Recent Approaches in Agriculture

Recent Approaches in Agriculture

Dr. Mayurakshee Mahanta completed B.Sc. (Agri.) and M.Sc. (Agri.) in Plant Breeding and
Genetics from AAU, Assam. She pursued Ph.D. (Agri.) from CAU, Imphal with DST-INSPIRE
Fellowship. She has qualified ICAR NET in Genetics and Plant Breeding and CSIR UGC NET
(LS) in Life Sciences. Presently she is working as Assistant Professor (Plant Breeding and
Genetics) in College of Horticulture and FSR, Assam Agricultural University, Nalbari, Assam.
She has attended various seminars and conferences and contributed to many publications
including research papers, review papers, book chapters and popular articles.
Dr. Shilpa Rana did her B.Sc. Agriculture (Hons.) from Mata Gujri Autonomous College,
Fatehgarh Sahib, Sirhind affiliated with Punjabi in 2016. She did her M.Sc. (Ag.) Horticulture
(Fruit Science and PHT) from SHUATS (U.P.) in 2018. She did her Ph. D. in Horticulture (Fruit
Science) from SHUATS (U.P.) in 2023. She received a “Certificate of Merit” for securing First
Recent Approaches in
Agriculture
Position in the Master of Horticulture (Fruit Science and Post-harvest Technology) in the year
2018 and has also received a “Certificate of Honor” for securing First Position and being
awarded Silver Medal in the Master of Horticulture (Fruit Science and Post-harvest technology) programme of
the Faculty of Agriculture in the year 2018. Currently, teaching Faculty in Departmental of Horticulture,
SHUATS.
Mr. Halavath Sai Kumar, completed his B.Sc. Agriculture from VNMKV,Parbhani and
M.Sc.(Ag) in Genetics and Plant Breeding from Naini Agricultural Institute, Shuats
Prayagraj,U.P. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D. from NAI,Sam Higginbottom University of
Agricultural, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj with National Fellowship NFST, and he
Mayurakshee Mahanta Vol. 2
received the “Best Research Scholar” Award at the 3rd International Conference, GIAFAS- Shilpa Rana
2021, and the “Young Scientist” Award at the First International Conference, GIRISDA-2022.
Halavath Sai Kumar

Halavath Sai Kumar • D. Gokul • Sangavi R

Mr. D. Gokul has completed his B.Sc., (Agri.) at AC&RI, Eachangkottai, TNAU and M.Sc.,

Mayurakshee Mahanta • Shilpa Rana

(Agri.) in the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry at Faculty of Agriculture,
Annamalai University during 2018 and 2020 respectively. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D., D. Gokul
degree programme in Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of
Agriculture, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu. He got the Best Poster Presentation Award in
RSHNRMC, 2022 and the Dr. APJ. Abdul Kalam Young Scientist Award in PCAS, 2022.
Sangavi R
Sangavi R, completed her B.Sc. in Agriculture from Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture,
Pollachi under TNAU, Coimbatore in 2015, completed her M.Sc. Agriculture (Entomology)
from Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore in 2017 under Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore and PhD in Agricultural Entomology in 2020 from N. M.
College of Agriculture, Navsari under NAU, Navsari. She has qualified ICAR-NET in 2018.
Presently, she is working as an Assistant professor, Department of Entomology, at
Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Pollachi under TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

ISBN 978-93-58995-97-8

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Recent Approaches in Agriculture
Volume 2

Mayurakshee Mahanta
Shilpa Rana
Halavath Sai Kumar
D. Gokul
Sangavi R

Elite Publishing House

Copyright © 2023, Elite Publishing House

All rights reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or used in any
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First Edition 2023

ISBN : 978-93-58995-97-8

Published by:

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A-10/28, Sector - 18, Rohini, New Delhi - 110089
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 Contents

