
THE HISTORY OF CINEMA
Geoffrey Nowell-­Smith
THE HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Doron Swade
THE HISTORY OF EMOTIONS
Thomas Dixon
THE HISTORY OF LIFE
Michael Benton
THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
Jacqueline Stedall
THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE
William Bynum
THE HISTORY OF PHYSICS
J. L. Heilbron
THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL
THOUGHT Richard Whatmore
THE HISTORY OF TIME
Leofranc Holford‑Strevens
HIV AND AIDS Alan Whiteside
HOBBES Richard Tuck
HOLLYWOOD Peter Decherney
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
Joachim Whaley
HOME Michael Allen Fox
HOMER Barbara Graziosi
HORMONES Martin Luck
HORROR Darryl Jones
HUMAN ANATOMY
Leslie Klenerman
HUMAN EVOLUTION Bernard Wood
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Jamie A. Davies
HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT Adrian Wilkinson
HUMAN RIGHTS Andrew Clapham
HUMANISM Stephen Law
HUME James A. Harris
HUMOUR Noël Carroll
IBN SĪNĀ (AVICENNA) Peter Adamson
THE ICE AGE Jamie Woodward
IDENTITY Florian Coulmas
IDEOLOGY Michael Freeden
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Paul Klenerman
INDIAN CINEMA
Ashish Rajadhyaksha
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Sue Hamilton
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Robert C. Allen
INFECTIOUS DISEASE Marta L. Wayne
and Benjamin M. Bolker
INFINITY Ian Stewart
INFORMATION Luciano Floridi
INNOVATION Mark Dodgson and
David Gann
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Siva Vaidhyanathan
INTELLIGENCE Ian J. Deary
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Vaughan Lowe
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Khalid Koser
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Christian Reus-­Smit
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
Christopher S. Browning
INSECTS Simon Leather
IRAN Ali M. Ansari
ISLAM Malise Ruthven
ISLAMIC HISTORY Adam Silverstein
ISLAMIC LAW Mashood A. Baderin
ISOTOPES Rob Ellam
ITALIAN LITERATURE
Peter Hainsworth and David Robey
HENRY JAMES Susan L. Mizruchi
JAPANESE LITERATURE Alan Tansman
JESUS Richard Bauckham
JEWISH HISTORY David N. Myers
JEWISH LITERATURE Ilan Stavans
JOURNALISM Ian Hargreaves
JAMES JOYCE Colin MacCabe
JUDAISM Norman Solomon
JUNG Anthony Stevens
THE JURY Renée Lettow Lerner
KABBALAH Joseph Dan
KAFKA Ritchie Robertson
KANT Roger Scruton
KEYNES Robert Skidelsky
KIERKEGAARD Patrick Gardiner
KNOWLEDGE Jennifer Nagel
THE KORAN Michael Cook
KOREA Michael J. Seth
LAKES Warwick F. Vincent
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Ian H. Thompson
LANDSCAPES AND
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Andrew Goudie and Heather Viles
LANGUAGES Stephen R. Anderson
LATE ANTIQUITY Gillian Clark
LAW Raymond Wacks
THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Peter Atkins
LEADERSHIP Keith Grint
LEARNING Mark Haselgrove
LEIBNIZ Maria Rosa Antognazza
C. S. LEWIS James Como
LIBERALISM Michael Freeden
LIGHT Ian Walmsley
LINCOLN Allen C. Guelzo
LINGUISTICS Peter Matthews
LITERARY THEORY Jonathan Culler
LOCKE John Dunn
LOGIC Graham Priest
LOVE Ronald de Sousa
MARTIN LUTHER Scott H. Hendrix
MACHIAVELLI Quentin Skinner
MADNESS Andrew Scull
MAGIC Owen Davies
MAGNA CARTA Nicholas Vincent
MAGNETISM Stephen Blundell
MALTHUS Donald Winch
MAMMALS T. S. Kemp
MANAGEMENT John Hendry
NELSON MANDELA Elleke Boehmer
MAO Delia Davin
MARINE BIOLOGY Philip V. Mladenov
MARKETING
Kenneth Le Meunier-­FitzHugh
THE MARQUIS DE SADE John Phillips
MARTYRDOM Jolyon Mitchell
MARX Peter Singer
MATERIALS Christopher Hall
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Richard Earl
MATHEMATICAL FINANCE
Mark H. A. Davis
MATHEMATICS Timothy Gowers
MATTER Geoff Cottrell
THE MAYA Matthew Restall and
Amara Solari
THE MEANING OF LIFE
Terry Eagleton
MEASUREMENT David Hand
MEDICAL ETHICS Michael Dunn and
Tony Hope
MEDICAL LAW Charles Foster
MEDIEVAL BRITAIN John Gillingham
and Ralph A. Griffiths
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
Elaine Treharne
MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
John Marenbon
MEMORY Jonathan K. Foster
METAPHYSICS Stephen Mumford
METHODISM William J. Abraham
THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION
Alan Knight
MICROBIOLOGY Nicholas P. Money
MICROBIOMES Angela E. Douglas
MICROECONOMICS Avinash Dixit
MICROSCOPY Terence Allen
THE MIDDLE AGES Miri Rubin
MILITARY JUSTICE Eugene R. Fidell
MILITARY STRATEGY
Antulio J. Echevarria II
JOHN STUART MILL Gregory Claeys
MINERALS David Vaughan
MIRACLES Yujin Nagasawa
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Adam Sharr
MODERN ART David Cottington
MODERN BRAZIL Anthony W. Pereira
MODERN CHINA Rana Mitter
MODERN DRAMA
Kirsten E. Shepherd-­Barr
MODERN FRANCE
Vanessa R. Schwartz
MODERN INDIA Craig Jeffrey
MODERN IRELAND Senia Pašeta
MODERN ITALY Anna Cento Bull
MODERN JAPAN
Christopher Goto-­Jones
MODERN LATIN AMERICAN
LITERATURE
Roberto González Echevarría
MODERN WAR Richard English
MODERNISM Christopher Butler
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Aysha Divan
and Janice A. Royds
MOLECULES Philip Ball
MONASTICISM Stephen J. Davis
THE MONGOLS Morris Rossabi
MONTAIGNE William M. Hamlin
MOONS David A. Rothery
MORMONISM
Richard Lyman Bushman
MOUNTAINS Martin F. Price
MUHAMMAD Jonathan A. C. Brown
MULTICULTURALISM Ali Rattansi
MULTILINGUALISM John C. Maher
MUSIC Nicholas Cook
MUSIC AND TECHNOLOGY
Mark Katz
MYTH Robert A. Segal
NANOTECHNOLOGY Philip Moriarty
NAPOLEON David A. Bell
THE NAPOLEONIC WARS
Mike Rapport
NATIONALISM Steven Grosby
NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE
Sean Teuton
NAVIGATION Jim Bennett
NAZI GERMANY Jane Caplan
NEGOTIATION Carrie Menkel-­Meadow
NEOLIBERALISM Manfred B. Steger
and Ravi K. Roy
NETWORKS Guido Caldarelli and
Michele Catanzaro
THE NEW TESTAMENT
Luke Timothy Johnson
THE NEW TESTAMENT AS
LITERATURE Kyle Keefer
NEWTON Robert Iliffe
NIETZSCHE Michael Tanner
NINETEENTH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Christopher Harvie and
H. C. G. Matthew
THE NORMAN CONQUEST
George Garnett
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green
NORTHERN IRELAND
Marc Mulholland
NOTHING Frank Close
NUCLEAR PHYSICS Frank Close
NUCLEAR POWER Maxwell Irvine
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Joseph M. Siracusa
NUMBER THEORY Robin Wilson
NUMBERS Peter M. Higgins
NUTRITION David A. Bender
OBJECTIVITY Stephen Gaukroger
OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY
Geoff Cottrell
OCEANS Dorrik Stow
THE OLD TESTAMENT
Michael D. Coogan
THE ORCHESTRA D. Kern Holoman
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Graham Patrick
ORGANIZATIONS Mary Jo Hatch
ORGANIZED CRIME
Georgios A. Antonopoulos and
Georgios Papanicolaou
ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY
A. Edward Siecienski
OVID Llewelyn Morgan
PAGANISM Owen Davies
PAKISTAN Pippa Virdee
THE PALESTINIAN-­ISRAELI
CONFLICT Martin Bunton
PANDEMICS Christian W. McMillen
PARTICLE PHYSICS Frank Close
