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Essence of Horticulture
About the Authors
Dr. Manjunath S. Patil was born in 1980 at Hubli District of

Karnataka State in India. He completed his bachelor degree in
Horticulture with distinction from the Mahatma Phule Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Rahuri in 2002. He completed Master Degree in
Horticulture obtaining first rank with gold medal from the University
of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad in 2004. He completed his doctoral
degree in Horticulture in 2008 with first class from the University of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. For his dissertation he worked on
Breeding and development of molecular markers linked to bacterial blight resistance in
anthurium (Anthurium andreanum Lind.). He was awarded with University merit
scholarship for Master’s and Devki Devi Ahuja award Doctoral degree programmes.
Initially he worked as Senior Research Fellow at the Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Hessaraghatta, Bengaluru in a CSIR project on Development of molecular
markers for bacterial blight resistance. Presently he is working as Assistant Professor of
Horticulture at College of Horticulture, Pune, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri,
Maharashtra, India from 2009 to till date. During this period he taught courses like Plant
Propagation and Nursery Management, Commercial Floriculture, Ornamental
Horticulture, Landscape Gardening, Breeding of flower crops, Commercial floriculture,
Value addition in flowers for Under Graduate and Post Graduate students in Horticulture.
He also guided 6 students as Chairman or member of Advisory Committee for Post
Graduate Degree Programmes. So far he has published more than 20 research articles
apart from co-authoring a text book on Strategies for In vitro conservation of Gladiolus
published by Lambert Academic Press, Germany, edited a chapter on Biodiversity of
Anthurium, Daya Publishing House.
Dr. Anil R. Karale was born in 1954 at Satara District of Maharashtra
State in India. He completed his Bachelor degree in Agriculture with
first class from the Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri in
1975. He completed Master degree in Horticulture obtaining first
class in 1977 and Doctoral degree in Horticulture in 1997 from the
same university. He acted as Co-course Director, CAS trainings at
Rahuri. He was superannuated as Associate Dean, College of
Agriculture, Pune, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri,
Maharashtra, in 2014. During this period he taught courses like Breeding of fruit crops,
Plant Propagation and Nursery Management, Commercial Floriculture, Protected
Floriculture, etc. for Under Graduate and Post Graduate and Ph.D. students in
Horticulture. He was associated with the development of pomegranate varieties like
G-137, P-26, Mridula, Phule Arakata, Bhagwa. So far he has handled more than 3
research projects on various aspects of Horticulture and published more than 60 research
articles. He acted as PI of ICAR Ad-hoc Project Improvement of Tamarind by selection
and Niche Area of Excellence, Hi-Tech Floriculture Project. He also guided 24 students
as Chairman or member of Advisory Committee for post graduate and Ph.D. degree
programmes. So far he has published more than 140 popular articles, apart from he had
written 8 books, 44 book chapters, 18 radio talks, etc.
Dr. Chintamanrao D. Badgujar was born in 1960 at Bhatkhede
District. Jalgaon of Maharashtra State in India. He completed his
bachelor degree in Agriculture with distinction from the Mahatma
Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri in 1982. He completed Master
Degree in Horticulture with distinction in 1986 and doctoral degree
in Horticulture in 2000 with distinction from the same university.
For his dissertation he worked on Exploitation of gynoecy in
cucumber. He was awarded with University merit scholarship for
Bachelor degree and Master’s degree programmes. Initially he worked as Junior Research
Assistant at the Agricultural School, Dhule. There after he worked as Senior Research
Assistant at AICRP on Banana, Banana Research Station, Jalgaon. Presently he is
working as Assistant Professor of Horticulture at NARP, Ganeshkhind, Pune, India
from 1984 to till date. During this period he taught Horticulture courses to Agril. Diploma
students, during 2008 to 2010 and from 2014 to till date he taught Horticulture courses
to B.Sc. (Horticulture) Students from College of Horticulture, Pune. During remaining
period he worked on Banana on crop improvement, production technology. He is
associated with development of 17 technologies in banana and development of two
hybrid varieties viz. Krishna and Phule Prachi in brinjal and cucumber respectively. He
also guided 10 students as member of Advisory Committee for post graduate degree
programme. So far he has published more than 50 research articles, 31 abstracts, 25
technical papers and 14 technical bulletins. He has delivered 50 radio talks and 43 TV
talks. He has published more than 380 popular articles. So far he has handled more than
3 research projects on various aspects of banana. He is also the recipient of prestigious
award from Bharat Krushak Samaj, Maharashtra in 2013.
Dr. J. Dinakara Adiga was born in 1969 at Udupi District of
Karnataka State in India. He completed his bachelor degree in
Horticulture with distinction from the University of Agricultural
Sciences, Bangalore in 1990. He completed Master Degree in
Horticulture obtaining first rank with three gold medals from the
same University in 1993. He completed his doctoral degree in
Horticulture in 1997 scoring highest marks with distinction from the
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. For his dissertation
he worked on Standardizing the technology for in vitro clonal propagation of Singapore
jack (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) using tree explants. He was awarded with University
merit scholarship for Master’s and Doctoral degree programmes. Initially he worked as
Research Associate at the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore in a project on
Development of hybrid pomegranate with high yield and good consumer preference.
Later he worked as Assistant Horticulturist at Central Coffee Research Institute,
Karnataka, India, wherein he was involved in projects on genetic improvement and
propagation of coffee. Further, he worked as Assistant Professor of Horticulture at Kittur
Rani Chennamma College of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad,
Karnataka, India from 2000 to 2007. During this period he taught courses like Plant
Propagation, Nursery Management, Horticultural Biotechnology, Growth and
Development of Horticultural Crops, Growth Regulators in Horticulture, Commercial
Floriculture, Ornamental Horticulture, Tissue culture and Green House Technology for
Under Graduate and Post Graduate students in Horticulture. He also guided 15 students
as Chairman or member of Advisory Committee for post graduate programmes. He was
also a member of expert committee for sanction of financial assistance to farmers of
Belgaum district of Karnataka under National Horticulture Mission Programme of
Government of India. He also served as assistant editor of Journal of Asian Horticulture
and Journal of Floriculture. Presently, he is working as Senior Scientist (Horticulture-
Fruit Science) at Directorate of Cashew Research (Indian Council of Agricultural
Research), Puttur, Karnataka, India, wherein he is working on projects like Genetic
Improvement of Cashew, Root stock studies in Cashew, Effect of Paclobutrazol in Cashew
and Performance of High Yielding Varieties under different High Density Planting
Systems in Cashew. He is also guiding students for Doctoral degree programmes. So far
he has handled more than 10 research projects on various aspects of Horticulture and
published more than 50 research articles apart from co authoring a text book on Strategies
for In vitro conservation of Gladiolus published by Lambert Academic Press, Germany.
He is also the recipient of Prof. P.B. Patil memorial award in Fruit Sciences for the year
2015.
Essence of Horticulture
FOR ICAR EXAMS, AIEEA-PG, JRF, SRF, ARS, NET, SET
SAU’s, UPSC AND ALLIED AGRICULTURAL EXAMINATIONS
M.S. Patil
Assistant Professor of Horticulture
College of Agriculture, Pune-411005 (Maharashtra)
A.R. Karale
Ex. Associate Dean and Principal
College of Horticulture, Pune-411005 (Maharashtra)
C.D. Badgujar
Assistant Professor of Horticulture
NARP, Ganeshkhind, Pune-412007 (Maharashtra)
J.D. Adiga
Professor of Fruit Science
College of Horticulture, UHS, Campus GKVK, Bengaluru-560065 (Karnataka)
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Preface
A secret of life is not just enjoyment but
getting education through experience
— Swami Vivekananda
Most of the Agricultural Universities, Institutes, Organizations and Government selection
agencies have made competitive examinations as the basis for choosing candidates. The
questions asked in these examinations are of objective type, large in number and of
varied nature. It requires quick answering within a specified period of time to secure
high merit and assured success.
The aspirants have to search a lot of printed and e-material to cover each topic of syllabus
thoroughly. This is so because there is hardly any high quality book available on
horticulture that covers the entire syllabus of this subject for competitive examinations.
Keeping this in mind, a sincere effort has been made to write this book named ‘Essence
of Horticulture’ covering various branches of horticulture. This book contains quite an
adequate material for seven Divisions of Horticulture, namely, Fruit science, Vegetable
science, Floriculture and Landscape Gardening, Plantation crops, Spices and
Condiments, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Post Harvest Technology.
The book has been written keeping in view the pattern of different horticulture/
agriculture competitive entrance examinations viz. JRF, SRF, ARS, ASRB, NET & Ph.D.
(Horticulture). We hope that this book will be useful for U.G, P.G. and Ph.D. horticulture
students, teachers and horticulture people across the country.
Special appreciation is expressed to the many contributors who have helped and
contributed in providing the questions from different divisions and for their helpful
suggestions during the preparation of the manuscript. We are thankful to Dr. V.K.
Garande, Mr. C.Y. Dhumal, Dr. Manoj Nazir, Dr. P. Pavan Kumar from various disciplines
of Horticulture for their help and valuable suggestion. We also thank to New India
Publishing Agency to bring the excellent format of this book.
We have attempted to bring this information as much as possible but all the information
available on the subject cannot be presented in a text of this size. This presentation is our
compromise.
We will feel more satisfied if this book can serve the purpose of students to succeed in
various competitive examinations.
All suggestions for future improvement for this book will be greatly solicited.
Pune M.S.Patil
A.R. Karale
C.D. Badgujar
J.D. Adiga
Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................. vii
A. General Horticulture ............................................................................ 1
B. Fruit Science ........................................................................................49

1. General pomology ........................................................................................ 49
2. Classification of fruit crops ........................................................................... 69
3. Actinidiaceae (Kiwi fruit) ............................................................................... 82
4. Anacardiaceae / Poison Ivy Family .............................................................. 83
(Mango, Cashew nut, Charoli, Pistachio nut)
5. Annonaceae (Custard apple) ...................................................................... 101
6. Apocynaceae (Karonda) ............................................................................. 103
7. Aracaceae (Palmae) (Date palm) ............................................................... 104
8. Bombaceae (Durian) ................................................................................... 107
9. Bromeliaceae (Pineapple) ........................................................................... 108
10. Cactacae (Dragon fruit) ................................................................................ 113
11. Caricaceae (Papaya) ................................................................................... 114
12. Clusiaceae / Guttiferae (Kokum, Mangosteen) ........................................... 120
13. Ebenaceae (Persimmon) ............................................................................ 122
14. Ericaceae (Cranberry) ................................................................................. 124
15. Juglandaceae (Walnut, Pecan nut) ............................................................. 124
16. Lauraceae (Avocado) .................................................................................. 126
17. Leguminosae (Tamarind) ............................................................................. 128
18. Malphigiaceae (West Indian cherry) ........................................................... 129
19. Moraceae (Fig, Jackfruit) ............................................................................ 129
20. Musaceae (Banana) ................................................................................... 135
21. Myrtaceae (Guava, Jamun) ......................................................................... 149
22. Oleaceae (Olive) ......................................................................................... 155
23. Oxalidaceae (Carambola) ........................................................................... 156
24. Passifloraceae (Passion fruit) ..................................................................... 157
25. Phyllanthaceae / Euphorbiaceae (Aonla) .................................................... 158
26. Proteaceae (Macadamia nut) ..................................................................... 161
Contents / x
27. Punicaceae / Lythraceae (Pomegranate) ................................................... 161

28. Rhamnaceae / Buck Thorn Family (Ber) .................................................... 165
29. Rosaceae (Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Cherry, Apricot, Almond,
Strawberry, Loquat, Quince) ....................................................................... 167
30. Rutaceae (Citrus fruits, Viz. Mandarin orange, Sweet orange, Limes
and Lemons, Pummelo, Grapefruit, Bael, Woodapple) .............................. 194
31. Sapindaceae (Litchi, Rambutan) ................................................................ 212
32. Sapotaceae (Sapota, Khirni, Mahua, Egg fruit) .......................................... 216
33. Tiliaceae (Phalsa) ....................................................................................... 219
34. Vitaceae (Grape) ........................................................................................ 220
35. Post-harvest diseases of fruit crops ............................................................ 234
36. Chemicals used to extend shelf life of fruit crops ....................................... 235
37. Storage temperature, relative humidity and storage life of fruit crops .......... 236
38. Other underutilized fruit crops ..................................................................... 236
C. Vegetable Science ............................................................................. 239

1. General olericulture ..................................................................................... 239
2. Vegetable gardening ................................................................................... 242
3. Protected cultivation of vegetable crops ..................................................... 242
4. Vegetable grafting ....................................................................................... 244
5. Classification of vegetables crops ............................................................... 245
6. Breeding methods followed in vegetable crops ........................................... 261
7. Amaranthaceae (Amaranthus) .................................................................... 265
8. Alliaceae (Onion, Garlic, Leek, Shallot, Aggregatum onion,
Welsh onion) .............................................................................................. 267
9. Apiaceae (Carrot, Celery) ........................................................................... 279
10. Araceae (Elephant foot yam, Taro) ............................................................. 285
11. Asteraceae (Lettuce, Parsley, Globe artichoke, Jerusalem artichoke) ....... 287
12. Basellaceae (Basella) ................................................................................. 290
13. Chenopodiaceae (Garden beet, Palak, Spinach, Chakwat) ........................ 290
14. Convolvulaceae (Sweet potato) ................................................................... 294
15. Cruciferae (Cabbage, Cauliflower, Sprouting broccoli, Radish, Knol khol,
Turnip, Brussels sprout, Kale, Chinese cabbage, Horse radish, Collard,
Karam sag) ................................................................................................. 298
16. Cucurbitaceae (Cucumber, Watermelon, Muskmelon, Roundmelon,
Longmelon, Snap melon, Other melon, Bottle gourd, Bitter gourd,
Snake gourd, Pointed gourd, Ash gourd, Ridge gourd, Sponge gourd,
Pumpkin, Chow chow, Sweet gourd, Ivy gourd, Summer squash,
Winter squash) ........................................................................................... 320
Contents / xi
17. Dioscoreaceae (Yam) ................................................................................. 347