Acknowledgement vii
Preface ix
1 Advance Irrigation Technologies for Efficient Water 1
Management
Chaudhari Priya, Chaudhri Karuna, Patel Krutika
and Patange Mamta
2 Plant Breeding and Genome 14
Editing Technologies
Pravin Kumar K, Palaniyappan S and Santhiya S
3 Sustainable Agriculture: Practices and Innovations 35
Manojkumar Patil and Vaishnavi
4 Digitization and Data Analytics in Agriculture 51
Tushar Kumar, Seema Poomiyan, Niharika Vullaganti and Preeti
5 Biotechnology in Crop Improvement 71
Palaniyappan S, Jeevanapriya P, Pravin Kumar K and Akilan M
6 Organic Farming: Principles and Techniques 86
Navanath Nayak, Hrishikesh Nath, Alam Hazarika
and Angadi S S
7 Integrated Pest Management: Strategies for Effective 105
Control
S. Geerthana and Ramya, A.R.
8 Conservation Agriculture: Enhancing Soil Health and 118
Productivity
Pratishruti Behera, Tilak Prasad Panika and Hiren Das
9 Agricultural Robotics and Automation 140
Vaishali Thakur, Rebecca Nelson, Priyanka Sharma and Rachna
10 Vertical Farming: Hydroponics 155
Navanath Nayak, Chereddy Maheshwara Reddy, Alam Hazarika
and Angadi S S

v
 11 Climate-Smart Agriculture: Mitigation and Adaptation 169
Strategies
Visakh R L, Arya S Nair, Anjitha A R and Revathi B S
12 Genetically Modified Crops 181
Santhiya Subramanian and Pravin kumar K
13 Remote Sensing and GIS in Precision Farming 205
Akshdeep Kaur and Neha Manhas
14 Nanotechnology Applications in Agriculture 215
Pradosh Kumar Parida, P. Pavithran, Karupakula Shirisha
and Maram Bhargav Reddy
15 Agriculture Waste Management 230
Geetika
16 Agroforestry: Integrating Trees into Agricultural Systems 246
S. M. Vinodhini, S. Manibharathi, G. Pavithra and S. Sakthivel
17 Urban Agriculture and Rooftop Farming 273
Priyanka Shrama, Rebecca Nelson, Vaishali Thakur and Rachna
18 Agripreneurship and Rural Development 289
D. Uttej, Sabbani Venugopal, Seepana Anil Kumar
and Chigilipalli Mounika
19 Post Harvest Technology and Food Preservation 297
Vasupriya Parashar and Geetanjali Chouhan
20 Agri-Tourism in India and its Potential to Increase 323
Farmer Income
Priyanka Shrama, Rebecca Nelson, Vaishali Thakur and Rachna
21 Role of Remote Sensing and GIS in Agriculture 335
Monitoring
Mr. Milind A. Khedekar and Mr. Babasaheb V. Gaikwad

vi
 Chapter - 14

Nanotechnology Applications
in Agriculture

Pradosh Kumar Parida1*, P. Pavithran1, Karupakula Shirisha2 and Maram Bhargav

Reddy2
1
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003, Tamil Nadu
2
Ph.D. Research Scholar (Agronomy), School of Natural Resource Management,
College of Postgraduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences (CAU-Imphal),
Umiam-793103, Meghalaya

Abstract
The use of nanotechnology to agriculture has the potential to significantly improve
productivity and food security worldwide. Nanotechnology, which manipulates
materials at the nanoscale (1-100 nm), provides creative ways to improve agricultural
practises. This chapter mentioned several strategies for using nanotechnology in
agriculture, including top-down and bottom-up procedures. Utilizing nanoparticles has
led to the development of new materials, enhanced nutrient utilisation, reduced abiotic
stressors, and smart fertiliser and pesticide delivery systems. Crop establishment,
weed management, stress reduction, and irrigation control are all crucial aspects
of nanotechnology. Furthermore, the development of nano biofertilizers and nano
sensors has the potential to revolutionize agricultural output and lower post-harvest
losses. The practical uses of nanotechnology in agriculture demonstrate how it
may transform conventional farming practices and support resilient, efficient, and
sustainable agricultural systems.
Keywords: Nanotechnology, food security, weed management, stress reduction,
sustainable farming.
216