PAUL E. P. Sanders
IVAN PAVLOV Daniel P. Todes
PEACE Oliver P. Richmond
PENTECOSTALISM William K. Kay
PERCEPTION Brian Rogers
THE PERIODIC TABLE Eric R. Scerri
PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD
Timothy Williamson
PHILOSOPHY Edward Craig
PHILOSOPHY IN THE ISLAMIC
WORLD Peter Adamson
PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY
Samir Okasha
PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
Raymond Wacks
PHILOSOPHY OF MIND
Barbara Gail Montero
PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICS
David Wallace
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Samir Okasha
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
Tim Bayne
PHOTOGRAPHY Steve Edwards
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Peter Atkins
PHYSICS Sidney Perkowitz
PILGRIMAGE Ian Reader
PLAGUE Paul Slack
PLANETARY SYSTEMS
Raymond T. Pierrehumbert
PLANETS David A. Rothery
PLANTS Timothy Walker
PLATE TECTONICS Peter Molnar
PLATO Julia Annas
POETRY Bernard O’Donoghue
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY David Miller
POLITICS Kenneth Minogue
POLYGAMY Sarah M. S. Pearsall
POPULISM Cas Mudde and
Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser
POSTCOLONIALISM
Robert J. C. Young
POSTMODERNISM
Christopher Butler
POSTSTRUCTURALISM
Catherine Belsey
POVERTY Philip N. Jefferson
PREHISTORY Chris Gosden
PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
Catherine Osborne
PRIVACY Raymond Wacks
PROBABILITY John Haigh
PROGRESSIVISM Walter Nugent
PROHIBITION W. J. Rorabaugh
PROJECTS Andrew Davies
PROTESTANTISM Mark A. Noll
PSEUDOSCIENCE Michael D. Gordin
PSYCHIATRY Tom Burns
PSYCHOANALYSIS Daniel Pick
PSYCHOLOGY Gillian Butler and
Freda McManus
PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC
Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis
PSYCHOPATHY Essi Viding
PSYCHOTHERAPY Tom Burns and
Eva Burns-­Lundgren
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Stella Z. Theodoulou and Ravi K. Roy
PUBLIC HEALTH Virginia Berridge
PURITANISM Francis J. Bremer
THE QUAKERS Pink Dandelion
QUANTUM THEORY
John Polkinghorne
RACISM Ali Rattansi
RADIOACTIVITY Claudio Tuniz
RASTAFARI Ennis B. Edmonds
READING Belinda Jack
THE REAGAN REVOLUTION Gil Troy
REALITY Jan Westerhoff
RECONSTRUCTION Allen C. Guelzo
THE REFORMATION Peter Marshall
REFUGEES Gil Loescher
RELATIVITY Russell Stannard
RELIGION Thomas A. Tweed
RELIGION IN AMERICA Timothy Beal
THE RENAISSANCE Jerry Brotton
RENAISSANCE ART
Geraldine A. Johnson
RENEWABLE ENERGY Nick Jelley
REPTILES T. S. Kemp
REVOLUTIONS Jack A. Goldstone
RHETORIC Richard Toye
RISK Baruch Fischhoff and John Kadvany
RITUAL Barry Stephenson
RIVERS Nick Middleton
ROBOTICS Alan Winfield
ROCKS Jan Zalasiewicz
ROMAN BRITAIN Peter Salway
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Christopher Kelly
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
David M. Gwynn
ROMANTICISM Michael Ferber
ROUSSEAU Robert Wokler
RUSSELL A. C. Grayling
THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY
Richard Connolly
RUSSIAN HISTORY Geoffrey Hosking
RUSSIAN LITERATURE Catriona Kelly
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
S. A. Smith
SAINTS Simon Yarrow
SAMURAI Michael Wert
SAVANNAS Peter A. Furley
SCEPTICISM Duncan Pritchard
SCHIZOPHRENIA Chris Frith and
Eve Johnstone
SCHOPENHAUER
Christopher Janaway
SCIENCE AND RELIGION
Thomas Dixon and Adam R. Shapiro
SCIENCE FICTION David Seed
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Lawrence M. Principe
SCOTLAND Rab Houston
SECULARISM Andrew Copson
SEXUAL SELECTION Marlene Zuk and
Leigh W. Simmons
SEXUALITY Véronique Mottier
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
Stanley Wells
SHAKESPEARE’S COMEDIES
Bart van Es
SHAKESPEARE’S SONNETS AND
POEMS Jonathan F. S. Post
SHAKESPEARE’S TRAGEDIES
Stanley Wells
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
Christopher Wixson
MARY SHELLEY Charlotte Gordon
THE SHORT STORY Andrew Kahn
SIKHISM Eleanor Nesbitt
SILENT FILM Donna Kornhaber
THE SILK ROAD James A. Millward
SLANG Jonathon Green
SLEEP Steven W. Lockley and
Russell G. Foster
SMELL Matthew Cobb
ADAM SMITH Christopher J. Berry
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
John Monaghan and Peter Just
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Richard J. Crisp
SOCIAL WORK Sally Holland and
Jonathan Scourfield
SOCIALISM Michael Newman
SOCIOLINGUISTICS John Edwards
SOCIOLOGY Steve Bruce
SOCRATES C. C. W. Taylor
SOFT MATTER Tom McLeish
SOUND Mike Goldsmith
SOUTHEAST ASIA James R. Rush
THE SOVIET UNION Stephen Lovell
THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
Helen Graham
SPANISH LITERATURE Jo Labanyi
THE SPARTANS Andrew J. Bayliss
SPINOZA Roger Scruton
SPIRITUALITY Philip Sheldrake
SPORT Mike Cronin
STARS Andrew King
STATISTICS David J. Hand
STEM CELLS Jonathan Slack
STOICISM Brad Inwood
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
David Blockley
STUART BRITAIN John Morrill
SUBURBS Carl Abbott
THE SUN Philip Judge
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Stephen Blundell
SUPERSTITION Stuart Vyse
SYMMETRY Ian Stewart
SYNAESTHESIA Julia Simner
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY Jamie A. Davies
SYSTEMS BIOLOGY Eberhard O. Voit
TAXATION Stephen Smith
TEETH Peter S. Ungar
TERRORISM Charles Townshend
THEATRE Marvin Carlson
THEOLOGY David F. Ford
THINKING AND REASONING
Jonathan St B. T. Evans
THOUGHT Tim Bayne
TIBETAN BUDDHISM
Matthew T. Kapstein
TIDES David George Bowers and
Emyr Martyn Roberts
TIME Jenann Ismael
TOCQUEVILLE Harvey C. Mansfield
LEO TOLSTOY Liza Knapp
TOPOLOGY Richard Earl
TRAGEDY Adrian Poole
TRANSLATION Matthew Reynolds
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES
Michael S. Neiberg
TRIGONOMETRY Glen Van Brummelen
THE TROJAN WAR Eric H. Cline
TRUST Katherine Hawley
THE TUDORS John Guy
TWENTIETH‑CENTURY BRITAIN
Kenneth O. Morgan
TYPOGRAPHY Paul Luna
THE UNITED NATIONS
Jussi M. Hanhimäki
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
David Palfreyman and Paul Temple
THE U.S. CIVIL WAR Louis P. Masur
THE U.S. CONGRESS Donald A. Ritchie
THE U.S. CONSTITUTION
David J. Bodenhamer
THE U.S. SUPREME COURT
Linda Greenhouse
UTILITARIANISM
Katarzyna de Lazari-­Radek and
Peter Singer
UTOPIANISM Lyman Tower Sargent
VATICAN II Shaun Blanchard and
Stephen Bullivant
VETERINARY SCIENCE James Yeates
THE VIKINGS Julian D. Richards
VIOLENCE Philip Dwyer
THE VIRGIN MARY
Mary Joan Winn Leith
THE VIRTUES Craig A. Boyd and
Kevin Timpe
VIRUSES Dorothy H. Crawford
VOLCANOES Michael J. Branney and
Jan Zalasiewicz
VOLTAIRE Nicholas Cronk
WAR AND RELIGION Jolyon Mitchell
and Joshua Rey
WAR AND TECHNOLOGY Alex Roland
WATER John Finney
WAVES Mike Goldsmith
WEATHER Storm Dunlop
THE WELFARE STATE David Garland
WITCHCRAFT Malcolm Gaskill
WITTGENSTEIN A. C. Grayling WORLD WAR II
WORK Stephen Fineman Gerhard L. Weinberg
WORLD MUSIC Philip Bohlman WRITING AND SCRIPT
WORLD MYTHOLOGY David Leeming Andrew Robinson
THE WORLD TRADE ZIONISM Michael Stanislawski
ORGANIZATION Amrita Narlikar ÉMILE ZOLA Brian Nelson