18. Euphorbiaceae (Tapioca, Chekurmanis) ..................................................... 349
19. Labiatae (Coleus) ........................................................................................ 353
20. Fabaceae (Fenugreek) ................................................................................ 353
21. Leguminosae (Garden pea, French bean, Cowpea, Cluster bean,
Dolichos bean, Lima bean, Broad bean, Winged bean, Yam bean,
Soy bean, Teasel bean, Velvet bean, Sword bean and other
minor beans) ............................................................................................... 354
22. Lilliaceae (Asparagus) ................................................................................ 371
23. Malvaceae (Okra)........................................................................................ 372
24. Moringaceae (Drumstick) ............................................................................ 376
25. Polygonaceae (Rhubarb, Sorrel) ................................................................. 377
26. Portuaceae (Cylon spinach) ....................................................................... 378
27. Solanaceae (Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Capsicum, Potato) ............................. 378
28. Other minor vegetable crops ....................................................................... 410
29. Use of PGRs in vegetable crops .................................................................. 411
30. Seed production in vegetable crops ............................................................ 412
31. Post harvest technology of vegetable crops ............................................... 415
32. Mushrooms ................................................................................................. 416
D. Floriculture and Landscape Architecture ........................................ 419

1. General floriculture ...................................................................................... 419
2. Modes of pollination of flower crops ............................................................ 425
3. Propagation of ornamental crops ................................................................ 426
4. Principles of gardening ............................................................................... 430
5. History of gardens ...................................................................................... 432
6. Flower arrangement .................................................................................... 437
7. Annuals....................................................................................................... 440
8. Shrubs ........................................................................................................ 444
9. Climbers ..................................................................................................... 446
10. Trees ........................................................................................................... 448
11. Palms ......................................................................................................... 453
12. Hedge ......................................................................................................... 454
13. Edge ........................................................................................................... 455
14. Bulbous plants ............................................................................................ 455
15. House plants / Indoor plants ....................................................................... 456
16. Topiary ........................................................................................................ 457
Contents / xii
17. Lawn ........................................................................................................... 458

18. Cacti and succulents .................................................................................. 460
19. Bonsai ........................................................................................................ 462
20. Bio-aesthetic planning ................................................................................ 463
21. Oil extraction .............................................................................................. 463
22. Acanthaceae (Crossandra) ......................................................................... 465
23. Agavaceae (Tuberose) ................................................................................ 466
24. Alstromeriaceae (Alstromeria) .................................................................... 467
25. Amaranthaceae (Gomphrena)..................................................................... 468
26. Amaryllidaceae (Amaryllis) ......................................................................... 468
27. Araceae (Anthurium, Calla lily) ................................................................... 469
28. Asteraceae (Chrysanthemum, Marigold, China aster, Dahlia,
Gerbera, Gaillardia, Zinnia) ......................................................................... 472
29. Caryophyllaceae (Carnation, Baby’s breath) .............................................. 483
30. Cruciferae (Stock) ....................................................................................... 487
31. Iridaceae (Gladiolus) ................................................................................... 487
32. Liliaceae (Lilium, Tulip) ............................................................................... 491
33. Malvaceae (Hibiscus, Hollyhock) ................................................................ 495
34. Musaceae (Bird of paradise, Heliconia) ...................................................... 496
35. Nelumbonaceae / Nympheaceae (Lotus) .................................................... 497
36. Nyctanginaceae (Bougainvillea) .................................................................. 498
37. Oleaceae (Jasmine) .................................................................................... 500
38. Orchidaceae (Orchids) ................................................................................ 502
39. Plantaginaceae / Scrophulariaceae (Snapdragon) ...................................... 507
40. Plumbaginaceae (Statice) ........................................................................... 507
41. Rosaceae (Rose) ........................................................................................ 508
42. Solanaceae (Petunia) ................................................................................. 516
43. Protected cultivation of flower crops ........................................................... 516
44. Post harvest technology of flower crops ..................................................... 518
45. Physiological disorders of flower crops ....................................................... 524
E. Plantation Crops ................................................................................ 527

1. General information ..................................................................................... 527
2. Aracaceae / Palmae (Coconut, Arecanut, Palmyrah, Oil palm) ................. 528
3. Euphorbiaceae (Rubber) ............................................................................. 539
4. Rubiaceae (Coffee) ..................................................................................... 542
5. Sterculiaceae / Malvaceae (Cocoa) ............................................................ 547
6. Theaceae (Tea) ........................................................................................... 549
Contents / xiii
F. Spices and Condiments .................................................................... 555

2. Classification of spices and condiments .................................................... 558
3. Apiaceae (Coriander, Fennel, Cumin, Asafoetida) ...................................... 560
4. Iridaceae (Saffron) ....................................................................................... 563
5. Myristicaceae (Nutmeg).............................................................................. 563
6. Myrtaceae (Clove, Cinnamon, All spice) ..................................................... 565
7. Orchidaceae (Vanilla) .................................................................................. 567
8. Piperaceae (Black pepper, Betel vine) ........................................................ 569
9. Rutaceae (Curry leaf) .................................................................................. 574
10. Solanaceae (Paprika) ................................................................................. 574
11. Zingiberaceae (Small cardamom, Large cardamom, Turmeric, Ginger) ...... 575
12. Other minor spices ..................................................................................... 581
G. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants .......................................................... 583

2. Medicinal plants ......................................................................................... 584
3. Aromatic plants .......................................................................................... 588
H. Post Harvest Technology of Horticultural Crops ........................... 599

2. Inventions and discoveries .......................................................................... 604
3. Food laws ................................................................................................... 605
4. Containers and packing materials .............................................................. 606
5. Post harvest management of horticulture crops ......................................... 607
6. Post harvest technology of horticulture crops ............................................. 613
7. Processing technology of horticulture crops ............................................... 614
A
General Horticulture
 Horticulture word derived from Latin word: Hortus meaning ‘Garden’ and
cultura means ‘cultivation’.
 Father of horticulture: Thomas Andrew Knight, John Lindley, Liberty Hyde
Bailey.
 1st artificial hybridization in fruit crop in world: T. A. Knight.
 Father of vegetables: L. H. Bailey.
 1st book in horticulture: Fruit growing in India: W.B. Hayes (1945) & related
to litchi.
 Export growth of fresh fruits and vegetables in term of value is 14% and of
processed fruits and vegetables is 16.27%.
 Contribution of horticulture sector to agriculture GDP (2013-14): 29%.
 India is largest producer of Coconut, Cashew, Tea and Spices.
 India ranks first in productivity of grapes, banana, cassava, peas, and papaya.
 India’s rank in fruit production: 2nd (1st Brazil).
 India’s rank in vegetable production: 2nd (1st China).
 India is largest producer of 1. Mango 2. Banana 3. Sapota.
 India is largest producer of 1. Onion 2. Potato.
 Per capita consumption of fruit (recommended): 184 g/person/ year.
 Per capita consumption of vegetable (recommended): 200 g/person/year.
 Per capita consumption of fruit (available): 70-80 g/day/person.
 Per capita consumption of vegetable (available): 220 g/day/person.
 Horticultural Society of India (HSI) was established in 1942.
 1st president of Horticultural Society of India (HSI): Dr. G.S. Cheema.
 1st Indian Horticulture Congress was held in 2004.
 Rainbow revolution: Over all horticulture production.
2 Essence of Horticulture
 Red revolution: Floriculture development.

 Golden revolution: Fruit production (Apple).
 Father of Golden revolution: Dr. K.L. Chadha.
 Dr. Harbhajan Singh is called as Indian Vavilov.
 Dual factor stimulus of flowering i.e. dual factor hypothesis was given by
Chakraborty.
 ‘KIRAN’- Knowledge Innovation Repository of Agriculture in the North
East.
 Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayas (HMNEH).
 National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA): Network
project of ICAR, 2011.
 Per capita availability of fruits (2011-12): 172 grams per day.
 Per capita availability of vegetables (2011-12): 350 grams per day.
 ICAR recognized 8 agro-ecological zones for effective land use planning.
 Planning commission recognized 15 agro-climatic zones for effective land
use planning.
 NBSS & LUP, Nagpur recognized 21 agro-ecological regions.
 Growing period of arid zone (90 days); semi-arid zone (90-150 days); sub-
arid zone (150-210 days); humid zone (210-270 days); pre humid zone (270
days).
 Defoliation causes maleness.
 Defloration causes femaleness.
 Broad leaved fruit trees suffer if temperature < 50C.
 Optimum temperature for most fruits and vegetables is 22-270C.
 Maximum temperature for most fruits and vegetables is 40-520C.
 High humidity leads to 1. Brown rot of peaches 2. Apple scab 3. Black rot
and downy mildew of grapes 4. Reduces photosynthetic activity.
 Spores of Lycopodium are commercially known as: Vegetable sulphur as
they used to cure stomach disorder.
 Cross pollination by honey bee is most effective and cheapest method of
enhancing crop yield.
 Honey bee spp. used for cross pollination: Apis cerana.
 In orchard, area under roads and buildings should not exceed 10% of total
area.
 Tree which shed their leaves in winter are called: Deciduous.
 Tree which shed their leaves in summer are called: Caudocous.
General Horticulture 3
 Highest antioxidants fruits: Blue berries, blackberry, strawberry, plums,

Rasp berries, Banana, Sweet orange, red grapes, cherries, kiwi fruit.
 Highest antioxidants vegetables: Black bean, kidney bean.
 India ranks 7th in micro-irrigation system.
 National Mission on Micro-irrigation (NMMI), launched in 2008 to enhance
water use efficiency.
 Plant Quarantine Act (DIP Act) became operational in year 1914.
 Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH).
 Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayas (HMNEH).
 Central Institute for Horticulture (CIH).
 Best combination of diversified horticulture: Floriculture + Apiculture.
 Krafts (German) are mostly made from Pinus rom.
 ‘Drupe’ type of fruit develop from superior ovaries.
 Carotene which contains -OH group is xanthophyll.
 Equilibrium Relative Humidity (ERH) of pure water: 100%.
 Water activity can be calculated by- ERH/100 (For water it is-1.0).
 NAFED is related to agricultural marketing.
 Factor for converting N2 into protein: 6.25.
 Term ‘neutraceutical’ was coined in 1989 by F. DeFelice.
 Sikkim Chief Minister Shri. Pawan Kumar Chamling: Greenest chief minister
of India.
 To test the residue monitoring plan for export purposes, APEDA has
developed systems viz. Grapenet for grape; Anarnet for pomegranate;
Mangonet for mango and Vegnet for vegetable crops.
Area, Production and productivity of horticultural commodities

(2014-15)
 For the 1st time horticulture contribution exceeded the combined production
of food grains and oilseeds in 2013-14.
 Production of horticulture crops (2014-15): 280.4 million tones.
 During 2014-15, India exported fruits and vegetables worth Rs. 7474.14
Crores which comprised of fruits worth Rs. 2771.32 Crores and Vegetables
worth Rs. 4702.78 Crores.
 State leading in horticultural area: Maharashtra> Karnataka> West Bengal.
 States leading in horticultural production: West Bengal> Uttar Pradesh>
Maharashtra.
 States leading in fruit crops: Area (Maharashtra> Andhra Pradesh>

Karnataka) and production (Maharashtra> Andhra Pradesh> Gujarat).
 States leading in vegetables crops: Area (West Bengal> Uttar Pradesh> Bihar)
and production (West Bengal> Uttar Pradesh> Bihar).
 States leading in plantation crops: Area (Kerala> Karnataka> Tamil Nadu)
and production (Tamil Nadu> Kerala> Karnataka).
 States leading in spice crops: Area (Rajasthan> Gujarat> Madhya Pradesh)
and production (Gujarat> Andhra Pradesh> Rajasthan).
 States leading in flower crops: Area (Tamil Nadu> Karnataka> West Bengal)
and production (Loose- Tamil Nadu> Karnataka> Madhya Pradesh) & (cut-
West Bengal> Karnataka> Odisha).
Area Production Productivity

(million ha) (million MT) (MT/ha)
Fruits 7.21 88.98 12.34
Vegetables 9.39 162.89 17.35
Flowers (cut) - 0.54 -
(loose) 0.25 1.75 -
Plantation crops 3.67 16.30 4.4
Spices 3.16 5.90 1.86
Medicinal & aromatic crops 0.49 0.89 1.82
Total horticultural crops 24.19 277.35 11.46
1. NATIONAL HORTICULTURAL INSTITUTES