Introduction
Crop growth and production are being impacted by a number of challenges that
the agriculture sector is experiencing globally. In recent years, significant advances
in agricultural science have been achieved to address the rising problems with the
current agricultural system and food security. Meeting the future food needs of
the world’s growing population is essential. In particular, nanotechnology has the
potential to provide effective solutions to the issues that farmers and stakeholders
face. In order to bridge the gap between bulk materials and atomic or molecular
structures, nanoparticles are of significant scientific interest. Over the past two
decades, much research on nanotechnology has been conducted, with a focus on its
possible applications in the field of agriculture. According to the US Environmental
Protection Agency, nanotechnology is the study of understanding and manipulating
matter at sizes between 1 and 100 nm, where distinct physical characteristics enable
innovative applications. According to Yadollahi et al., 2009, nanotechnology is the
control of morphology and size variation at the nanoscale level between 1 and 100
nm. It involves the synthesis, design, characterization, and application of assemblies,
tools, and systems. One nanometre is one billionth (10-9) of a metre, indicating
that technology is applied at this scale. The field of developmental research views
nanotechnology as a revolutionary technique. It involves a substance’s action at the
atomic, molecular, or macromolecular levels, where its characteristics are significantly
different from those at the bulk level (Potocnik, 2005). Similar to this, the final
nanoscale material’s physical, chemical, and biological characteristics are quite
different from the product’s original form. These differences are used extensively in
the development of novel materials with altered structures, improved instruments, and
more effective products. Due to the targeted and controlled release of agrochemicals
(herbicides) and the use of nanoparticles to relieve stress, research on the uses of
nanotechnology in agriculture, particularly in the field of agronomy, has a greater reach.

Approaches of Nanotechnology
Both top-down and bottom-up methodologies can be used to apply nanotechnology.
The top-down strategy uses physical methods to create materials with an agricultural
foundation. Most commercially available nanomaterials are created using top-
down approach principles. By reducing the size of bulk precursors by milling,
nanolithography, or precision engineering, nanoscale materials can be created (De
Azeredo, 2009; Sozer and Kokini, 2009). To create grain flour with decreased size
and improved water-retention capacity, a dry milling process is investigated. For
instance, a top-down strategy improves green tea’s antioxidant capacity (Shibata, 2002).
According to Sanguansri and Augustin (2006), green tea powder with a particle size
 217

of 1000 nm has enhanced antioxidant activity and improved nutritional digestion.

To build a product with the necessary specifications, the top-down technique
is used with devices based on nanotechnology. Similar to the top-down method,
sophisticated procedures are used to transform atoms into nanoscale materials. In
order to construct effective supramolecular assemblies, molecule pairs utilized as
building blocks must exhibit complementary attractive and repulsive interactions
(Sanguansri and Augustin, 2006). For instance, the synthesis of carbohydrates results
from the self-assemblage or clustering of casein micelles. According to Pathakoti et
al. (2017), the bottom-up strategy provides a greater potential for the synthesis of
nanostructures with fewer defects, enhanced identical chemical arrangement, and
improved organisation.

Fig. 1: Size of various materials (Neme et al., 2021)

Fig. 2: Approaches in Nanotechnology (Olafusi et al., 2019)

Nanotechnology in Agriculture
The tiniest possible particles, known as nanoparticles (NP), are handled by
nanotechnology, which aids in increasing agricultural output by solving issues
that cannot be resolved normally. Agriculture nanotechnology is concentrated on
218

research and application to address problems with agriculture and environmental

sustainability, crop enhancement, and increased production. According to Prasad et al.
(2017), nanotechnology is viewed as a tool that might be used to boost productivity
while also changing traditional approaches to analyzing environmental concerns and
studying the biochemical pathways of crops. Nano fertilisers, nano insecticides, nano
sensors, and other products are the results of uses of nanotechnology in agriculture. It
transforms traditional farming methods, making them more effective and sustainable.
Treatment of waste water, improvement of pollutant-contaminated soil, and reduction
of biotic and abiotic stress to increase crop production are other uses in agriculture.
Typical nanomaterials utilised in agriculture include,
• Mesoporous silica NPs
• Carbon nanotubes
• Quantum dots
• Metallic NPs
• Metal oxide NPs

Fig. 3. Applications of Nanotechnology in agriculture (Shang et al., 2019)

Nanotechnology and Agronomy

In order to address the problems that are frequently faced in agricultural production,
 219

the ideas of nanoscience and technology are now being investigated in the field of
agronomy. Since applied nutrients are sensitive to soil fixation and losses, fertiliser
usage efficiency is often poor. Similar to this, varied losses that occur to herbicides in
agroecosystems have an impact on their ability to suppress weeds. The development
of control release fertiliser and herbicide formulations as well as the reduction of
issues related to the application of agrochemicals are all made possible by the role
of nanotechnology in the field of agronomy. Since the last two decades, studies
on the creation of encapsulated pesticide formulations and prolonged fertiliser
administration have been done. Additionally, nanoparticles are used to lessen the
negative impacts of abiotic stress, such as drought, water logging, salt, etc., as well
as to lessen the loss experienced during the post-harvest period.