Available soon:
IMAGINATION THE VICTORIANS
Jennifer Gosetti-­Ferencei Martin Hewitt

For more information visit our website

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 Manfred B. Steger

GLOBALIZATION
A Very Short Introduction
sixth edition
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Manfred B. Steger 2023
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First edition published 2003
Second edition published 2009
Third edition published 2013
Fourth edition published 2017
Fifth edition published 2020
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
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In memory of Roland Robertson (1938–2022),
Model scholar, colleague, friend
Contents

Preface to the sixth edition xix

List of illustrations xxiii

List of maps xxv

List of figures xxvii

List of tables xxix

List of abbreviations xxxi

1 What is globalization? 1

2 Globalization in history 12

3 The economic and technological dimensions of globalization 34

4 The political dimension of globalization 66

5 The cultural dimension of globalization 83

6 The ecological dimension of globalization 95

7 Ideological confrontations over globalization 111

8 Present and future trends 127

References and further reading 137

Index 145
Preface to the sixth edition

It is a gratifying experience to present readers with the sixth

edition of a short book that has been so well received—­not only in
the English-­speaking world, but around the world in more than
20 languages. The necessary task of updating and expanding this
edition has been difficult in light of major global problems such as
pandemics, soaring inflation, social inequality, climate change,
cyber attacks, mass migrations, trade wars, job precarity, and the
resurgence of nationalisms. Hence, it seems appropriate to refer to
the present era as the ‘Great Unsettling’—shorthand for the
intensifying global dynamics of volatility, insecurity, and
dislocation. Two recent events, in particular, have added to this
disconcerting moment in human history.