 1st Regional Fruit Research Station in UP was established at Saharanpur.
 Indian Institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR), Bengaluru, Karnataka.
 Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi.
 Trust for Advancement of Agricultural Sciences (TAAS), New Delhi.
 Institute of Horticulture Technology (IHT), New Delhi.
 North East Institute of Science and Technology (NEIST), Jorhat, Assam.
 National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad.
 National Herbarium of Cultivated Plants (NHCP), New Delhi.
 Horticulture Produce Co-operative Marketing Society (HOPCOMS),
Karnataka.
 Indian Institute of Standardization has been renamed as Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS).
 ‘Mousam Bhavan’ is located at New Delhi.
 NARP was launched by Govt. of India in 1979.
Fruit science
Name of institute Location
Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Central Institute for Sub-tropical Horticulture (CISTH) Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
earlier Central Mango Research Station
Central Institute for Temperate Horticulture (CITH) Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir
Central Institute for Arid Horticulture (CIAH) Bikaner, Rajasthan
Central Institute of Horticulture (CIH) Mediziphema, Nagaland
Central Research Institute for Chikoo (CRIC) Muzzaffarpur, Bihar
National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB) Trichy, Tamil Nadu
Central Citrus Research Institute (earlier NRCC) Nagpur, Maharashtra
National Research Centre for Grapes (NRCG) Pune, Maharashtra
National Research Centre for Litchi (NRCL) Muzzaffarpur, Bihar
National Research Centre for Makhana (NRCM) Darbhanga, Bihar
National Research Centre on Pomegranate (NRCP) Solapur, Maharashtra
Vegetable science
Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI) Tiruvanantapuram, Kerala
Directorate of Onion and Garlic (DOG) Pune, Maharashtra
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR) Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
National Horticultural Research and Nashik, Maharashtra
Development Foundation (NHRDF)
Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR) Solan, Himachal Pradesh
Floriculture
Directorate of Floricultural Research (DFR) Pune, Maharashtra
National Research Centre for Orchids (NRCO) Gangtok, Sikkim
National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Institute of Himalayan Bio resource Technology (IHBT) Palampur, Himachal Pradesh
National Institute of Post Harvest Technology (NIPHT) Pune, Maharashtra
Orchid Research and Development Centre (ORDC) Bhalokpong, Arunachal
Pradesh
Medicinal and aromatic plants

Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (DMAP) Anand, Gujarat
Central Institute for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
National Aromatic and Medicinal Plant Board (NAMPB) New Delhi
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Station Odakkali, Kerala
Plantation crops
Central Coffee Research Institute (CCRI) Chikmagalur, Karnataka
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) Kozhikode, Kerala
Directorate of Cashew Research (DCR) Puttur, Karnataka
Directorate of Cashew nut and Cocoa Development (DCCD) Kochi, Kerala
Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development (DASD) Kozhikode, Kerala
Indian Institute of Oil Palm Research (earlier DOPR) West Godavari, Andhra
Pradesh
United Planters’ Association of Southern India (UPASI) Coonoor, Tamil Nadu
UPASI Tea Research Foundation (UPASI TRF) Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Central Arecanut and Cocoa Marketing and Processing Mangalore, Karnataka
Co-operative Limited (CAMPCO)
Cashew Export Promotion Council of India Ernakulum, Kerala
Central Coir Research Institute Kerala
Coconut Development Board (CDB) Kochi, Kerala
Coffee Board Bengaluru, Karnataka
Rubber Board Kottayam, Kerala
Tea Board Kolkata
Spices
Indian Institute of Spice Research (IISR) Kozhikode, Kerala
Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI) Myladumpara, Idukki, Kerala
National Research Centre for Seed Spices (NRCSS) Ajmer, Rajasthan
Spice Board Kochi, Kerala
Post harvest technology

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) Mumbai, Maharashtra
Central Research Institute for Post Harvest Ludhiana, Punjab
Engineering and Technology (CIPHET)
Central Food Laboratory (CFL) Kolkata, West Bengal
Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI) Mysore, Karnataka
Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) Mysore, Karnataka
Food Preservation and Canning Institute (FPCI) Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Food Research and Standardization Technology (FRSL) Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh
National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship Kundli, Haryana
and Management (NIFTEM)
National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing New Delhi
Federation of India ltd. (NAFED)
Public Health Laboratory (PHL) Pune, Maharashtra
Indian Institute of Integrative Medicines (IIIM) earlier RRL Jammu
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export New Delhi
Development Authority (APEDA)
Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology (IICPT) Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Other institutes
Central Plant Protection Training Institute (CPPTI) Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
National Research Centre for Integrated Pest New Delhi
Management (NRCIPM)
National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) Roorkee, Uttarakhand
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) New Delhi
National Bureau of Agriculturally Bengaluru, Karnataka
Important Insects (NBAII)
National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Kushmaur, Uttar Pradesh
Micro-organisms (NBAIM)
National Research Centre on DNA Fingerprinting NBPGR, New Delhi
CSIR Laboratory Palampur, Himachal Pradesh
National Centre for Integrated Pest New Delhi
Management (NCIPM)
Central Plant Protection Training Institute (CPPTI) Hyderabad
National Horticulture Board Gurgaon, Haryana

Indian Institute of Biodiversity Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh
Institute of Bioresource Management Manipur
and Sustainable Use
Central Fertilizer Quality Control Institute Faridabad, Haryana
& Training Institute
Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology Ranchi, Jharkhand
National Institute of Biotic Stress Management Raipur, Chhattisgarh
National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management Malegaon, Maharashtra
2. GLOBAL HORTICULTURAL INSTITUTES

Name of the institute Location
World Vegetable Centre (previously Asian Vegetable Taiwan
Research and Development Centre, AVRDC)
Association of Natural Rubber Producing Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Countries (ANRPC)
Biodiversity International (previously IPGRI) Rome, Italy
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Washington, USA
International Fruit Genetics (IFG) California, USA
Global Horticulture Initiative (GHI) Rome, Italy
John Innes Horticultural Institute (JIHI) England.
Horticulture Research International (HRI) Wellesbourne, UK
International American Spice Trade Associations Washington D.C., USA
International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS) Belgium
International Institute of Horticulture (IIH) Brazil
International Crop Research Institute for Semi-arid Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
Tropics (ICRISAT)
India Meteorological Department (IMD) Pune, Maharashtra
International Gene Bank of Coconut for South Asia Kidu, Karnataka
International Coconut Genetics Network (ICGN) Rome
International Coconut Gene Bank (ICGB) Indonesia, Brazil, Papua New
Guinea and Cote d Ivoire
International Coconut Gene Bank- South Asia (ICG) Kidu, Karnataka
Asia Pacific Coconut Community (APCC) Vietnam
International Cocoa Gene Bank (ICG) Trinidad and CEPLAC, Brazil
International Pepper Community (IPC) Jakarta, Indonesia
International Network for the Improvement of Montpellier, France
Banana and Plantain (INIBAP)

International Flower Market (IFM) Alsmeer, Netherland
International Potato Centre (CIP) Lima, Peru
International Rubber Research and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Development Board (IRRDB)
International Rubber Association London
World Coconut Germplasm Centre (WCG) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Institute of Enology and Viticulture Japan
Institute of Grapevine Breeding Germany
National Wine & Grape Research Centre Australia
French National Institute for Agricultural France
Research (INRA)
International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) Zurich, Switzerland
National Centre for Medium Range Weather New Delhi
Forecasting (NCMRWF)
World Cocoa Foundation USA
International Center for Underutilized Crops (ICUC) Sri Lanka
Taiwan Banana Research Institute (TBRI) Taiwan
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Nigeria
Honduran Agricultural Research Foundation (FHIA) Honduras
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Nairobi
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) Budapest, Hungary
International cut flower growers association USA
Association of Cut Flower Growers Haslett, USA
Association of Specialty Cut Flower Growers West College Oberlin, USA
Asia and Pacific Seed Association Bangkok, Thailand
International Protea Association South Africa
International Flower Bulb Centre Poland
International Bulb Research Centre Vennestraat, the Netherlands
International Fragrance Research Association (IFRA) Switzerland
3. HERBICIDES, FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES

 Systemic/ Selective herbicides: Atrazine, Butachlor, Glyphosate, Propanil,
MCPA, Pendimethalin etc.
 Contact/ Non-selective herbicides: Paraquat, Diquat.
 Pre-emergent herbicides: Alachlor, Butachlor, Triflurodine, Fluchloraline,
Oxyfluraline, Oxydiozone, Paraquat, Diquat, 2, 4-D.
 Post-emergent herbicides: Paraquot, Gramoxone, Glyphosate, Diuron,

Atrazine, Bromacil, Chloroxeuron.
 After Bhopal gas tragedy pesticide that was banned is Aldicarb.
 ‘Agent Orange’ is the code name for a herbicide and defoliant- contaminated
with TCDD.
 Herbicides having low residual toxicity: Diquat, Paraquat.
 Herbicides having high residual toxicity: Diuron, Atrazine.
 Bordeaux mixture, a fungicide was discovered by P.M. Millardet.
 Largest per hectare pesticide consuming country: Taiwan.
 Imported pesticides: Carbaryl followed by Chloropyriphos.
 Indigenous pesticides: BHC followed by Monocrotophos, Endosulfan.
 Maximum export of pesticide: Cypermethrin followed by Endosulfan.
 Insecticide Act: 1968.
 Total number of pesticides banned in India: 29.
 Pesticide banned in India for use in agriculture: Heptachlor and Maleic
hydrazide/ IBA and IAA/ Chlormequat chloride and 6-BA/ Chlorpyriphos
and triadimefon.
 Recently banned: Phospamidon
 Chitin inhibitors: Diflubenzuron
 Antiseptic: Zinc oxide
 Fumigant: Methyl bromide.
 Pyrethrum: Organic origin
 Principal producer of pyrethrum is Kenya.
 Synthetic pyrethroids are called 4th generation insecticides.
 Pyrethroids disrupt functioning of Central/ Peripheral nervous system.
 Allethrin / Divinyl pyrethrin: 1st synthetic pyrethroid.
 Most toxic insecticide group: Organo chlorine.
 Insecticide having maximum residual effect: Organo chlorine.
 Quickly decomposed leaving no toxic residues: Organo phosphorus e.g.
DDVP, Nuvon, Phorate, Malathion.
 Insecticide group having knock down action on insects: Synthetic pyrethroid.
 Ovicidal insecticide: Methomyl.
 Degradation of pesticide is maximum in clayey soil.
 1st truly anticoagulant rodenticide: Warfarin.
 1st indigenously developed fungicide: Contaf by Rallis.

 Father of nematology: N.A. Cobb.
 Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress grass) can be controlled by Zygogramma
bicolarata.
 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces toxin which act as natural insecticide.
 Myrothecium roridum LG7 fungus delignifies parthenium weed is isolated
from decayed wood.
 Nano-encapsulation: Improve insecticidal value.
4. PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS

1. Auxin
 Auxin name was given by Kogl.
 Avena curvature test and oat coleoptile test.
 Precursor: Tryptophan
 Nature of auxin: Acidic.
 Natural auxin: IAA
 Synthetic auxin: IBA, NAA, 2,4-D
 Synthesized in shoot and root tip, young expanding leaves.
 Glucobrassicin is a free auxin.
 Glucobrassicin is present in savoy cabbage.
Role
a. Polar translocation (apex to downward movement).
b. Apical dominance
c. Promotes or inhibit abscission of leaves, flower, fruits.
d. Stimulate cell elongation.
e. Promotes or inhibits growth of adventitious roots.
2. Gibberellin
 Discovered by Yabuta and Sumiki
 Precursor: Terpenoids (Mevalonic acid).
 Fungus: Gibberella fujikuroi.
 Foolish disease of rice.
 Synthesized in young leaves.
 Anti-gibberellin action: Paclobutrazol, Flurprimidol, Ancymidol, AMO 1618.
Role
a. Stimulate cell elongation, cell division (internode elongation).
b. Promotes seed germination i.e. more ratio of GA to ABA.
c. Tolerance to chilling
d. Induction of flowering in long day plant
e. Prevention of genetic and physiological dwarfism
f. Breaking dormancy (seed, tuber ad shoot)
g. Stimulates bolting in rosette plants.
3. Cytokinin
 Richmond Lang effect.
 Skoog and Miller coined auxin-cytokinin hypothesis
 Precursor: 5’-AMP (Isopentenyl group)
 Natural cytokinin: Zeatin
 Synthetic cytokinin: Kinetin, Benzyl adenine
 Synthesized in root tips
Role
a. Initiation of cell division
b. Delaying senescence (Richmond long effect)
c. Cell enlargement
d. Differentiation of cells (interact with auxin)
e. Induces flowering in short day plants
4. Abscissic acid
 Natural plant hormone.
 Stress hormone.
 Excess shade causes production of ABA.
 Strongest senescence stimulator.
 Precursor: Sesquiterpenoid pathway (Mevalonic acid)
 Synthesized at terminal bud.
Role
a. Bud dormancy
b. Stimulates closure of stomata
c. Induction and maintenance of dormancy
d. Induction of desiccation tolerance
e. Disease resistance
f. Protecting cells from dehydration
5. Ethylene
 Gaseous hormone
 Precursor: Methionine.
 Discovered by Gane.
Role
a. Stimulates shoot, root growth and differentiation.
b. Enhance latex flow in rubber
c. Stimulates leaf and fruit abscission (phytogerontological hormone)
d. Induction of flowering in pineapple.
e. Initiation of ripening in citrus, banana, tomato
f. Stimulates flower and leaf senescence
Chemical Active ingredient Common name Commercial use

- 6-Benzyl amino 6- Benzyl Senescence delayer, tillering
purine adenine agent
Ethephon/ 2-chloroethyl Ethylene Fruit ripening, sugarcane
Ethrel/ phosphonic acid ripener, colour enhancer,
Cepha gameticide, breaking seed
dormancy, sex changer,
enhance latex flow in rubber,
abscission agent
Plantgard 2,4-D (low- 2,4-D Control fruit drop, root inducer,
concentration) enhance fruit set
Cycocel, 2-chloroethyl Chloromequat, Lodging reducer, pigment
Lihocin trimethyl CCC former, delay senescence,
ammonium enhance fruit set, reduce plant
chloride size, tillering and branching
MH-30, 1,2 dihydro-3,6 Maleic Growth retardant, control spr-
Sproutstop pyridazinedion hydrazide out, suckers, & axillary buds.