Nanotechnology applications in crop establishment

The key stage in a plant’s life cycle is seed germination. The capacity of NMs to
penetrate the seed coat and promote water absorption and utilisation eventually
improves seed germination and seedling growth by activating the enzyme system.
As an illustration, the use of Zn NPs considerably increases the germination of
seeds in several crops. It has been discovered that treating seeds with metal oxide
nanoparticles like TiO2 and SiO2 significantly improves seed germination in a number
of crops. Furthermore, applications of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)
promote seed germination in crops such soybean, maize, peanut, wheat, tomato, garlic,
and barley. NMs can boost the system, enzyme activity, and chlorophyll content of
photosynthesis, which will ultimately increase the overall plant growth.
The physiological use of nano-anatase TiO2 speeds up photosynthesis by
increasing the activity of the Rubisco enzyme, which may eventually improve crop
growth and development. The SiO2 NPs improve the capacity of photosynthesis by
boosting plant growth and the activity of the carbonic anhydrase enzyme. A novel
approach called seed nano-priming employs nanomaterials, mostly nanoparticles,
for seed priming. Since traditional seed priming mostly uses water (hydropriming)
or solutions containing nutrients, hormones, or biopolymers that adsorb on the
seed and might result in seed coating (or dressing), there is a significant difference
between seed priming and seed nano- priming. Suspensions or nano formulations
are the media utilised in seed nano-priming, and the nanoparticles may or may
not be absorbed by the seed. Even when nanoparticle absorption does place, the
majority is kept as coating on the seed surface. Such seed coatings can be used in
conjunction with fungicides or bactericides to guard against diseases in the field or
while the seeds are stored.
220

Nanotechnology in weed management

Higher doses of conventional herbicide formulations are used to make up for
environmental losses caused by adsorption, leaching, decomposition, surface run-
off, and volatilization (Schreiber et al., 1987). Encapsulation of active substances is
a smart delivery strategy that gives sustained weed control and extends regulated
release. Encapsulated formulations give longer weed control, greatly reduce the
need for herbicide use, and support the stability of active components (Pirzada
et al., 2020; Nuruzzaman et al., 2016; Kumar and Chinnamuthu, 2020). Junior et
al., 2017). Encapsulated formulations have been utilised to decrease soil residue
accumulation, phytotoxicity, and herbicide dose. A homopolysaccharide present in
cereal grains, roots, tubers, and fruits, starch has been used in a number of ways as a
polymer for smart release. Encapsulated herbicide formulations have been used to
prevent photodegradation of the active ingredient, decrease soil mobility, and slow
down leaching behaviour. Alachlor formulations containing ethyl cellulose have
decreased soil mobility and led to sustained weed suppression at low treatment rates.
An effective and prolonged time of weed control is achieved by encapsulated herbicide
formulations, which distribute active ingredients to the target environment in a
continuous manner while shielding them from environmental sensitivity. Long-term
weed control was achieved using ethylcellulose-based microencapsulated alachlor
formulations because they continued to exhibit increased herbicidal activity even
after 30 days of treatment (Sopena et al., 2007). Pérez-Martnez et al. (2001) and
Sopena et al. (2005). When compared to traditional formulations at a greater dose,
herbicide encapsulated formulations demonstrate the same herbicidal performance
at a lower dose.
Formulations with controlled release lessen the quantity of active component
released to the environment and their effects on soil residue accumulation. Due to the
continuous release profile over free herbicides, encapsulated herbicide formulations
also lower the quantity of herbicide residue in the soil (Peieria et al., 2014). In
conclusion, encapsulated herbicide formulations provide a smart and effective remedy
for herbicide losses due to the environment. Encapsulated herbicide formulations can
provide prolonged weed control and decreased environmental effect by encapsulating
active components into appropriate carriers and lowering herbicide needs.