First, starting in 2020, the COVID-­19 pandemic swept across the

world, uprooting the lives of its 7.8 billion inhabitants. By early
2023, official numbers showed that over 600 million people had
contracted multiple variants of the disease, resulting in more than
7 million confirmed deaths. But the actual toll is likely much higher.
Fortunately, effective vaccines were developed very quickly and by
August 2022, more than 12 billion shots had been administered. For
globalization scholars, this once-­in-­a-­century health crisis proved to
be an especially challenging research topic, since it required a
multi-­disciplinary approach to understanding the complexities
involved in the spread and possible containment of the virus.
 Second, Great Power competitions have been heating up in recent
years. China, Russia, and India increasingly challenge US world
leadership on multiple fronts. The Russian annexation of the
Crimean Peninsula in 2014 and China’s forward posture in the
South China Sea, plus its political crackdown on Hong Kong,
marked a new era of geopolitical conflict. Mounting tensions came
to a head in 2022 with Russia’s full-­blown invasion of Ukraine.
This major act of aggression was met with the imposition of
unprecedented economic sanctions levied by a US-­led broad
coalition of countries against the Russian Federation. In response,
President Putin vowed retaliation and escalated the war. For the
first time since the end of the Cold War, a global nuclear
confrontation appeared to be a distinct possibility.

Keeping such a complex topic as globalization brief and accessible

in our era of the Great Unsettling becomes even more challenging
in the case of a very short introduction. For this reason, the
Globalization

authors of the few existing introductions to the subject tend to

concentrate on only one or two aspects of globalization—­usually
the emergence of the global economy, its history, structure,
development, and supposed benefits and shortcomings. To be
sure, a single-­focus approach is helpful in explaining the impact
and consequences of new techno-­economic networks connecting
people across borders and the transnational flows of goods,
services, and labour. At the same time, however, such narrow
accounts often leave the reader with a limited understanding of
the full dimensions and complexity of globalization.

After all, the transformative powers of global interconnectedness

reach deeply into all aspects of contemporary social life. Hence,
the present volume makes the case that globalization also contains
important political, cultural, ecological, and ideological aspects.
Indeed, globalization occurs in people’s heads as much as in the
world ‘out there’. Subjective globalization becomes visible in
emotionally charged stories that describe and define that very

xx
process. The political forces behind these competing discourses
resort to digitized media platforms to endow the buzzword with
certain norms, values, and understandings. These not only
legitimize and advance their specific power interests, but also
shape the personal and collective identities of billions of people.
Thus, it is mostly the normative question of whether globalization
ought to be considered a ‘good’ or a ‘bad’ thing that has spawned
heated debates in classrooms, boardrooms, and on the streets.

Some commentators applaud globalization for its proven ability to

lift millions of people out of poverty, facilitate instant
communication, and grant almost limitless access to information
and Big Data. Nowhere has the success of globalization been more
visible than in the impressive rise of the East Asian powerhouses
China, Korea, and Japan. Other experts condemn globalization as

Preface to the sixth edition

a destructive force that annihilates traditional communal values,
wrecks our planet, and stretches social disparities beyond
sustainable levels. Regardless of which position is favoured,
readers would be well advised to maintain a critical stance
towards both interpretations.

To be sure, we should take comfort in the fact that the world is

becoming a more interdependent place with the potential of
enhancing ordinary people’s lives. Boosting our mobility and
connectivity across political borders and cultural divides
represents an exciting development. We should also welcome
sensible and compassionate policies that allow for the global flow
of migrants and refugees. The same goes for technological
progress—­as long as it remains accountable to democratic citizens
rather than reducing them to the status of digitally exploitable
‘users’. Globalization should go hand in hand with the betterment
of all people, especially those living in the disadvantaged regions
of the global South. Most of all, securing sustainable forms of
globalization demands that we take better care of our beautiful
planet and all its sentient beings.

xxi
 Let me end this Preface by recording my debts of gratitude. First,
I want to thank my colleagues and students at the University of
Hawai’i-­Mānoa. Additional thanks are due to Paul James,
professor of globalization and cultural diversity at the Institute for
Culture and Society at Western Sydney University. I owe much to
his steady intellectual encouragement and deep friendship.
I appreciate the helpful feedback and support from numerous
colleagues around the world who share my enthusiasm for the
study of globalization. I want to express my sincere appreciation
to numerous readers, reviewers, and audiences who, for nearly
three decades, have made insightful comments in response to my
public lectures and publications on globalization.

I appreciate Dr Tommaso Durante’s competent research

assistance on this edition as well as his formidable visual artist’s
eye for choosing some illustrations. Tommaso’s pioneering ‘Visual
Archive Project of the Global Imaginary’ can be found at:
Globalization

<https://www.the-­visual-­archive-­project-­of-­the-­global-­imaginary.
com/visual-­global-­imaginary>.

Luciana O’Flaherty and Jenny Nugee, my editors at Oxford

University Press, have been shining examples of professionalism.
Finally, a big thank you goes to my soul mate Perle Besserman—­as
well as the Steger, Besserman-­Trigère, and Blanchette families—­
for their love and support. Many people have contributed to
improving the quality of this book; its remaining flaws are my own
responsibility.

xxii
List of illustrations
1 The globalization scholars and
the elephant 8
© Manfred B. Steger
2 Assyrian clay tablets with
cuneiform writing,
c.1900–1800 bce 19
Granger Historical Picture
Archive/Alamy Stock Photo
3 The Great Wall of China 20
© Daniel Prudek/123RF
4 The sale of the island of
Manhattan in 1626 25
North Wind Picture Archives/
Alamy Stock Photo
5 Earthrise 30
Courtesy of NASA Earth
Observatory
6 BuzzFeed writer Matt
‘Doubi’ Stopera and Li
‘Brother Orange’ Hongjun
visit Tiananmen Square in
Beijing 39
© Qingqing Chen/BuzzFeed
7 The 1944 Bretton Woods
Conference 42
Everett Collection Historical/Alamy
Stock Photo
8 HMM Algeciras: the biggest
container ship in the world
(2020) 46
Martin Witte/Alamy Stock Photo
9 The Security Council of the
United Nations in session 67
506 collection/Alamy Stock Photo
10 Central American migrants,
including children, behind the
fence of a makeshift US
detention centre in El Paso,
Texas, 29 March 2019 75
Sergio Flores/The Washington
Post/Getty Images
11 Jihad versus McWorld: selling
fast food in Indonesia 88
Firdia Lisnawati/AP/Shutterstock
12 The greenhouse effect 102
© Union of Concerned
Scientists, USA
 13 Pope Francis I addresses
the UN General Assembly
on climate change,
25 September 2015 103
Justin Lane/EPA/Shutterstock
14 Police confronting WTO
protesters in downtown Seattle,
30 November 1999 116
© Nick Cobbing
Globalization
xxiv
15 The burning twin towers of
the World Trade Center, 11
September 2001 120
Stacy Walsh Rosenstock/Alamy Stock
Photo
16 Empty Leicester Square, West
End, London, during a 2020
COVID-19 shutdown 128
Jamie Lorriman/Alamy Stock Photo
List of maps