GA3, Gibrosol Gibberellic acid Gibberellin Enhance germination & post
harvest life in apple. Increase
fruit size in grape, apple.
SARODEX, 3-indole IBA Rooting hormone
Rapid root, butyric acid
Quick root
Chamatkar, Mepiquat MC Enhance tuber and bulb
Whitegold, chloride growth, pod set, fruit set
Marvel
Round up Phosphonomethyl Glyphosate ---
glycine (low conc.)
Alar, B-nine Succinic acid- Daminozide Growth retardant, germination
2,2-dimethyl inhibitor, induce flowering,
hydrazine delay senescence, sex changer,
widely used in floriculture
industry
Combine, 22, 23 tetrahyd- Brassinolide Growth stimulant, grape berry
BR-120 roxy 24-methyl, along with growth enhancer.
6,7- lactone GA
Regine-8 2,3,5- tri iodo TIBA Growth enhancer, stimulant
benzoic acid
VIPUL, 1-hydroxy Tricontanol Growth stimulant
Mixatol, triacontane
Miraculan
Fruitone, 1-Napthalene NAA Root inducer, enhance fruit set,
Planofix acetic acid prevent post harvest fruit drop
5. NUTRITIVE VALUE
 Term ‘Nutrification’ is coined by Lachance.
 Most fruits and vegetables are not rich source of Vitamin B.
 World’s most nutritive fruit: Avocado.
 Cobalt is a component of Vitamin B12.
 Vitamin that is not found in fruits or vegetables: Vit B12.
 The major mineral present in fruits and vegetables: Ca.
 Vitamin C: Thermosensitive & antioxidant vitamin.
 Vitamin K1: Inhibit banana ripening.
 Folic acid 1st found in spinach leaves.
 Sulphur deficiency symptoms 1st appear on young leaves.
 Nitrogen deficiency symptoms 1st appear on older leaves.

 Iron deficiency is more common in fruit crops.
 Green leafy vegetables: Rich source of folic acid.
 Major mineral present in fruits and vegetables: Potassium.
 Vegetables are not rich in fat content which is less than 0.1% in most of the
vegetables.
 Highest potassium content in vegetables: 1200 mg/100 g.
6. MINERAL NUTRITION
 English word “Fertilizer” was derived from Latin word “Fertil”.
 Grey revolution: Promotion of manures and fertilizers.
 Average all India use of NPK (2015) is: 8.2 : 3.2 : 1.
 Essential nutrients: 17.
 Criteria of essentiality of nutrients: Arnon and Stout (1954).
 Nicholas (1961) proposed the term ‘Functional or Metabolism nutrients’.
 The concept of leaf sampling for nutrient sampling is given by Lutherd and
Smith.
 Estimated extent of salt affected soils in India: 17.42 Mha.
 Net arable land: 120 Mha.
 Loamy soil: Maximum microbial activity.
 Nutrient mobility concept: Bray.
 1st Agricultural chemist of ICAR: J.W. Leather.
 1st micronutrient discovered: Fe.
 Element found in meristematic tissue: Potassium.
 India ranks 2nd in fertilizer consumption.
 Most important source of cadmium (Cd) pollution: Phosphate fertilizers.
 India imports ‘K’ fertilizers mainly from Germany and France.
 Zn and Fe are compatible with each other.
 Fertilizers that is not produced in India: MOP.
 Basic nutrients: C, H, O.
 Macro nutrients: N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S (>100 µg/g dry matter).
 Micro nutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo (<100 µg/g dry matter).
 Best time of application of fertilizers: June and July.
 Fertigation: Application of fertilizers through irrigation.
 Herbigation: Application of herbicides through irrigation.
 Maximum fertilizer use efficiency: Fertigation.
 Soil sterilant: Copper sulphate.
 Micronutrients most widely deficient in Indian soils Zn and Fe.
 Denitrification occurs in waterlogged soils.
 Dry matter yield is increased with an application of nitrogenous fertilizers.
 The range of deficiency and toxicity is narrow in Mo micronutrient.
 Basic structure of plant: C, H, O.
 Plants absorb N in nitrate form.
 Toxic substance present in urea is Biuret.
 Biuret % in urea: 1.5%.
 Nitrogen form in urea: Amide & organic.
 Term C: N ratio was coined by Karaus and Kraybill in 1919.
 C: N ratio concept was given by Klebs (1913).
 Low C: N ratio: Promotes vegetative growth.
 High C: N ratio: Promotes flowering.
Classification Nature of nutrient Examples

Mobility in soil 1. Mobile NO3-, SO4 —, B, Cl, Mn
2. Less mobile NH4++++, Ca++, Mg++, K+, Cu++
3. Immobile H2PO 4——, HPO4—, Zn++, Pb
Mobility in plants 1. Highly mobile N, P, K, Mg, Mo
2. Moderately mobile Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, S
3. Immobile Ca, B
Functions in plants 1. Useful in energy storage, bonding P
2. As regulators and carriers K, Ca, Mg
3. As catalyst and activators Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu
Role and deficiency symptoms of minerals

Nutr- Role Deficiency symptoms
ient
N • Structural constituent of cell Chlorosis observed in older
• Vegetative growth leaves; stunted growth; late
• Delay maturity flower production
P • Growth & development of roots, Anthocyanin production
flowers, seeds & maturing fruits; in leaves
• Structural component of membrane system;
• Essential constituent of DNA, RNA,
NADP, ATP & ADP;
• Enhance nodule formation in legume crops
K • Opening & closing of stomata i.e. • Older leaves to new leaves
Osmotic regulation, • Necrotic spots in leaves
• Maintains cytoplasm pH
• Reduction of lodging of plants
• Improves colour, flavor & size of fruits,
• Formation of starch
• Sugar translocation
Ca • Maintain membrane integrity as 1st appear on shoot tip
calcium pectate
• Maintain chromosome structure
• Regulation of enzyme activity
Mg Constituent of chlorophyll, protoplasm 1st appear on older leaves,
& chromosome yellowing of leaf margin
S Constituent of cystine, methionine, Chlorosis 1st observed on young
stabilization of protein structure leaves
Fe • Key element of respiration, Interveinal chlorosis 1st observed
• Synthesis of chlorophyll & nucleic acid on younger leaves
• Reduction of nitrate & sulphates
Mn • Key element in respiration, ---
• Electron transfer in photolysis of water
Cu Oxidation-reduction reaction, ---
activity of ethylene in fruit ripening
Zn • Synthesis of tryptophan, RNA Short internodes, little leaf
• Essential for CO2 evolution and utilization symptoms
• Important for anaerobic respiration
B • Salt absorption & translocation, Corky area in cortex
• Pollen grain germination & growth Browning in core region
• Regulation of stomata opening Suppressed fruit formation
Mo Role in N2 metabolism, constituent of Yellow spots in leaves

enzyme- nitrogenous and nitrate reductase.
Helps in fixation of atmospheric N2 in
legume crops (nodule formation)
Cl Involved in O2 evolution in photosynthesis, -
turgor pressure in guard cells
Deficiency symptoms
1. Old leaves- N, P, K, Mg, Mo.
2. New leaves- S, Fe, Mn, Cu.
3. Old and new leaves- Zn.
4. Terminal bud- Cu, B.
Characterization levels of nutrients in soil and plants

Nutrient Critical level
Soil Plants
Sulphur 8.30 ppm <0.15-0.2 ppm
Calcium < 25% of CEC <0.2%
Magnesium < 4% of CEC < 0.1-2%
Zinc 0.6 ppm < 15-20 ppm
Manganese 2 ppm < 20 ppm
Copper 0.2 ppm < 4 ppm
Iron 2.5-4.5 ppm < 50 ppm
Boron 0.5 ppm < 20 ppm
Molybdenum 0.2 ppm < 0.1 ppm
Leaf nutrient analysis

Crop Index Stage Particulars Sample
tissue size
Acid Leaf September-October 3-5 months old leaf from new 30
lime flush- 1st leaf of shoot
Banana Petiole Bud differentiation Petiole of 3rd open leaf from apex 15
16th leaf stage or leaf lamina 20 cm2 in central
part of leaf
Ber Leaf 2 months after pruning 6th leaf from apex from secondary 40
or tertiary shoots
Custard Leaf 2 months after 5th leaf from apex 30
apple new growth
Fig Leaf April or August crop 9th leaf from apex 20

Grape Petiole Bud differentiation, 45 5 petiole from base for
th
200
(double days after pruning yield forecast
pruning)
Guava Leaf August or December 3rd pair leaf from apex 30
Litchi Leaf 6 months from 2 pair of leaflets from tip
nd
30
autumn flush
MandarinLeaf June 3-5 month old leaf from new 50
flush, 2nd leaf from base August-
October month from ambe bahar
Mango Leaf Recently matured leaf Vegetative shoot, 5 month old, 15
middle leaf in shoot
Papaya Petiole 6 months after planting 6th petiole from apex 20
Passion Leaf Leaf against first 6 leaf from apex
th
50
fruit open flower
Phalsa Leaf 1 month after pruning 4th leaf from apex 30
Pinea- White Recently matured leaf 4 leaf from apex white
th
50
pple leaf 2/3 part of base
rd
base
Pomeg- Leaf Bud differentiation in 8th leaf from apex 50
ranate April for February crop
Sapota Leaf September 10th leaf from apex 30
Fertilizers
 1st fertilizer used: Calcium nitrate.
 Preservatives used to decrease nitrogen losses in FYM and cattle urine:
Gypsum and super phosphate.
 The word compost is derived from the Latin word “COMPONERE” to
mean put together.
 Optimum C: N ratio of the composting material is 20:1 to 30:1.
 A typical compost earthworm is Eisenia foetida.
 The process of composting was first initiated in England during First World
War (1914 -1918).
 The Agricultural Development Company (ADCO) process of composting
was patented at Rothamsted Experimental Station, England.
 Activated compost process was developed by Fowler and Ridge in 1922 at
Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru.
 Indore process is developed in India by Howard and Ward at Indian

Institute of Plant Industry, Indore.
 Vermicomposting is done under thatched roof to protect worms against
rain and sun.
 Complex fertilizers: 2 or more essential nutrients.
 Nitrogen fertilizer for alkaline soil: Ammonium sulphate.
 Nitrogen fertilizer for acidic soil: CAN.
 Ammonium chloride: Not suitable for solanaceous crops.
 MOP is the best potassic fertilizer for improving the quality of potato &
tobacco crops.
 Olivin: Good source of Magnesium.
 Ca metal ion forms the most stable metal-EDTA chelate.
 Fertilizer Control Order (FCO) on 28th April, 1957.
 Fertilizer Movement Order (FMO) on 31st December, 1960.
a. Inorganic
 The 1st ammonia plant was established in 1913 by Fritz Haber and Carp
Bosch at Oppau, Germany for Badische, Anilin and Soda-Fabric A.G (BASF).
The process is called Haber–Bosch process.
 Ammonium sulphate: Oldest synthetic fertilizer.
 Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN): Hygroscopic, neutral and explosive
fertilizer.
 F. Wholer (German chemist), 1 st prepared urea in 1828 (Commercial
production started in 1922).
 Single super phosphate is the oldest artificially produced fertilizer and its
manufacture dates back to 1842, when Lawes J. B prepared for the 1st time
in England by treating rock phosphate with H2SO4.
 High performance of rock phosphate to supply P to crop plants is expected
in acidic soil.
 The Latin/ German word for the element with symbol K is “Kalium”. It is
derived from the Arab word ‘el-kali’ means ash.
 Potassium content of earth crust is 2.40 % whereas the content of phoshorus
is only 0.11%.
 All potash fertilizers viz., KCl and K2SO4 used in India is imported.
 Recently Geological Survey of India has reported the occurrence of K-
deposits in Leh (J & K) and Bikaner (Rajasthan).
 Potassium schoenite a double salt of K2SO4 and MgSO4 is recently being

produced on a pilot scale at Bhavanagar (Gujarat).
 Dolomite, Lime stone, Sand Coal, Ash: Filler material in fertilizer mixture.
 Dry herbicides: Mixture of herbicides + fertilizers.
 Ca content is maximum in burnt lime (70%) followed by hydrated lime
(50%).
 Mg content is maximum in magnesium oxide (45%) followed by kiserite
(18.2%).
 Sulphur content is maximum in ammonium sulphate (23%) followed by
potassium sulphate and gypsum (18%).
 Neem seed contains 0.2 to 0.3 % azadirechtin.
 Biogas contains 50-60% methane, 40% CO2 and H2.
 Largest source of sulphur: Volcanic eruptions.
Fertilizer N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