Nano fertilizers
Effects of nano fertilizers in crops
Crop management experts have looked into using nanotechnology to boost
and maintain the yield of crops. Currently, agriculture research is making use of
nanomaterials and nanostructures including carbon nanotubes, nanofibers, and
 221

quantum dots as transporters and biosensors for improving nutrient use efficiency
and assessing the quality of soil and fertiliser distribution, respectively. The most
common methods for applying conventional fertilisers to crops are broadcasting or
spraying. The ultimate concentration of the fertilisers that reach the plant, however,
is one of the key elements that determine the manner of application. However, due
to chemical leaching, drift, runoff, evaporation, hydrolysis by soil moisture, and
photolytic and microbiological destruction, very little concentration reaches the
desired site. According to estimates, the applied fertilizers lost between 40- 705 of
their nitrogen, 80 - 90% of their phosphorus, and 50 - 90% of their potassium
content before they reach the plant, resulting in both long-term and short-term losses
(Trenkel 1997; Ombodi and Saigusa, 2000). With correct nutrition, nanoparticles are
meant to reduce the quantity of fertiliser used, lessen nutrient loss, and boost quality
and production (Sangeetha et al., 2021). Use of fertiliser substantially influences
how productive agricultural practises are. According to studies, the intensive use of
fertilisers to improve soil fertility determines crop yield linearly (Muhammad et al.,
2020). Nano fertiliser is a substance with a nanometre-size that enhances the supply
of nutrients to plants and their continuous release into the soil in a very regulated
manner. It reduces ground water pollution and eutrophication. By encapsulating
nutrients into nanoparticles, which is accomplished by three methods - nutrient
encapsulation within nano porous structures, coating of thin polymeric films, and
distribution in the form of particles or solutions of nanoscale sizes—nano fertiliser
can increase nutrient efficiency. Due to their tiny size, nanoscale fertilisers may be
able to access plant surfaces and transport channels, which might result in a more
efficient delivery of nutrients (Mastronardi et al., 2015).
For example, silicon dioxide and iron slag powder for maize, colloidal silica and
NPK for tomatoes, TiO2 for spinach, and fertilisers containing sulphur were utilised
to cultivate grapes (Sivarethinamohan and Sujatha, 2021). In order to reduce chemical
loss and environmental difficulties, fertiliser use with nanoscale transporters may be
exposed to a process in which the roots of the plant are anchored with the surrounding
soil contents and organic material (Dasgupta et al., 2015). Additionally, tomato,
pepper, and flower crops were grown using nano fertiliser made from banana peels
(Sivarethinamohan and Sujatha, 2021). Nanoscale fertilisers can lessen soil toxicity,
which lessens any possible negative effects associated with large dosages (Davari et
al., 2015). The possible negative effects associated with high dose are diminished
by nanoscale fertilisers as they lessen soil toxicity (Davari et al., 2017). According
to Naderi and Danesh-Shahraki (2013), such nano fertilisers slow down the release
of nutrients and prolong the time that fertiliser effects are noticed. Additionally, by
carefully regulating the usage of water and fertiliser, SiO2 and TiO2 nanoparticles
222

enhanced the action of nitrate and boosted plant absorption potential (Abobatta,
2018). Slow-release fertilisers containing sulphur nanocoatings (100 nm layer) are
helpful because the sulphur content is advantageous, particularly for sulfur-deficient
soils. The durability of the coating allowed for a slow, persistent release of the sulphur-
coated fertiliser while reducing the rate of fertiliser disintegration.
To address the needs of the soil and crops, sulphur nanocoatings or the
encapsulation and release of urea and phosphate would be helpful. Kaolin and
polymeric biocompatible NPs used in biodegradable, polymeric chitosan NPs (78 nm)
for controlled release of the NPK fertiliser sources such as urea, calcium phosphate,
and potassium chloride are other nanomaterials with potential applications (Wilson
et al., 2008; Corradini et al., 2010). In the management aspects, attempts are made
to restore soil fertility by releasing fixed nutrients, as well as to boost the efficacy
of applied fertiliser with the aid of nanoclays and zeolites. Abdel-Aziz et al., 2016
looked into the foliar absorption of chitosan nanoparticles that were nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium-loaded for wheat plants. The findings showed that
harvest index, crop index, and mobilisation index of the measured yield variables of
wheat increased significantly when wheat plants were cultivated on sandy soil using
chitosan-based nano fertiliser. Additionally, the nano fertilised wheat plants had
a lower lifespan than wheat plants that received regular fertiliser. Therefore, nano
fertiliser has advantages and mitigates the environmental effect associated with the
application of traditional fertiliser. However, depending on the kind of plant species,
development phases, and nature of the nanomaterials, different plant species will
respond to nano fertilisers differently.