1 Early human migration 16 (2013), ‘Mapping Global Value

Chains’, OECD Trade Policy Papers,
No. 159, OECD Publishing, Paris,
2 Major world trade networks,
<https://doi.org/10.1787/
1000–1450 22 5k3v1trgnbr4-­en>

3 Countries falling into recession 5 The Syrian refugee crisis 73

as a result of the Global Source: based on information from
Financial Crisis, 2007–9 52 <UNOCHA.org>

4 The Nutella® global value 6 The European Union,

chain 61 2020 79
Reproduced with permission Ssolbergj/Wikimedia
from De Backer, K. and S. Miroudot (CC BY-­SA 3.0)
List of figures

A Four forms of globalization 4 of interrelated power

© Manfred B. Steger centres 81
P. Willets, “Transnational actors and
B A minute on the Internet international organizations in global
politics” in J. Baylis and S. Smith, ed.,
in 2021 36
The Globalization of World Politics, 2E,
Lori Lewis Via Statista (CC) Oxford University Press, Copyright © 2001

C Number of international F Major manifestations

migrants, 2020 72 and consequences of
© IOM GMDAC 2021 global environmental
degradation 99
D The nation-state in a
globalizing world 77
G Global spread of COVID-19,
J. Scholte, “The Globalization of World
January–March 2020 128
Politics” in J. Baylis and S. Smith, ed., The
Globalization of World Politics, 2E, Oxford Ruobing Su/Business Insider
University Press, Copyright © 2001
H Daily time spent online
E Incipient global globally, 2022 134
governance: a network Anadolu Agency © 2021
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
detailed; nor is there any authentic source from which any facts can
be derived, as to the subsequent incidents of his life. All that is
related of him in the Acts, is, that after his separation from Paul, he
sailed to Cyprus; nor is any mention made, in any of the epistles, of
his subsequent life. The time and place of his death are also
unknown.

JOHN MARK.
Of the family and birth of this eminent apostolic associate, it is
recorded in the New Testament, that his mother was named Mary,
and had a house in Jerusalem, which was a regular place of
religious assembly, for the Christians in that city; for Peter on his
deliverance from prison, went directly thither, as though sure of
finding there some of the brethren; and he actually did find a number
of them assembled for prayer. Of the other connections of Mark, the
interesting fact is recorded, that Mary, his mother, was the sister of
Barnabas; and he was therefore by the maternal line, at least, of
Levite descent. From the mode in which Mary is mentioned, it would
seem that her husband was dead at that time; but nothing else can
be inferred about the father of Mark. The first event in which he is
distinctly mentioned as concerned, is the return of Paul and
Barnabas from Jerusalem to Antioch, after Peter’s escape. These
two apostles, on this occasion, are said to have “taken with them,
John whose surname was Mark;” and he is afterwards mentioned
under either of these names, or both together. The former was his
original appellation; but being exceedingly common among the Jews,
and being, moreover, borne by one of the apostles, it required
another distinctive word to be joined with it. It is remarkable that a
Roman, heathen appellation, was chosen for this
purpose;――Marcus, which is the true form in the original, being a
name of purely Latin origin, and one of the commonest praenomens
among the Romans. It might have been the name of some person
connected with the Roman government in Jerusalem, who had
distinguished himself as a friend or patron of the family: but the
conjecture is hardly worth offering.

After returning with Paul and Barnabas to Antioch, he was next

called to accompany them as an assistant in their apostolic voyage
through Cyprus and Asia Minor; but on their coming to Perga, in
Pamphylia, he suddenly left them and returned to Jerusalem;――a
change of purpose which was considered, by Paul at least, as
resulting from a want of resolution, steadiness, or courage, and was
the occasion of a very serious difficulty; for Mark having returned to
Antioch afterwards, was taken by Barnabas, as a proper associate
on the proposed mission over the former fields of labor; but Paul
utterly rejected him, because he had already, on the same route,
once deserted them, when they needed his services, and he
therefore refused to go in his company again. This difference was
the occasion of that unhappy contention, the incidents of which have
already been particularly detailed in the Life of Paul. Mark however,
being resolutely supported by his uncle, accompanied him to Cyprus;
but of his next movement, as little is known as in respect to
Barnabas. The next occasion on which his name is mentioned, is by
Paul, in his epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon, as being
then with him in Rome; from which it appears, the great apostle had
now for a long time been reconciled to him, and esteemed him as a
valuable associate in the ministry. He is not mentioned in the epistle
to the Philippians, which therefore makes it probable that he had
then gone to the east. In the second epistle to Timothy, Paul
requests that Mark may be sent to him, because he is profitable to
him for the ministry; which is a most abundant testimony to his
merits, and to the re-establishment of Paul’s confidence in his zeal,
resolution, and ability. Whether he was actually sent to Rome as
requested, does not appear;――but he is afterwards distinctly
mentioned by Peter, in that epistle which he wrote from Babylon, as
being then with him. The title of “son,” which Peter gives him, seems
to imply a very near and familiar intimacy between them; and is
probably connected with the circumstance of his being made the
subject of the chief apostle’s particular religious instructions in his
youth, in consequence of the frequent meetings of the brethren at
the house of his mother, Mary. This passage is sufficient evidence
that after Mark had finally left Rome, he journeyed eastward and
joined Peter, his venerable first instructor, who, as has already been
abundantly shown in his Life, was at this time in Babylon, whence, in
the year 65, he wrote his first epistle.