Anhydrous ammonia 82 - -
Ammonium sulphate 20.5 - -
Ammonium nitrate 33.5 - -
SSP (S- 12.5%) - 16 -
Mono ammonium phosphate (MAP) 11 48 -
Rock phosphate - 20-40 -
Basic slag - 14-18 -
Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) 25 - -
Muriate of potash (KCl) - - 60
Sulphur of potash (K2SO4) - - 50
b. Organic
 Concentrated: Bone meal, horn meal, blood meal, meat meal, fish meal,
Guano, Oil cakes.
 Edible oil cake: Ground nut, Gingelly cakes, etc.
 Non-edible cake: Castor cake, Neem cake etc.
 Best concentrated manure: Bone meal.
 Neem tree is regarded as a “village dispensary”.
Fertilizer N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

Urea 46 - -
FYM 0.75 0.20 0.50
Vermi compost 3.0 1.0 1.5
Groundnut cake 7.3 1.5 1.3
c. Biofertilizers and green manures

 Saprophytes- Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma.
 Symbiotic nitrogen fixing legume inoculants- Rhizobium, Actinomycets alni.
 In association with plants- Azospirillum.
 Free living organism- Azotobactor, Clostridium e.g. Vegetable crops.
 Term ‘Mycorrhiza’ was coined by A.B.Frank in 1885.
 Mycorrhiza increases availability of phosphorus.
 Hartig net is formed by ectomycorrhiza.
 Blue green algae: Also known as cyanobacteria e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc
(Heterocyst).
 Free water fern- Azolla.
 Phosphate solubilizers- Pseudomonas, Aspergillus, Bacillus, Penicillium.
 Ectotrophic mycorrhizae- Basidiomycetes.
 Endotrophic mycorrhizae- Glomus, Gigaspore.
 Sunhemp (Crotolaria juncea), Pillipesera (Phaseolus trilobus ), guar ( Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba ), Indigo ( Indigofera tinctoria) and Wild indigo (Tephrosia
purpurea): Drought tolerant legume.
 Dhaincha/ Koliniji (Sesbania aculeata): Flood tolerant, alkaline and water
logged soils.
 Fastest nitrogen fixing crop: Sesbania rostrata (stem nodule formation).
 Other crops: Glyricidia, Karanj, Tephrosisa, Indigofera.
d. Organic farming
 Austria: Leading country in world.
 Leading state in India: Madhya Pradesh.
 Organic state: Sikkim, Uttaranchal and Tamil Nadu.
Methods of farming
 Biodynamic farming: Aims to treat the farm as a living system.
 Rishi Krishi: Practiced in Madhya Pradesh.
 Natueco farming: Based on the principle of ecosystem networking of nature.
Regulatory mechanisms
 National Programme in Organic Production (NPOP, Ministry of commerce).
 NPOP launched in 2001 under FTDR act.
 NSOP: National Standards of Organic Production.
 Foreign Trade Development and Regulation Act (FTDR) is responsible for
export requirement.
 APEDA: Regulation of organic production and export under the brand name
‘India Organic’.
 Apex body of organic certification: National Accreditation Body (NAB).
 Indian Organic Certification (IOC) process granted at world level during
2004.
 National Centre for Organic Farming (NCOF) is located at Ghaziabad, UP
(Ministry of Agriculture).
 International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM),
conceptual support for a globally unified certification database.
 IFOAM (1972) is located at Bonn, Germany.
7. NURSERY MANAGEMENT
Types of nurseries
 It is a place where young plants are raised under intensive care for later
transplanting to field.
 Seeds Act and the Nursery Registration Act have been in operation since
December 1966.
 Nursery Registration Act is presently in force in respect of horticulture
nurseries only in the States of Punjab, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Jammu and Kashmir, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
 Only 30-40% demand of planting material is being met by existing
infrastructure.
 Temporary nursery- Flying nursery.
8. GREENHOUSE STRUCTURES
 Presently, China is the world leader in cultivating horticulotural crops under
protected condition.
 Polyhouses gives 5-6 times higher production compared to open field.
 Temperature differential between indoors and outdoors is greatest at roof.
 Glass houses are very popular in the Netherlands.
 ‘Sea of Plastics’, a 50,000 acre world’s largest complex of a series of
greenhouse is located at Almeria in Spain.
 Greenhouse structures should be designed to resist a 130 km/hr wind
velocity.
 Aluminum and hot dipped GI are comparatively maintenance free.
 Chromated copper arsenate and ammonical copper arsenate are water based
preservatives that are applied to the wood that may come into contact with
the soil.
 Red wood or cypress (natural decay resistance woods) can be used in desert
or tropical regions, but they are expensive.
 NCPAH: National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture,
1981.
 CPCT: Centre for Protected Cultivation, IARI, New Delhi.
 PDC: Plasticulture Development Centre.
 PFDC: Precision Farming Development Centre.
 Lux: Unit for measurement of light.
 Open roof green house was developed by Art Van Wingerden in 1990.
 Open green houses protect from rain and hail.
 Polyethylene film: Widely used in green house.
 Low cost or naturally ventilated green house: Suitable for cucumber.
 Walk in tunnel (low tunnel): Low cost, unheated, semi-permanent structures
e.g. cucurbits.
 Polyethylene having 150-200 µ (800-1000 gauge) thickness is generally used.
 Acrylic sheet is highly weather resistant and does not yellow with age.
 The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T2
film (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene). Anticipated life expectancy is 20 years.
The light transmission is 95% and is greater than that of any other
greenhouse covering material.
 Insect net proof houses used for virus free crop production: Tomato &
sweet pepper.
 Insect net: 40-60 mesh (free from viruses).

 Rain shelters: Protection tomato plants against the impact of heavy rainfall.
 The standard size of hot frame is 0.9 x 1.8 m.
 Multispan/ gutter connected green house: Most popular & oriented in N-S
direction.
 Reduction of green house temperature by using evaporative cooling method.
 In general, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.035%
(345 ppm).
 Optimum CO2 for crop yield: 1000-2000 ppm.
 CO2 should be injected only in day time.
 Plastic low tunnels: Off season vegetable production in open field condition.
 Shade nets are manufactured using HDPE (High density polyethylene)
having 25-75% shade.
 Coloured plastic mulch: Reduce insect damage.
 Yellow mulch: Repel whitefly.
 Black mulch: For soil moisture conservation & weed control.
 Plastic used in mulching has thickness about 8-10 or 10-25 µ.
 Transparent mulch (30-40 µ thick): Increase soil temperature (soil
solarization).
 Propagation benches for rooting of cuttings, grafting are maintained 6 0C
warmer than temperature for growing of crop.
 Hot beds: Used for growing small tender seedlings, rooting of cuttings.
 Cold frames: Used for hardening of rooted cuttings.
 Lath house: Provides shade to young tender seedlings or rooted cuttings.
 Role of mist chamber in polyhouse: Rooting of cutting.
 Net house: Suitable for cacti, succulents and orchids.
 Drip irrigation was developed by Simca Blass in 1959 in Isreal.
 Pitcher irrigation: Indigenous method of micro-irrigation.
 Area under micro irrigation system in India: 3.51 lakh ha.
 Maximum area under micro-irrigation system in India: Maharashtra
(94,000 ha)
 Maximum area under sprinkler irrigation system in India: Haryana.
 Application efficiency is 90 to 95%, compared with sprinkler at 70% and
furrow irrigation at 60 to 80%.
 Devised drip and sprinkler irrigation system saves water (30-50%), labour
(50%), fertilizer (30-40%) and increase yield (12-76%).
 Drip system: Operating pressure is 1.0-1.5 kg/cm2.

 Foggers: Operating pressure is 2.0-2.5 kg/cm2 and droplet size is <10 µ.
 Sprinklers: Operating pressure 2.5-3.5 kg/cm2 and droplet size is 0.5-4 mm.
 Mist chamber: Used for rooting of leaf cutting and droplet size is 10-500 µ.
 Most soil types use 2.0 lph emitters and are more economical. For sandy
soil use 4.0 lph emitters.
 Drip emitters: Most susceptible to clogging.
 About 10% pressure drop is permitted between two ends of laterals.
 For effective cooling distance between fan and pad: 30-60 m.
 1 ha = 2.47 acres = 10000 sq. m.
 1 acre = 43560 sq. ft. = 0.404 ha = 4.8 Bighas.
 1 gauge = 0.254 microns.
 1 kg/cm2 = 14.22 psi.
 1 HP = 746 watts = 632 Kcal.
 1 atmospheric pressure =14.7 psi =760 mm Hg.
 1 Calorie = 4.1868 J = 0.003968321 BTU.
 1 BTU = 251.9958 Calorie = 1055.056 Joule.
 1 bar = 105 Pascal = 105 N/m2.
 1 kg = 2.20462 pounds.
 10 pounds = 4.54 kg.
 1 Ounce = 0.283 kg.
 1 mile = 1.609344 km = 8 furlong = 1760 yards.
 1 furlong = 660 ft = 220 yards.
 1 yard = 91.44 cm.
 1 foot candle = 10.7639 Lux.
 Vitamin A (µg/100g) = Vitamin A (IU/100g) x 0.6
 1 ppm = Percent x 10000 = 1 mg/1 lit.
 Growing degree days: Daily temp. (max.) + Daily temp. (min.) ÷ 2 – Base
temperature.
 Heat unit is called differently as degree days, reminder index system,
cooling degree days total, thermal units, ithemal units and warmth index.
 French scientist, Reaumer (1735) 1st time calculated heat units.
 Arnold (1958) developed various methods to determine base temperature.
Crop Variety and heat units required Base

temperature (0C)
Litchi Shahi (1813), Calcuttia (1014) 15
Date palm 1800-2000 at Kuchh area of Gujarat 18
Grape Early maturing (1600-2000); late maturing (>3000); 10
Pearl of Casaba (1570-1600); Black Muscat (2080-2160);
Thompson Seedless (1600-2000); Gulabi (3508),
Anab-e-Shahi (3582)
Strawberry Regina (174), Talisman (215), Shasta (201) 06
Mango • Very early maturing (<1800) e.g. Himsagar, Bombay 01
Green, Alphonso, Krishna Bhog, Gulabkhas.
• Early maturing (1800-2000) e.g. Langra,
• Medium maturing (2000-2200) e.g. Vanraj
• Late maturing (2200-2400) e.g. Mallika,
Amrapali, Chausa, Totapuri
• Very late maturing (>2400) e.g. Hur, Baneshan
Ber Gola (1980-2236); Kaithali (2236-2566); Umran 7.2
(2516-2920)
Apple 2457-5756 7.2
Characters of cladding material

Type Durability Transmission Maintenance
Light Heat
Polyethylene One year 90% 70% Very high
Polyethylene UV resistant Three years 90% 70% High
Fiber Glass Seven years 90% 5% Low
Tedlar coated Fiber Glass Fifteen years 90% 5% Low
Double strength Glass Fifty years 90% 5% Low
Poly carbonate Fifty years 90% 5% Very low
9. SOILLESS CULTIVATION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

 System of growing plants in nutrient medium.
 Hydroponics derived from two Greek words: Hydro- water and ponos-
labour.
 Father of hydroponics: Dr. William F. Gericke.
 It was commercialized in 1960-70s.
 In India, 1st introduced at Kalimpong, Darjeeling, West Bengal.
 It has 3 methods: Water culture, Drip culture and Gravel culture.
 Drip culture/ Slop culture is also known as ‘sand culture’.

 Soilless culture: Growing plants in medium other than soil.
 Soilless culture techniques: Nutrient Film Technique (NFT), Tube culture
and Aeroponics.
 Nutrient solution with high phosphate level is usually not recommended
for water culture.
 Proper aeration is major key to success in hydroponics.
 Country having maximum area under hydroponics: Israel
 First crop raised in hydroponics in 1973: Tomato cv. Pipo.
 Suitable fruit crops: Strawberry, Raspberry
 Suitable flower crops: Capsicum, Cucumber, Gerbera, Rose,
 Nutrient film technique (NFT): True hydroponic system
 Plant roots are exposed to nutrient solution e.g. Tomato, Cucumber.
 Aeroponics: Plants grown in trough or container; roots are suspended and
sprayed with nutrient mist. It is suitable for short statured plant e.g. Lettuce
and spinach.
 Optimum pH of solution: 5.2-6.5
 Nutrient solution replaced once in 4-6 days interval.
 Aquaponics: Combined structure of growing fish and plants.
 International Working Group of Soilless Culture (IWGSC) was established
at Washington.
Media
 Rockwool was discovered in 1969 by Bovre and Knoblauch.
 Perlite and sphagnum pea moss holds 3-4 times its weight in water.
 Coco pith: Good drainage and porosity.
 Perlite: Neutral (volcanic origin) & fastest uptake rate of nutrients.
 Peat: Widely used & acidic in nature. It has good air and water holding
capacity.
 Vermiculite: Micaceous mineral; chemically hydrated magnesium aluminium
silicate. Rich in Ca and Mg.
 Rockwool: Aeration to roots.
 Sphagnum moss or peat moss: High water holding capacity.
 pH of sphagnum moss: 3.5-4.0.
10. AGRI-EXPORT ZONES (AEZs) OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Product(s) State(s)
Pineapple Tripura & West Bengal
Gherkins, Rose onion, Flowers, Vanilla Karnataka
Litchi Uttaranchal & West Bengal
Cut flowers, Mangoes, Cashew nut Tamil Nadu
Flowers Uttaranchal, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Sikkim
Mangoes, (Alphonso & Kesar), Grapes & grape wine, Maharashtra
Pomegranate, Banana, Oranges, Onion, Floriculture park
Mangoes, Mango pulp, Grapes, Chilli, fresh Andhra Pradesh
vegetables & Gherkins
Apples Jammu and Kashmir &
Himachal Pradesh
Potatoes, Onion & garlic Madhya Pradesh
Cabbage, Broccoli, Okra, Peas, Carrot, Baby corn, Punjab
Green Chillies, Green Beans, Tomato, Potatoes
Potatoes, Mangoes, Vegetables Uttar Pradesh
Litchi & vegetables Bihar
Mangoes & vegetables Gujarat
Potatoes, Mangoes, Vegetables, Darjeeling Tea West Bengal
Orchids, Ginger & Cherry Pepper Sikkim
Ginger & turmeric Odisha
Vegetables Jharkhand
Horticultural products, Medicinal plants Kerala
Fresh & processed ginger Assam
Medicinal & aromatic plants Uttaranchal, Kerala
Dehydrated Onion & Garlic Gujarat
Coriander, Cumin Rajasthan
11. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN HORTICULTURAL CROPS