IIFCO Nano Urea

The only nano fertiliser recognised by the Indian government and included in the
Fertiliser Control Order (FCO) is IFFCO Nano Urea. It has been created and patent
by IFFCO. One bag of urea may be efficiently replaced by the application of 500 ml
of nano urea. With the help of ICAR-KVKs, research facilities, State Agriculture
Universities, and innovative Indian farmers, it has been put to the test on more than
90 crops in 11,000 different sites. Nano urea is easily absorbed by plant cells when
sprayed on leaves since it passes via stomata and other openings with ease. It is
readily dispersed from the source to the sink inside the plant according to its needs
by the phloem. The plant vacuole stores unused nitrogen, which is gradually released
for proper growth and healthy plant development. The availability of Nano Urea
to crops is increased by more than 80% due to its small size (20–50 nm). Spraying
2-4 ml of Nano Urea (4% N) in one litre of water on crop leaves throughout their
active development stages is advised.
 223

Nano biofertilizer
Nano biofertilizer is described as the combination of biofertilizers like microorganisms
that are capable of fostering sustainable agriculture with the help of engineering
nanoparticles. In addition to nutrients, it also contains microorganisms that
enhance plant growth, such as Azola, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Beijerinckia,
Cyanobacteria, Pseudomonas, and Rhizobium, which aid in fixing atmospheric nitrogen,
phosphate solubilization, restoring soil nutrient richness, and converting insoluble
complex organic matter into simple compounds. The interactions between plants,
nanoparticles (NPs), and microorganisms (Azotobacter, Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
Rhizobium, etc.) may be taken advantage of by interactions like the beneficial
effects of biologically synthesised fertiliser (using microorganisms) in reducing
the NPs toxicity, the response of plants to nanoparticles, and the close relationship
between plants and nano-biofertilizers. As a result, the NPs enter plant cells via
the stomatal or vascular systems, which may stimulate metabolic activities in plant
cells and boost crop yield. The ability of microorganisms (algae, bacteria, yeast, and
fungus) to convert and mobilise nutrients in the rhizosphere from an unusable state
to a useable form has been observed. Due to several benefits including reducing
nutrient losses and controlling the delivery of nutrients to the plant, the entirely
biodegradable nano biofertilizer in agriculture has been viewed as a developing
alternative to conventional farming.

Fig. 4. Uses of Nano biofertilizer (Al-Mamun et al., 2021)

224

Nanotechnology in Stress Mitigation

Extreme temperatures, salinity, droughts, and other environmental degradation
with high levels of heavy metals are all effects of global climate change that have an
impact on crop growth and development (Pereira, 2016; Husen et al., 2016). Through
hormone modulation, plant enzymatic system activation, stress gene expression,
avoidance of water deficiency stress, and control of heavy metal transport and
absorption, nanomaterials reduce a variety of stresses in the plant system (Rajput
et al., 2021). Improvements in NMs can increase crop production in the current
unfavourable climate. According to the study, abiotic stress can be lessened through
nanotechnology.
By lowering oxidative stress and the excessive generation of ROS, NPs can largely
mitigate these negative effects (Aref et al., 2013). During the high-temperature stress
in tomato seedlings, TiO2 NPs boosted the energy dissipation of regulated PS II and
lowered the energy dissipation of non-regulated PS II, which ultimately promoted
the photosynthetic system (Qi et al., 2013). In addition to reducing oxidative stress
in chickpea, the treatment of TiO2 NPs also reduced membrane damage during cold
stress (Mohammadi et al., 2013). Under conditions of high temperature stress, NPs
enhanced crop development by modifying a number of physiological, biochemical,
and molecular processes. In squash and tomato plants under NaCl stress, SiO2 NPs
treatment boosted plant dry weight, seed germination, proline accumulation, and
chlorophyll content.
Foliar application of FeSO4 NPs increased the shoot dry weight, chlorophyll
content, leaf area, maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm),
and net CO2 assimilation rate in sunflower cultivars under salt stress, but it also
decreased the Na content in the leaves. Application of Mel-Au NPs, which are Au
nanoparticles made with melatonin, reduced the oxidative stress caused by Cadmium
(Cd) stress in rice and stopped the absorption of Cadmium. In addition, Mel-Au
NPs treatment reduced the expression of genes associated to metal transporters in
rice roots under Cd stress. Under Cd toxicity, ZnO NPs-based seed priming alters
the early development and improves the physio-biochemical and metabolic profiles
of fragrant rice.