“It is thought by Benson that Mark departed because his presence was required by the
apostles for converting the Jews of Palestine. But why then should Paul have expressed
indignation at his departure? The same objection will apply to the conjecture of others, that
he departed on account of ill-health. The most probable opinion is that of Grotius, Wetstein,
Bengel, Heumann, and others, that Mark was, at that time, somewhat averse to labors and
dangers; this, indeed, is clear from the words, καὶ μὴ συνελθόντα αὐτοῖς εἰς τό ἔργον. Thus
ἀφίστημι is used of defection in Luke viii. 13. 1 Timothy iv. 1. It should seem that Mark had
now repented of his inconstancy; (and, as Bengel thinks, new ardor had been infused into
him by the decree of the Synod at Jerusalem, and the free admission of the Gentiles;) and
hence his kind-hearted and obliging relation Barnabas wished to take him as a companion
of their present journey. But Paul, who had ‘no respect of persons,’ Galatians ii. 11, and
thought that disposition rather than relationship should be consulted, distrusted the
constancy of Mark, and was therefore unwilling to take him. This severity of Paul, however,
rendered much service both to Mark and to the cause of Christianity. For Mark profited by
the well-meant admonition, and was, for the future, more zealous and courageous; and the
gospel, being preached in different places at the same time, was the more widely
propagated. Nor were the bands of amity between Paul and Barnabas permanently
separated by this disagreement. See 1 Corinthians ix. 6. Nay, Paul afterwards received
Mark into his friendship. See Colossians iv. 10. 2 Timothy iv. 11. Philemon 23.” Kuinoel.
(Bloomfield’s Annotations, Vol. IV. p. 504, 505.)

his gospel.

The circumstance which makes this apostle more especially

eminent, and makes him an object of interest to the Christian reader,
is, that he is the author of an important portion of the historical
sacred canon. Respecting the gospel of Mark, the testimony of some
very early and valuable accounts given by the Fathers, is, that he
wrote under the general direction and superintendence of his
spiritual father, Peter; and from this early and uniform tradition, he
accordingly bears the name of “Peter’s interpreter.” The very
common story is also, that it was written in Rome, but this is not
asserted on any early or trustworthy authority, and must be
condemned, along with all those statements which pretend that the
chief apostle ever was in Italy. Others affirm also, that it was
published by him in Alexandria; but this story comes on too late
authority to be highly esteemed. Taking as true, the very reasonable
statement of the early Fathers, that when he wrote, he had the
advantage of the personal assistance or superintendence of Peter, it
is very fair to conclude, that Babylon was the place in which it was
written, and that its date was about the same with that of the epistle
of Peter, in which Mark is mentioned as being with him. Peter was
then old; and Mark himself, doubtless too young to have been an
intelligent hearer of Jesus, would feel the great importance of having
a correct and well-authorized record prepared, to which the second
generation of Christians might look for the sure testimonies of those
divine words, whose spoken accounts were then floating in the
parting breath of the few and venerable apostles, and in the
memories of their favored hearers. As long as the apostles lived and
preached, there was little or no need of a written gospel. All believers
in Christ had been led to that faith by the living words of his inspired
hearers and personal disciples. But when these were gone, other
means would be wanted for the perpetuation of the authenticated
truth; and to afford these means to the greatest possible number,
and to those most especially in want of such a record, from the fact
that they had never seen nor heard either Jesus or his personal
disciples,――Mark chose the Greek as the proper language in which
to make this communication to the world.

His gospel is so much like that of Matthew, containing hardly a

single passage which is not given by that writer, that it has been very
confidently believed by many theologians who suppose an early date
to Matthew’s gospel, that Mark had that gospel before him when he
wrote, and merely epitomized it. The verbal coincidences between
the two gospels, in their present state, are so numerous and striking,
that it has been considered impossible to account for them on any
other supposition than this. But these and other questions have filled
volumes, and have exercised the skill of critics for ages; nor can any
justice be done them by a hasty abstract. It seems sufficient,
however, to answer all queries about these verbal coincidences,
without meddling with the question of prior date, by a reference to
the fact that, during the whole period, intervening between the death
of Christ, and the writing of the gospels, the apostles and first
preachers had been proclaiming, week after week, and day after
day, an oral or spoken gospel, in which they were constantly
repeating before each other, and before different hearers, the
narrative of the words and actions of Jesus. These accounts by this
constant routine of repetition, would unavoidably assume a regular
established form, which would at last be the standard account of the
acts and words of the Savior. These, Mark, of course, adopted when
he wrote, and the other evangelists doing the same, the
coincidences mentioned would naturally result; and as different
apostles, though speaking under the influence of inspiration, would
yet make numerous slight variations in words, and in the minor
circumstances expressed or suppressed, the different writers
following one account or the other, would make the trifling variations
also noticeable. The only peculiarity that can be noticed in Mark, is,
that he very uniformly suppresses all those splendid testimonies to
the merits and honors of Peter, with which the others abound,――a
circumstance at once easily traceable to the fact that Peter himself
was the immediate director of the work, and with that noble modesty,
which always distinguished the great apostolic chief, would naturally
avoid any allusion to matters which so highly exalted his own merits.
Otherwise, the narrative of Mark can be characterized only as a plain
statement of the incidents in the public life of Jesus, with very few of
his discourses, and none of his words at so great length as in the
other gospels; from which it is evident, that an account of his acts
rather than his sermons,――of his doings rather than his sayings, is
what he designed to give.

“Among all the quotations hitherto made from the writings of the most ancient Fathers,
we find no mention made of Mark’s having published his gospel at Alexandria. This report,
however, prevailed in the fourth century, as appears from what is related by Eusebius,
Epiphanius, and Jerome. It is first mentioned by Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical History, lib. ii.
cap. 16. It appears from the word φασιν, that Eusebius mentions this only as a report; and
what is immediately added in the same place, that the persons, whose severity of life and
manners is described by Philo, were the converts which Mark made at Alexandria, is
evidently false. Epiphanius, in his fifty-first Heresy, ch. vi. gives some account of it.
According to his statement, Mark wrote his gospel in Rome, while Peter was teaching the
Christian religion in that city; and after he had written it, he was sent by Peter into Egypt. A
similar account is given by Jerome in his ‘Treatise on Illustrious Men,’ ch. viii. Lastly, the
Coptic Christians of the present age consider Mark as the founder and first bishop of their
church; and their Patriarch styles himself, ‘Unworthy servant of Jesus Christ, called by the
grace of God, and by his gracious will appointed to his service, and to the see of the holy
evangelist Mark.’ The Copts pretend likewise, that Mark was murdered by a band of
robbers, near the lake Menzale; but if this account be true, he was hardly buried at
Alexandria, and his tomb in that city must be one of the forgeries of early superstition.”
(Michaelis, Vol. III. pp. 207‒209.)