 A right conferred for plant variety protection system is PBR (Plant Breeders
Right).
 Indian IPR protection of varieties: Sui generis means ‘a system of its own’.
 New plant varieties registered under this PPV & FR Act.
 Protection of Plant Varieties of Farmer’s Right Act, 2001.
 H.Q. of PPVFRA, New Delhi

 It is a kind of hybrid rights.
 Protection of new varieties: Novelty, Distinctness, Uniqueness, Stability
(N-DUS).
 Royal Horticulture Society Colour Chart is used in DUS testing.
 UPOV: International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of
Plants.
 H.Q. of UPOV, Geneva, Switzerland, 1968.
 UPOV, 2001: Granting to provide and promote an effective system of plant
variety protection.
 H.Q. of World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO): Geneva.
 According to UPOV, registration period for fruit & vine varieties: 25 years
while initial registration period is 15 years.
DUS testing centers

Crop Centres
Mango CISH, Lucknow, IIHR, Bengaluru &
RFRS, Sindhudurg
Tomato, brinjal, okra, pea (vegetable) IIVR, Varanasi & IIHR, Bengaluru
Cauliflower, cabbage IIVR, Varanasi & IARI, Katrain
Potato CPRI, Shimla, CPRS, Modipuram &
CPRS, Jalandhar
Onion & garlic DOGR, Pune & IARI, New Delhi
Turmeric, ginger IISR, Calicut & ICAR-NEH, Barapani
Black pepper IISR, Calicut
Small cardamom IISR, Calicut & ICRI,Mylamdumpara
Coriander NRCSS, Ajmer & DMARP, Anand
Chrysanthemum & rose IARI, New Delhi & IIHR, Hassarghatta
Damask rose, periwinkle CIMAP, Lucknow
Orchids (Cymbidium, Dendrobium and Vanda) NRCO, Sikkim; SFRI, Itanagar & KAU,
Thrissur
Isabgol DMPR, Anand
Field mint, ashwagandha, brahmi CIMAP, Lucknow
Coconut CPCRI, Kasargod
 Bioprospecting: In search for commercially valuable biochemical and genetic

resources in plants, animals and microorganisms.
 Biopiracy: Is the theft or unsurpation of genetic materials especially plants

and other biological materials by the patent process.
 TRIPS: Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (it covers IPR related
aspects).
 World Trade Organization (WTO), Rome, 1995.
 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Geneva.
 National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), Chennai.
 TKDL: Traditional Knowledge and Digital Library, CSIR.
 Copy Right Office, New Delhi
 Patent Office in India: Kolkata.
 Indian Patent Act, 2005.
 Geographical indication: is a sign or mark attributed to goods of any
category.
 Geographical indication of goods (registration and protection) act, 1999,
rules, 2003.
 Geographical indication (GI) office, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
 Nagpur Santra has received global GAP certificate.
Geographical indications States

Darjeeling-Tea, Laxman Bhog mango, Khirsapati (Himsagar) West Bengal
mango, Fazli mango grown in the district of Malda
Mysore- agarbatti, sandalwood oil & soap, betel leaf andjasmine; Karnataka
Udupi- jasmine, Hadagali- jasmine; Nanjanagud-banana,
Monsooned Malabar arabica coffee, Monsooned Malabar robusta
coffee; Coorg-green cardamom and orange; Devanahalli-
pumello; Appemidi- mango; Kamalapur- red Banana; Byadagi-
chilli, Udupi- mattu gulla Brinjal; Bangalore Blue grapes
Kangra- tea Himachal Pradesh
Malabar-pepper, Alleppey-green cardamom, Kerala
Vazhakulam-pineapple
Allahabad Surkha-guava, Mango- malihabadi Dashehari, Uttar Pradesh
Eathomozhy-Tall coconut, Nilgiri (Orthodox) logo, Virupakshi- Tamil Nadu
Hill banana, Sirumalai- Hill banana, Madurai Mallige,
Naga mirchi, Naga tree tomato, Kachi lemon Nagaland
Arunachal-Orange Arunachal Pradesh
Large cardamom Sikkim
Mizho-chilli Mizoram
Tripura Queen pineapple Tripura
Assam-Orthodox tea, Karbi Anglong Ginger Assam

Tezpur-litchi Bihar
Feni Goa
Guntur- Sannam Chilli Andhra Pradesh
Mahabaleshwar-strawberry, Nashik-grapes, Nagpur-orange, Maharashtra
Konkan- kokum & cashew, Jalna-mosambi, Jalgaon-bharit brinjal
& banana, Kesar mango, Marathwada-mosambi, Solapur-
pomegranate, Sangli-turmeric & resin, Ratnagiri-alphonso,
Lasalgaon-onion, Saswad-fig, Beed-custard apple, Vengurla-
cashew, Gholwad-sapota
Gir-Kesar mango Gujarat
Ganjam-Kewda rooh & Kewda flower Odisha
 CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992. It is 1st mechanism dealing

with biodiversity in India.
 CBD provides the facility of prior informed consent or material transfer
agreement. It was signed during Earth Summit at Rio de Janerio, 1992.
 Diversity Act of India, 2002.
 Largest and oldest Centers of diversity: China
 Crop origin center having highest diversity: Hindustan
 EDV: Essentially Derived Varieties
 GURT: Genetic Use Restriction Technology e.g. Terminator gene.
 Final approval or release transgenic crops is given by GEAC (Genetic
Engineering Approcal Committee) under the Ministry of Environment and
Forestry.
 OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, France.
 Transgenic biosafety protocol: Cartagena Protocol, 2003.
 In India, maximum fruit germplasm is maintained through in situ
conservation.
 Ex situ conservation comprises cryobank, DNA bank, Herbal seed, Long
storage of seeds.
 In situ conservation comprises biosphere reserve, National parks, Botanical
gardens.
 In vitro conservation
• Comprises storage at low temperature i.e. cryopreservation (-154 to -
1960C).
• Pollen cryopreservation in mango and other fruit crops was attempted
at IIHR.
• DNA storage.
12. BIODIVERSITY OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

 India is one of 12 mega biodiversity hot spot regions of the world, having
2.4% world’s area with 8% global diversity.
 India comprises 12% of total global plant wealth.
 Idea of biosphere reserve was initiated by UNESCO in 1973-74.
 Environment Protection Act, Govt. of India was enacted in 1986.
 The Stern Committee is associated with economic impact of climate change.
 ISO 14000: Monitoring of environmental quality.
 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): 1st international agreement to
view biodiversity.
 Western Ghats and North-East India: Maximum biodiversity.
 Valley of flowers in Himachal Pradesh is a part of Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve. It conserves 300 rare species of wild flowers.
 HGR: Horticultural Genetic Resources.
 Salient Valley National Park, Kerala.
 No. of biosphere reserve in India: 19.
 1st biosphere reserve in India: Nilgiri biosphere reserve.
 State having 2 biodiversity reserves: Assam.
 New biosphere reserve, declared in 2012 is Achanakmar in Amarkantak
 National Biodiversity Board, New Delhi.
 National Gene Bank, New Delhi (1983).
 NBPGR ranks 3rd in collection of valuable heritage after the USA and China
in the world.
 Total agro-biodiversity hot spots in India: 22.
 No. of hot spots of biodiversity in India: 3 (Western Ghats, Eastern Himalaya,
North-Eastern region).
 Biodiversity ‘Hot Spots’ was given by Meyer.
 Recently recognized hot spot in India: North-Eastern Himalaya.
 Rich diversity in fruits and their wild relatives (400 fruit plants) is in North-
Eastern region followed by western peninsular and western Himalaya.
 Rich diversity in North-Eastern region is citrus, mango and banana.
 Rich diversity in North western and Eastern Himalayan regions is for Pyrus,
Rubus, Ribes and Prunus.
 Citrus Gene Sanctuary (NOKREK Biosphere Reserve), Meghalaya is the 1st
gene sanctuary for conservation of Citrus species.
 Sanctuary of orchids and rhododendrons, Sikkim.

 National Herbarium of Cultivated Plants, NBPGR, New Delhi
 Indian National Plant Genetic Resources Management System is National
Active Germplasm Site (NAGS), ICAR
 National Agriculture Science Museum (NASM), New Delhi.
 The Botanical Survey of India has brought out ‘Red book’ of threatened
plants.
 ‘Red Data Book’ related to categories of threatened, endangered and extinct
species.
13. INFORMATICS IN HORTICULTURE

 Silent revolution: Geo-informatics in agriculture.
 IT plan for Agriculture Sector (AGRISNET) was submitted to Ministry of
Agriculture in 1997 to establish “Indian Agriculture on-line” and revised in
2000.
 AGMARKNET: Agricultural Marketing Information Network.
 NADAMS: National Agricultural Drought Advisory and Management
System.
 AGRIS: Agricultural Resources Information System.
 ARISNET: Agricultural Research and Information System.
 ACINET: Agricultural Credit Informatics Network.
 VERCON: Visual Extension, Research and Communication Network,
developed by FAO in 2001.
 ICT: Information and Communication Technology.
 ARIS: Agricultural Research Information System, established by ICAR in
1995.
14. BIOTECHNOLOGY OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Micropropagation
 In vitro multiplication of plants from small tissue.
 Totipotency in plants: Vasil and Hildebrancdt (1964)
 Father of tissue culture: Gottlieb Haberlandt
 Meristem culture: Virus free plants.
 Embryo/ Ovary/ Ovule culture: Overcome pre & post fertilization barriers,
shortening breeding cycle & overcome seed dormancy.
 First successful embryo culture: Cherry embryo (1993)