Nanotechnology in Irrigation Management

Of the 143 million hectares of total agricultural land in India, over 70% is used for
rain-fed agriculture. Due to climatic unpredictability, the production of food grains
in rain fed regions, which account for 42% of the total, is constrained because of poor
water management. Superabsorbent nano-hydrogel appears to be a revolutionary
agri-input in the realm of nanotechnology that can absorb high volumes of water
 225

in a short amount of time and desorb the absorbed water under stress conditions in
order to solve such moisture scarcity. The most crucial characteristics of hydrogels
that enable widespread usage in rain-fed agriculture to reduce water stress are their
swelling behaviour and water absorption capacity. The presence of hydrophilic groups
in the polymeric network, such as acrylamide, acrylic acid, acrylate, and carboxylic
acid, is primarily responsible for swelling and absorption capabilities. When these
polymers are submerged in water, the acid functional group diffuses by osmosis into
the hydrogel’s structural backbone, where it reacts with hydrogen atoms to produce
positive ions. The length of the polymer chain is left with negative ions as a result.
The polymer chain must unwind and open up as a result of these negative charges
repelling one another. These then draw water molecules and use hydrogen bonds
to attach them. Hydrogels are referred to be super absorbents since they can store
400–1500 g of water per dry gram of hydrogel. An amorphous, gelatinous material
forms when these absorbents are combined with soil. They have the capacity for
prolonged cycle absorption and desorption. The hydrogels decompose after this
cyclical process, which can last between two and five years in soil.

Nanotechnology applications in Postharvest

In developed countries, food shortages of more than 40% occur at the trade and
customer stages (cereals, roots and tubers, pulses and oil crops, vegetables and fruit,
fish meat, and dairy), whereas in developing countries, food losses of more than 40%
occur at the post-harvest stage and processing point (Gustavsson et al., 2011; FAO,
2019). Unpreserved, freshly harvested, high-moisture yields may swiftly degrade
as a result of microbial attack. Nanotechnology and other more recent, innovative
methods can aid in reducing post-harvest losses. Using nano sensors, nanotechnology
may also be used to monitor grain quality (Bouwmeester et al., 2009). The sensors
can react to changes in the storage environment (temperature, oxygen exposure, and
relative humidity), degradation products, or microbial infection. They are also used in
response to the presence of insects or fungus in grain that has been stored. Polymer
nanoparticles have been used to create nano sensors for grain quality monitoring
that react to volatile substances and other analytes in a setting of stored food and can
therefore identify the type of decomposition occurring and its source (Neethirajan
and Jayas, 2011).

Conclusion
Agriculture has only recently begun to use nanotechnology. Inconsistent findings
regarding the mechanism of NP biosynthesis, its cellular uptake and mobilisation in
the plant system, and factorial analyses of their connection with biological systems,
however, have increased the need for thorough understanding in this area to design
226

safe and effective NPs. When it comes to accurate and efficient exposure and risk
assessment for a sustainable environment, it is crucial to recognise and fill the
knowledge gap regarding the destiny and effects of NPs. The problems and potential
associated with using nano-agricultural inputs in comparison to existing solutions
should be the main focus of a fair and acceptable evaluation. To comprehend NP
stress in biological systems that cause biomolecular and physiological reactions,
comprehensive proteome and metabolomic methods must be developed. Systems in
specific fields, like the soil-plant framework in agriculture, which is frequently seen
as the sink for NP accumulation, should serve as the model framework for studies
on toxicity and risk assessment because the water-soil-plant interface corresponds
to the functioning of the sustainable food chain and ecosystem. To evaluate nano-
formulations in light of the benefits and drawbacks across the whole life cycle of
new or existing goods, novel science-based techniques are essential.

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