That it is not wholly new to rank Mark among the apostles, is shown by the usages of the
Fathers, who, in the application of terms, are authority, as far as they show the opinions
prevalent in their times. Eusebius says, “that in the eighth year of Nero, Anianus, the first
bishop of Alexandria after Mark, the apostle and ♦evangelist, took upon him the care of that
church.” Πρωτος μετα Μαρκον τον αποστολον και ευαγγελιστην, της εν Αλεξανδρειᾳ παροίκιας,
Ανιανος την λειτουργιαν διαδεχεται. Church History, I. 2. cap. 24. (Lardner’s Credibility of
Gospel History, Vol. III. p. 176.)

♦ “avangelist” replaced with “evangelist”

Of the later movements of Mark, nothing is known with certainty.

Being evidently younger than most of the original apostles, it is not
unreasonable to suppose that he long survived them; but his field of
labor is unknown. The common tradition among the Fathers, after
the third century, is, that he went to Alexandria, and there founding a
church, became bishop of it till his death;――but the statement is
mixed up with so much that is palpably false, that it is not entitled to
any credit.

LUKE.
Very little direct mention is made of this valuable contributor to the sacred canon, in any
part of the New Testament; and those notices which seem to refer to him, are so vague, that
they have been denied to have any connection with the evangelist. The name which is
given in the title of his gospel is, in the original form, Lucas, a name undoubtedly of Latin
origin, but shown by its final syllable to be a Hebrew-Greek corruption and abridgment of
some pure Roman word; for it was customary for the New Testament writers to make these
changes, to accord with their own forms of utterance. Lucas, therefore, is an abridgment of
some one of two or three Roman words, either Lucius, Lucilius or Lucanus; and as the
writers of that age were accustomed to write either the full or abridged form of any such
name, indifferently, it seems allowable to recognize the Lucius mentioned in Acts and in the
Epistle to the Romans, as the same person with the evangelist. From the manner in which
this Lucius is mentioned in the last chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, it would seem that
he was related to Paul by blood or marriage, since the apostle mentions him along with
Jason and Sosipater, as his “kinsman.” In the beginning of the thirteenth chapter of Acts,
Lucius is called “the Cyrenian,” whence his country may be inferred to have been the
province of northern Africa, called Cyrene, long and early the seat of Grecian refinement,
art, eloquence and philosophy, and immortalized by having given name to one of the sects
of Grecian philosophers,――the Cyrenaic school, founded by Aristippus. Whether he was a
Jew by birth, or a heathen, is not known, and has been much disputed. His birth and
education in that seat of Grecian literature, may be reasonably considered as having
contributed to that peculiar elegance of his language and style, which distinguishes him as
the most correct of all the writers of the New Testament.

His relationship to Paul, (if it may be believed on so slight grounds,) was probably a
reason for his accompanying him as he did through so large a portion of his travels and
labors. He first speaks of himself as a companion of Paul, at the beginning of his first
voyage to Europe, at Troas; and accompanies him to Philippi, where he seems to have
parted from him, since, in describing the movements of the apostolic company, he no longer
uses the pronoun “we.” He probably staid in or near Philippi several years, for he resumes
the word, in describing Paul’s voyage from Philippi to Jerusalem. He was his companion as
far as Caesarea, where he probably staid during Paul’s visit to Jerusalem; remained with
him perhaps during his two years’ imprisonment in Caesarea, and was certainly his
companion on his voyage to Rome. He remained with him there till a short time before his
release; and is mentioned no more till Paul, in his last writing, the second epistle to Timothy,
says, “Luke alone is with me.” Beyond this, not the slightest trace remains of his history.
Nothing additional is known of him, except that he was a physician; for he is mentioned by
Paul, in his Epistle to the Colossians, as “Luke, the beloved physician.” The miserable
fiction of some of the papistical romances, that Luke was also a painter, and took portraits of
Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, &c. is almost too shamelessly impudent to be ever mentioned;
yet the venerable Cave, the only writer who has heretofore given in full the Lives of the
Apostles, refers to it, without daring to deny its truth!

(That Luke was also regarded by the Fathers as an apostle, is shown by the fact that, in
the Synopsis ascribed to Athanasius, it is said, ‘that the gospel of Luke was dictated by the
apostle Paul, and written and published by the blessed apostle and physician, Luke.’)

his writings.

But a far more valuable testimony of the character of Luke is found in those noble works
which bear his name in the inspired canon. His gospel is characterized by remarkable
distinctness of expression and clearness of conception, which, with that correctness of
language by which it is distinguished above all the other books of the New Testament,
conspire to make it the most easy to be understood of all the writings of the New Testament;
and it has been the subject of less comment and criticism than any other of the sacred
books. From the language which he uses in his preface, about those who had undertaken
similar works before him, it would seem that though several unauthorized accounts of the
life and discourses of Jesus were published before him, yet neither of the other gospels
were known by him to have been written. He promises, by means of a thorough
investigation of all facts to the sources, to give a more complete statement than had ever
before been given to those for whom he wrote. Of the time when he wrote it, therefore, it
seems fair to conclude, that it was before the other two; but a vast number of writers have
thought differently, and many other explanations of his words have been offered. Of his
immediate sources of information,――the place where he wrote, and the particular person
to whom he addresses it, nothing is known with sufficient certainty to be worth recording.