 Embryo culture followed in Grape, Peach, Sweet cherry.
 Agar agar is a Malaysian word. It is produced from red algae/ sea weed:
Gelidium and Gracilaria.
 Disinfectant used in checking of viral diseases through implements:
Trisodium phosphate.
 Double haploids: Production of 100 % homozygous plants.
 Haploid induction 1st developed by Guha and Maheswari (1966) in Datura
innoxia.
 Haploid plants develop from anther culture i.e. Androgenesis
 Gynogenesis: Haploids develop from female gametophyte e.g. Sugar beet,
Onion, Gerbera.
 Somaclones: Plants derived from any type of somatic cell culture.
 Diverse cytoplasm can be fixed together by protoplast culture.
 Protoplast fusion or parasexual hybridization or somatic hybridization:
Fusion of two somatic cells of different species, genera and family to
overcome sexual incompatibility.
 Cybrids: Nuclear gene from one species and the cytoplasm from both parents
to combine to produce cytoplasmic hybrids.
 Application of cybrid: Direct transfer of CMS from donor to recipient lines
e.g. Citrus.
 Coated or pelleted seeds are now becoming common in small seeded
vegetables.
 Synthetic seeds: Somatic embryos encapsulated in biodegradable synthetic
polymer coating of Sodium or calcum alginate.
 Protocols for production of ‘synseed’ have been developed in mulberry,
banana and mango.
 Cell suspension culture is used for secondary metabolites production.
 70% alcohol & HgCl2: Most effective surface sterilizing agents.
 Polysaccharides from jackfruit and tamarind seeds have been used as
encapsulating agent.
 BARC, Trombay has mandate on floriculture in micropropagation.
 National Facility for Virus Diagnosis and Quality Control: IARI, New Delhi.
 National Centre for Quality Control of Tissue Culture Raised Plant Material:
CPRI, Shimla.
Molecular markers
 Serological and PCR based diagnostics were developed for banana, citrus,
grapes, black pepper.
 Concept of association of marker with quantitative traits was 1st proposed
by Sax in 1923.
 1st concept of genetic map was presented by Alfred H. Sturtevant, 1913.
 1st genetic map published in 1911 by T.H. Morgan
 1st molecular marker: RFLP, 1980
 To minimize linkage drag, need to identification of flanking marker: <5
cM.
 Term marker assisted selection (MAS) was first used by Beckmann and
Soller, 1986.
 Southern hybridization: DNA-DNA hybridization. Developed by S.M.
Southern (1925)
 PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction. It was developed by Dr. Karry Mullis in
1985.
 In PCR, multiplication of DNA takes place by geometric progression.
 PCR proceeds in 3 distinct steps governed by temperature as denaturing,
annealing and synthesis.
 Thermostable enzyme in PCR: Taq (Thermus aquaticus ) DNA polymerase. It
is soil bacterium extracted from hot springs of sulphur.
 Morphological marker: Seed colour, leaf shape, Seed size
 DNA marker: PCR based markers e.g. RAPD, AFLP, SSR
 SDS-PAGE: Poly Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis. It separates proteins based
on their charge and molecular weight ratio.
 Dominant marker: RAPD, AFLP, ISSR, SCAR
 Co-dominant marker: RFLP, SSR, SRAP, STS, SNP, STS
 First generation marker: RFLP
 Second generation marker: RAPD, AFLP, STS, SSR
 Third generation marker: SNP
 Genome scanning for expressed genes: EST, SRAP, TRAP
 Highly informative marker i.e. very high polymorphism: SSR (microsatellite)
 Marker system used for identification of clones: CAPS and SNP.
 Markers using array technology: Microarray, DArT (whole genome
scanning).
 Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) are used to make DNA marker in gene
discovery research.
 NIL: Near Isogenic Lines are developed through repeated random
backcrossing.
 NIL: Commonly used for mapping QTLs.
 RIL: Recombinant Inbred Lines are homozygous selfed or sib mated progeny
of individuals of an F2 population up to F7-F8.
 DH: Double haploids.
 Haploid plants in tomato using anther culture: Greshop and Doy (1972).
 True breeding lines or permanent/ immortal populations: RIL and DH.
 Shortest method to detect QTLs is BSA (Bulked segregant analysis).
 Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) term coined by Hospital and Charcosset
(1997).
 Marker Assisted backcrossing (MABC) marker used to assess the presence
of introgressed gene or QTL.
 MABC term coined by Tankley (1983).
 Background selection: Markers used to accelerate the return to recipient
parent genotype at other loci.
 The strategy was proposed by Hillel (1990).
 Physical map is measured by base pairs (bp).
 National Genomic Resources Repository Conserves- Cloned genes.
 Hairy root culture for secondary metabolite production are induced by
transforming plant cells with Agrobacterium rhizogenes.
 Mg2+ ions are required for type II restriction enzymes.
Linkage map
 Genetic map is representation of genes on chromosome arrayed in linear
order with distances between loci expressed as parent recombination (map
unit, centi-morgan).
 It is measured in centi-morgans (cM).
 One linkage map unit is 1% recombination.
 One map unit= one centi morgan= 1% recombination between loci.
 Comparative mapping used for analysis of genes and QTLs.
 Orthologous gene: Genes in different species that originated by vertical
descent from a single gene of last common ancestor.
QTL mapping
 Term QTL first coined by Gelderman (1975).
 Concept of quantitative genetics: Fisher, Wright, Haldane
 Most common method of QTL mapping is interval mapping.
 Ideal cM distance for QTL cloning is 2 cM or less.
 Fine mapping of high resolution QTL: 25-100 Kb
 First tagged QTL in plants: fw2.2 (fruit weight in Tomato).
Genomics
 Sum total of all an individual organism’s genes.
 Study of DNA (genotype), mRNA (transcriptome), protein (proteome) level.
 Term genomics was coined by Dr. Tom Roderick
 Structural genomics: Describe 3D structure of every protein encoded by
given genome.
 Functional genomics: Understanding the function of genes and other parts
of genome.
 Proteomics: A complete set of protein present in a single cell.
 Transcriptomics: A complete set of mRNA present in single cell.
 Metabolomics: A complete set of metabolites present in single cell.
 Tranplastomic: Transfer of chloroplast.
 Comparative genomics: Study of similarities and differences in structure
and function of hereditary information across taxa.
Sequencing technologies
 1st bacterial genome sequenced: Haemophilus influenzae.
 1st multicellue organism sequenced: Caenorhabditis elegans.
 1st plant sequenced: Arabidopsis thaliana.
 1st crop plant sequenced: Rice.
 1st non-grassy plant sequenced: Banana.
 2nd generation sequencing: Illumina system and Pyro-sequencing e.g. Roche
GS20, Roche GS FLX, SOLiD system and Sanger sequencing.
 3rd generation sequencing: True single-molecule sequencing (tSMS).
Completed genome sequence

Crop Genome size Mapping population Completed
year
Grape 500 Mbp Pinot Noir 2007
Papaya 742.3 Mbp Sun Up 2007
Apple 372 Mbp - 2010
Strawberry 250 Mbp Fragaria vesca 2011
Banana 523 Mbp Musa acuminata 2012
Pear 512 Mbp Pyrus bretschneideri 2012
Peach 220-230 Mbp - 2010
Potato (1st sequenced 844 Mbp RH89-039-16, DM-1-3-516R44 2011
tuber veg.)
Chinese cabbage 283.8 Mbp Chiifu-401-42 2011
Tomato 900 Mbp Heinz 1706 2012
S. pimpinellifolium 739 Mbp LAI589 2012
Cucumber 367 Mbp Chinese Long ‘9930’ 2009
Melon 450 Mbp Double-haploid line- DHL92 2012
Watermelon (1 st
375 Mbp - 2012
sequenced veg.)
Mbp: Megabase pair
Transgenics in horticultural crops

 Transgenics/ Genetically modified/ Genetically engineered.
 1st genetic engineering company Genentech was established in 1976.
 Up to 1980, production of transgenic plants was restricted to tobacco, tomato
and petunia of the family Solanaceae. Now more than 40 dicot species
transgenic plants have been produced.
 Ideal hosts for expression of Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) are Banana,
Cherry tomato, Potato.
 Natural genetic engineer: Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
 Agrobacterium is a bacterium that introduces DNA into plants.
 Bt was discovered by S. Ishiwata in Germany.
 1st transgenic plant: Tobacco in 1983 by Belgium Biotech Company.
 1st transgenic company: Genentech established in 1976.
 1st transgenic variety: ‘Flavr Savr’ in tomato developed by Calgene Company

for enhanced vase life.
 Ethylene Forming Enzyme (EFE) is presently known as ACC oxidase.
 Shelf life gene: ACC oxidase.
 Etrl-1-gene: Ethylene insensitive gene.
 Ripening inhibitor gene (rin) is associated with mango.
 India’s rank under cultivation of transgenic crops: 4th (1st-USA, 2nd- Mexico,
3rd- Argentina).
 Crops having highest area under cultivation: Soybean> Corn> Cotton.
 Genetic engineering of flower structure modification can be brought out
by tinkering MADS-box genes.
 Nourishing gene ‘Meg1’ regulates transfer of nutrients from plant to seed.
 ICAR institute that developed Bt kit: CICR, Nagpur.
 Stability of transgene expression is tested by exposing tissues to propionic
acid or butyric acid.
 For importing transgenic seed material in India for research purpose
permission from DBT is mandatory.
Methods of gene transfer

a. Biological mutagens: Transposon and retrotransposon.
b. Phototrophs can be differentiated from auxotrophs very efficiently by using
replica plating.
c. Vector gene transfer: Agrobacterium mediated, agro-injection.
d. Direct gene transfer: Microinjection, particle bombardment (use of gold or
tungsten particles).
e. The Cartagena protocol on bio-safety (CPB) originated from Convention
on biological diversity (CBD) in 2000 and came into force in 2003.
f. Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) approves release of
transgenic varieties.
g. The Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumifaciens contains an important gene that
codes for the isopentenyl AMP synthase enzyme that is involved in the rapid
cell division.
h. Real Time (RT) PCR is very specific, sensitive and reproducible and widely
used to detect RNA viruses in ornamental plants.
Transgenic activities
Crop(s) Gene(s) Function(s)
Biotic stress
1. Fungi
Tomato & Brinjal Chitinase, glucanase & thaumatin Fungal resistance
Tomato OXDC
Banana cv. Rasthali Ace-AMP-1 gene Fusarium wilt resistance
Banana HrAp gene from capsicum Fusarium wilt resistance
Pomegranate Plant ferredoxin protein gene Bacterial blight resistance
Xa21 from rice Nodal blight resistance
2. Virus
Banana BBTV, BBr, MV coat protein gene Virus resistance
Citrus CTV coat protein Virus resistance
Papaya PRSV coat protein Virus resistance
Watermelon WMV coat protein Virus resistance
Potato Coat protein Potato virus Y (PVY)
resistance
Tomato Replicase gene Tomato leaf curl virus (TLCV)
resistance
Ni gene Nematode resistance
3. Insects
Tomato Cry 1Ab Fruit borer resistance
Brinjal Cry 1Ab Shoot & fruit borer resistance
Cauliflower Cry 1Ab Diamond back moth
resistance
Cabbage Cry 1Hc/ Cry 9C Lepidopteron insect
resistance
Potato Cry 1Ab Potato tuber moth resistance
Squash Coat protein Virus resistance
Abiotic stress
Potato Osmotin Water stress tolerance
One gene from potato itself Reduced conversion of sucro-
se to glucose & fructose leadi-
ng to reduced acrylamide
Sugar beet Phosphino thricin acetyl Herbicide tolerance
transferase, Enolpyruvylshikimate
-3-phosphate synthase
Post harvest life & quality

Banana, Pineapple ACC synthase Delayed ripening
Mango, Apple ACC synthase & ACC oxidase Delayed ripening
Red banana (edible Hepatitis B surface antigen Pharmaceutical production
vaccine)
Strawberry Pectate lyase Improved fruit quality
Tomato ACC synthase Controlled fruit ripening
Tomato Deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) Delayed post harvest
softening
Tomato A-galactosidase-4 (TBG-4) Improved fruit quality
Tomato Phytoene desaturase Increased carotenoid content
Tomato Geraniol synthase Modified flavor & aroma
Tomato Ctx-B and Tep antigen of Edible vaccine development
Vibrio cholerae
Melons ACC oxidase, SAM hydrolase Reduced ethylene production
Muskmelon Rabies flycoprotein genes Edible vaccine development
Potato AmA1 Protein rich potato
Cassava Granule bound starch Produce & store amylase free
synthase gene (gbss) starch
glg c from E. coli Increased shoot & root
biomass
ASP-1 Elevated levels of proline &
serine amino acids
AmA-1 Increase in protein content
Cauliflower Bar, Barnase, Barstar Superior hybrids
Strawberry, cucum- DefH9-iaaM Parthenocarpy
ber, Navel orange,
clementine,
watermelon
Tomato Rol B gene Parthenocarpy
Brinjal Iaah gene Parthenocarpy
Cantaloupe S-adenosylmethionine hydrolase gene Modified fruit ripening
Transgenic varieties
Crop Trait Product name Year Organization
Tomato Shelf life Flavr Savr 1994 Calgene
Shelf life Endless Summer 1995 DNA plant tech.
Potato Bt gene (resistance to New Leaf 1995 Monsanto Co.
Colorado beetle)
Resistance to Colorado beetle Elizabeth 2010 Monsanto Co.
Resistance Bt gene & potato New Leaf Plus 1998 Monsanto Co.
leaf roll virus (PLRV)
Resistance Bt gene & potato - 1999 Monsanto Co.
virus Y (PVY)
Bt gene Maximize 1995 CIBA-GEIGY
Resistance to viruses Freedom II 1995 Ashgrow Seeds
Papaya Resistance to PRSV Rainbow, Sun Up 1998 -
Molecular targets for modifying flower traits

Crops Flower trait Target gene
Ornamental Longevity of flowers Mutated etr-1 gene from Arabidopsis
crops & flower specific promoter, the fbp-1
Petunia White to red Mutant maize gene
Purple to white Chalcone synthase
White to pale yellow Flavonoid biosynthesis
White to pink Flavonol synthesis & DHFR gene
Red to Deep purple F3’5’ gene
Reduced ethylene biosynthesis Antisense BoACO1 from broccoli
i.e. delay in flower senescence
Rose Red to Pink/ light red/ Anthocyanin biosynthesis
magenta red
Red to blue Delphinidin biosynthesis
Carnation White to mauve Flavonol synthesis
Violet orange to cream F3’H gene
Decreased ethylene level etr1-1 from petunia
Gerbera Red to pink/ cream Chalcone synthase gene
Chrysanthemum Pink to white Flavonol synthesis
Torentia Blue to white Anthocyanin biosynthesis
Blue to red Cytochrome P450 gene
Novel plant traits engineered through RNAi

Trait Target gene Crop Application
Enhanced nutrient Lyc Tomato Increased concentration of lycopene
content DET1 Tomato Higher flavonoids and â-carotene
content
SBEII Sweet Increased level of amylase for
potato digestive health
Reduced alkaloid CaMXMT1 Coffee Decaffeinated coffee
content
Reduced production Lachrymatory Onion ‘Tearless’ onion
factor synthase
Ethylene enhancement LeETR4 Tomato Early ripening
Genes regulating plant morphology and development

Gene(s) Function
Clevata, Wuschel Establishment & maintenance of shoot apical meristems
GA insensitive (gai) Stem elongation & plant height
Brassinostenoid gene (BRI 1) Plant height (Dwarf)
MAX More axillary branching
Lazy, TAC 1 Branching angle of tillers
Phytochrome Shading response & harvest index
Rol C Plant branching & architecture
IPT, SAG 1 Cytokinin genes regulating senescence
Agamous Regulator of determinate floral development
Apetala Regulator of ABC model of flower development
Terminal flower Continuous inflorescence development
Leafy Floral meristems
Clavata 1, 2 & 3 Regulate of meristem maintenance
Wuschel Regulate meristem initiation
15. NANOTECHNOLOGY
 Term ‘nanotechnology’ was coined by N. Taniguichi in 1974 at Univ. of
Tokyo, Japan.
 It is understanding and control of matter at dimension of 1-100 nm.
 Example of Nano based Small Delivery System: Halloysite.
 Nano pesticide: Nano particles of ZnO, SiO2 and TiO2 used for bacteria and
green algae.
 Nano particles used for reclamation of heavy particles: Amphiphylic
Polyurethane, Zeravalent Iron and Zeolite.
 ‘Nano-encapsulation’ can be used to improve the insecticidal value.
 Chile: Leading country in use of nanotechnology in post harvest
management of fruits.
16. ISOLATION DISTANCE FOR ANNUAL HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Crop Isolation distance (m) Crop Isolation distance (m)
Foundation Certified Foundation Certified
seed seed seed seed
Tomato 50 25 Turnip 1600 1000
Brinjal 200 100 Carrot 1000 800
Chilli 400 200 Potato 5 5
Sweet pepper 400 200 Onion 1600 1000
Okra 400 200 Beet 1600 1000
Pea 40 20 Cucurbits 800 400
Other beans 50 25 Chrysanthemum 400 200
Cole crops 1600 1000 Marigold 400 200
Radish 1600 1000
Artificial seeds
 Term ‘artificial seed’ was coined by Murashige in 1977.
 Commonly used hydrogels: Sodium alginate, Carrageenan, Guar gum,
Sodium pectate, Tannin acid, copper sulphate, etc.
Plant species Propagule used Size