Of the Acts of the Apostles, nothing need be said in respect to the contents and object,
so clear and distinct is this beautiful piece of biography, in all particulars. Its date may be
fixed with exactness at the end of the second year of Paul’s first imprisonment, which,
according to common calculations, is A. D. 63. It may well become the modern apostolic
historian, in closing with the mention of this writing his own prolonged yet hurried work, to
acknowledge the excellence, the purity, and the richness of the source from which he has
thus drawn so large a portion of the materials of the greatest of these Lives. Yet what can
he add to the bright testimonies accumulated through long ages, to the honor and praise of
this most noble of historic records? The learned of eighteen centuries have spent the best
energies of noble minds, and long studious lives, in comment and in illustration of its clear,
honest truth, and its graphic beauty; the humble, inquiring Christian reader, in every age
too, has found, and in every age will find, in this, the only safe and faithful outline of the
great events of the apostolic history. The most perfect and permanent impression, which a
long course of laborious investigation and composition has left on the author’s mind, of the
task which he now lays down, exhausted yet not disgusted, is, that beyond the apostolic
history of Luke, nothing can be known with certainty of the great persons of whose acts he
treats, except the disconnected and floating circumstances which may be gleaned by
implication from the epistles; and so marked is the transition from the pure honesty of the
sacred record, to the grossness of patristic fiction, that the truth is, even to a common eye,
abundantly well characterized by its own excellence. On the passages of such a narrative,
the lights of ♦ criticism, of Biblical learning, and of contemporary history, may often be
needed, to make the sometimes unconnected parts appear in their true historic relations.
The writer who draws therefrom, too, the facts for a connected biography, may, in the
amplifications of a modern style, perhaps more to the surprise than the admiration of his
readers, quite protract the bare simplicity of the original record, “in many a winding bout of
linked” wordiness, “long drawn out,”――but the modernizing extension and illustration,
though it may bring small matters more prominently to the notice and perception of the
reader, can never supply the place of the original,――to improve which, comment and
illustration are alike vain. When will human learning and labor perfect the exposition and the
illustration of the apostolic history? Its comments are written in the eternal hope of
uncounted millions;――its illustrations can be fully read only in the destiny of ages. This
record was the noble task of “the beloved physician;” in his own melodious language――“To
give knowledge to the people, of salvation by remission of sins through the tender mercy of
our God, whereby the day-spring from on high hath visited us,――to give light to them that
sit in darkness and in the shadow of death,――to guide our feet in the way of peace!”

♦ “critiicism” replaced with “criticism”

 ♦ERRATA.
♦ All errata noted in this list has been corrected in the foregoing text.

Page 7, line 32, for ‘Griechische’ read ‘Griechisch.’

Page 9, line 7, for ‘verse 7,’ read ‘verse 2.’
Page 10, line 22, for ‘15’, read ‘25.’
Page ♦14, line 38, for ‘Indus,’ read ‘Euphrates.’

♦ “11” replaced with “14”

Page 18, line 36, for ‘Pertuensis,’ read ‘Portuensis.’

Page 25, line 36, for ‘dreams,’ read ‘dream.’
Page 38, line 33, for ‘not,’ read ‘only once.’
Page 45, line 17, delete ‘the number of’.
Page 65, line 23, for ‘after,’ read ‘over;’
line 37 for ‘was,’ read ‘were.’
Page 67, line 39, for ‘avert,’ read ’snatch.’
Page 78, line 2, for ‘have,’ read ‘has;’
line 26, for ‘accounts,’ read ‘account.’
Page 107, line 26, before ‘not,’ read ‘he.’
Page 110, line 22, for ‘an hour,’ read ‘three hours.’
Page 140, line 28, for ‘proposition,’ read ‘preposition.’
Page 220, line 44, for ‘Or that,’ read ‘And by.’
Page 224, line 20, after ‘sake,’ insert ‘of.’
Page 225, line 25, for ‘of any,’ read ‘by any.’
Page 242, line 28, for ‘Aegian,’ read ‘Aegean.’
Page 249, line 34, for ‘as early as A. D. 200,’ read ‘before A. D. 100;’
line 35, after ‘books,’ read ‘supposed to have been written before that
translation.’
Page 262, line 15, for ‘inherits,’ read ‘inherit.’
Page 288, line 25, for ‘second,’ read ‘third.’
Page 312, line 27, for ‘or,’ read ‘and.’
Page 508, transpose ‘Lois,’ in line 31, with ‘Eunice,’ in line 35.
Page 522, line 24, for ‘Nereid,’ read ‘Naiad.’
Page 45, line 9, before ‘baptizer,’ insert ‘his.’
Page 10, line 61, in the second Hebrew word, the final letter should be not ‫ ה‬but ‫ח‬.

The statement on page 339, respecting the exposition of the Apocalypse by Clarke,
appears, on a more careful investigation, to represent his views rather too decidedly as
favoring the ancient interpretation. His own notes are such as unquestionably support that
interpretation; but he has so far conformed to popular prejudice, as to admit on his pages
some very elaborate anti-papal explanations from an anonymous writer, (J. E. C.) which,
however, he is very far from adopting as his own. The uniform expression made by his own
clear and learned notes, must be decidedly favorable to the ancient interpretation, and the
value of his noble work is vastly enhanced by this circumstance.

The view on pages 355 and 361, of the locality of Philip’s and Nathanael’s conversion, is
undoubtedly erroneous. I overlooked the form of the expression――“The next day, Jesus
would go forth into Galilee, and findeth Philip,” &c. This shows that he was still at Bethabara
when he called both Philip and Nathanael.

materials.

In the narrative of the lives of the twelve, the author has been driven entirely to the labor
of new research and composition, because the task of composing complete biographies of
these personages had never before been undertaken on so large a scale. Cave’s Lives of
the Apostles, the only work that has ever gone over that ground, is much more limited in
object and extent than the task here undertaken, and afforded no aid whatever to the author
of this work, in those biographies. Both the text and the notes of that part of the work are
entirely new; nothing whatever, except a few acknowledged quotations, of those
biographies, having ever appeared before on this subject. A list of the works which were
resorted to in the prosecution of this new work, would fill many pages, and would answer no
useful purpose, after the numerous references made to each source in connection with the
passage which was thence derived. It is sufficient in justice to himself to say that all those
references were made by the author himself; nor in one instance that can now be
recollected, did he quote second-hand without acknowledging the intermediate source. In
the second part of the work, the labor was in a field less completely occupied by previous
labor. But throughout that part of the work also, the whole text of the narrative is original;
and all the fruits of others’ research are, with hardly one exception, credited in the notes,
both to the original, and to the medium through which they were derived. In this portion of
the work, much labor has been saved, by making use of the very full illustrations given in
the works of those who had preceded the author on the life of Paul, whose biography has
frequently received the attention and labor of the learned.

The following have been most useful in this part of the work. “Hermanni Witsii
Meletemata Leidensia, Part 1. Vita Pauli Apostoli.” 4to. Leidiae, 1703.――“Der Apostel
Paulus. Von J. T. Hemsen.” 8vo. Goettingen, 1830.――“Pearson’s Annals of Paul,
translated, with notes, by Jackson Muspratt Williams.” 12mo. Cambridge, 1827.――Much
valuable matter contained in the two first, however, was excluded by want of room.
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