Apium graveolens Somatic embryos < 1.0 mm dia.
Daucus carota Somatic embryos < 1.0 mm dia.
Lactuca sativa Somatic embryos 1.5-2.5 mm dia.
Loblolly pine Somatic embryos -
Morus indica Axillary buds 0.5 cm dia.
Santalum album Somatic embryos -
Valeriana wallichil Axillary buds 0.3-0.5 mm long
Dioscorea floribunda Axillary shoot buds 0.3-0.5 cm long
Hyoscyamus muticus Adventitious shoot buds 0.2-0.4 cm long
Picrorrhiza kurroa Axillary shoot buds 0.3-0.5 cm long
Rheum emodi Adventitious shoot buds 0.2-0.5 cm long
Pogostemon patchouli Axillary buds 0.3-0.5 cm long
Horticulture Journals and Magazines

Name of journal/ magazine Periodicity Name of magazine Periodicity
Indian Journal of Horticulture Quarterly Floriculture Today Monthly
Journal of Asian Horticulture Quarterly Spice India Monthly
The Orissa Journal of Horticulture Half-yearly Indian Coffee Monthly
South Indian Horticulture Annual Indian Farming Monthly
Potato Journal Quarterly Indian Horticulture Bi-monthly
Indian Journal of Arecanut, Spices Quarterly Journal of Plantation
and Medicinal Plants crops Monthly
Journal of Horticulture Science Half-yearly Journal of Spices and Monthly
Aromatic crops
HortScience Bi-monthly Plant Horti Tech Yearly
Hort Technology Quarterly Indian Coconut Journal Monthly
Journal of the American Society Quarterly
for Horticulture Science
Scientia Horticulturae Monthly
Acta Horticulturae Monthly
* Foreign Journal published by the American Society for Horticulture Science

B
Fruit Science
1. GENERAL POMOLOGY
 Word pomology: Derived from Greek word ‘pome’ meaning development
of fruit from inferior ovary and ‘logos’ meaning to study.
 Father of systematic pomology: De Candolle.
 Temperate fruits are popularly known in India as hill fruits or cold region
fruits.
 India ranks 1st in productivity of grapes, banana and papaya.
 Ratio of Chlorophyll a to chlorophyll b is highest in C4 plants.
 Gibberellic acid is enhanced by exposing plants to red light.
 The life line tree of ‘Thar Desert’ is Prosopis cineraria.
 Grape of the desert is Salvadora oleoides.
 National phytotron facility is located at IARI, New Delhi in 1997.
 South-west direction is most sensitive to sun burn effects in plants.
 Lopping of rootsock: Removal of upper part of root stock after setting of
buds.
 Best time of planting temperate fruits: December-January.
 Resinous canals are characteristic features of family Anacardiaceae.
 Degreening temperature for most horticulture crops: 270C.
 Bisexual flowers are also known as ‘bisporangiate’.
 Photoblastic seed germination is observed in raspberry.
 Trichoderma viride is used to control damping off.
 Constant factor for estimating heat units is 10ºC.
 In pome fruit species, short shoots are named ‘dards’ when they are strictly
vegetative.
 Sweet chestnut has highest longevity.
 Seed of joboba (Simmondsia chinensis) is rich in oil (45-55%) content.
 Winter flowering in sub-tropical fruits create frost damage.
National fruits of different countries

Country Name of fruit
Bangladesh Jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
Mexico Avocado
New Zealand Kiwi fruit
Armenia Apricot (Prunus armeniaca)
Brazil Cupuacu (Theobroma grandiflorum)
Central African Republic Banana
Columbia Borojo, Curuba
Jamaica Ackee (Blighia sapida)
Pakistan Summer-Mango; Winter-Guava (Psidium guajava)
Serbia Damson plum
India Mango (Mangifera indica)
Phillipines Filipino mango
Japan Japanese persimmon/ Litchi (Litchi chinensis)
Iran, Azerbaijan Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
Austria, England Apple (M. domestica)
Cambodia Lady’s finger banana (M. acuminata)
China Fuzzy kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa), Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba)
Indonesia Red durian, Jackfruit
Malaysia Rambutan/ Papaya (Carica papaya)
Singapore Durian
Thailand Mangosteen
Layout of Orchard
 Planting of trees should be such that intercept maximum solar energy.
 Every 3rd tree in every 3rd row should be pollinizer in self incompatible
varieties.
 Evergreen tree should be planted in the front and deciduous one behind.
 Total orchard area under roads, buildings, paths, tube-wells is 10%.
 Filler plants must be quick growing and early fruiting.
 Suitable plants for fencing: Agave, Pithecolobium dulci, Thevetia peruviana.
 Suitable hedge plants: Duranta plumier, Lantana camera, Tecoma stans, Prosopis
julifera, Opuntia spp., Clerodendron inerme, Inga dulcis.
 Windbreaks have its effectiveness for a distance about 4 times its height.
 Windbreaks are planted in north west side of orchard.
Fruit Science 51
 Suitable wind breaks: Polyalthia longifolia, Azadirecta indica, Pterospermum

acerifolium, Syzygium spp., Carissa carandas, Grewilia robusta.
 Good bio-fence: Carissa carandas.
 Suitable method of orchard layout near cities: Quincunx.
Systems of Planting
1. Square system: Simplest and ubiquitous system of planting. More commonly
followed.
2. Rectangular system: Used in high density planting (HDP) e.g. Grape, Phalsa
and Peach.
3. Cluster system: Accommodates nearly twice the population of square system.
4. Triangular: Accommodates 11% lesser number of plants than square system.
Mostly used in high density planting (HDP). Intercultural operations
difficult.
5. Hexagonal/Equilateral triangle: Accommodates 15% more plants than square
system. Very difficult to layout.
6. Quincunx/Diagonal: Most suitable in highly fertile soils. Accommodates
1.5-2 times more plants than square system. Adopted when tree spacing
exceeds 10 m or slow growing fruit tree. Filler plants are generally used
e.g. Banana, Guava, Kinnow, Phalsa, Papaya, Peach, Pomegranate and Plum.
7. Contour system: Followed in hills & undulated land (slope >10%).
8. Terrace system: Extension of contour system. Double hedge contour system
accommodates 22% higher than single hedge system. Hedge row planting
system is commercially followed in mechanized fruit cultivation e.g. Apple,
Pineapple.
9. Double/Hedge row system: Very intensive form of rectangular system.
Distance between trees in a row is half to one third the distance between
rows e.g. pineapple.
10. Full field system: Most efficient system for maximum light interception.
High Density Planting (HDP)

 Modern tool of plant architecture management.
 Multistoried cropping system was adopted for coconut, arecanut, ber &
aonla.
 High density planting is 1st established in apple at England, 1960.
 Meadow orcharding is developed to utilize vertical and horizontal spaces.
 Meadow orchard/ Ultra High Density planting (UHDP)
• Modern method of fruit cultivation using small or dwarf tree with
modified canopy.
• Objective: Mechanization of all orchard activities.

• Originated in Israel.
• Meadow orchard system was developed by J.P. Hudson (1971) in apple
(spur type).
 Amenable fruit crop for meadow orchard e.g. Peach (5m x 1m= 2000 plants/
ha).
 UHDP for mango: Alphonso, Emam Pasand (3m x 2m= 1666 plants/ha).
 In India, meadow orchard is commercially adapted in guava (2m x 1m=
5000 plants/ha), developed by CISH, Lucknow.
 Training method followed in HDP orchard: Central leader system.
 Key to success of HDP: Control of tree size.
Fruit crops Varieties Spacing (m) No. of System of planting

plants/ha
Mango Amrapali 2.5 x 2.5 1600 Triangular system
Arka Aruna - - -
Kesar 3 x 1 or 2 x 4 3333 Triangular system
Banana Robusta 1.5 x 1.5 4400 Square system
Dwarf Cavendish 1.5 x 1.5 4400 Square system
Grand Naine, 1 x 1.2 x 2 5200 Paired row system
Basrai
Papaya Pusa Nanha 1.2 x 1.2 6944 Square system
Pomegranate Bhagwa 5x2 1000 Square system
Pineapple Kew & Giant Kew 25 x 35 x 90 cm 64,000 Double row system
Guava Allahabad Safeda 0.9 x 2.1 20 plants/ Double hedge row
441 m2
Aonla Neelum 5x5m 400 Hedge row
Sapota PKM-3 - - -
Peach Red Heaven - - -
Cherry Meteor - - -
Strawberry Chandler 30 x 20 cm 55,000- -
60,000
Chemicals used to control tree size:

 Alar, Chloromequat, paclobutrazol, CCC, Ancymidol, AMO 1618, Ethephon.
1. Mango: Reduction in tree height in Alphonso by application of paclobutrazol
10 g/tree during August-September.
Fruit Science 53
2. Apple: Reduction rootstock suckers: ethyl esters form of NAA.

3. Grape: Reduction of internode length, shoot growth: CCC 500 ppm.
Protected Cultivation of Fruit Crops

 High production in protected cultivation: High photosynthetic efficiency.
 Largest producer of banana under green house: Morocco and Spain.
 Most common fruit for protected cultivation: Strawberry and now Grape
in Mahrashtra.
 Apricot, Banana, Grape, Loquat, Mango, Nectarines, Papaya, Peach,
Pineapple, Strawberry.
 Apricot variety ‘Gold Sun’ and grape variety ‘Kyoho’ are grown under
protected cultivation in China.
 Grand Naine (G-9): Variety of banana grown under protection.
 Plastic houses are suitable for cherry cultivation.
Training Systems
 Training: done to maintain proper shape, canopy of tree and develop good
frame work.
 Training controls distribution of fruiting wood and has little effect on fruit
bearing.
 Multi storyed cropping is practiced in Karnataka and Kerala.
 The ‘Tatura trellis’ system of training was 1st developed at Australia.
 Free Air Temperature Increment (FATI) technology: Increase in canopy
temperature in fields.
Methods
1. Central leader system is also known as closed centered one.
2. Open centre system is also known as vase shaped system.
3. Modified leader: Most widely adopted/accepted for commercial fruit
cultivation.
Other systems of training

 Bower system is also known as pendal or arbor or pergola system.
 Telephone system is also known as overhead trellis system.
 Cordons are single stemmed tree system. It is used in gardens as a catalogue
of varieties.

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Essence of Horticulture

About the Authors

Dr. Manjunath S. Patil was born in 1980 at Hubli District of

ISBN 978-93-85516-98-6 E-ISBN: 978-93-90512-18-8

Composed and Designed by NIPA

Preface ................................................................................................................. vii

A. General Horticulture ............................................................................ 1

B. Fruit Science ........................................................................................49

27. Punicaceae / Lythraceae (Pomegranate) ................................................... 161

C. Vegetable Science ............................................................................. 239

17. Dioscoreaceae (Yam) ................................................................................. 347

D. Floriculture and Landscape Architecture ........................................ 419

17. Lawn ........................................................................................................... 458

E. Plantation Crops ................................................................................ 527

F. Spices and Condiments .................................................................... 555

G. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants .......................................................... 583

H. Post Harvest Technology of Horticultural Crops ........................... 599

 Red revolution: Floriculture development.

 Highest antioxidants fruits: Blue berries, blackberry, strawberry, plums,

Area, Production and productivity of horticultural commodities

 States leading in fruit crops: Area (Maharashtra> Andhra Pradesh>

Area Production Productivity

1. NATIONAL HORTICULTURAL INSTITUTES

Medicinal and aromatic plants

Post harvest technology

National Horticulture Board Gurgaon, Haryana

2. GLOBAL HORTICULTURAL INSTITUTES

Banana and Plantain (INIBAP)

3. HERBICIDES, FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES

 Post-emergent herbicides: Paraquot, Gramoxone, Glyphosate, Diuron,

 1st indigenously developed fungicide: Contaf by Rallis.

4. PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS

Chemical Active ingredient Common name Commercial use

Sproutstop pyridazinedion hydrazide out, suckers, & axillary buds.

 Nitrogen deficiency symptoms 1st appear on older leaves.

Classification Nature of nutrient Examples

Role and deficiency symptoms of minerals

Mo Role in N2 metabolism, constituent of Yellow spots in leaves

Characterization levels of nutrients in soil and plants

Leaf nutrient analysis

Fig Leaf April or August crop 9th leaf from apex 20

 Indore process is developed in India by Howard and Ward at Indian

 Potassium schoenite a double salt of K2SO4 and MgSO4 is recently being

Fertilizer N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

Fertilizer N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

c. Biofertilizers and green manures

 Insect net: 40-60 mesh (free from viruses).

 Drip system: Operating pressure is 1.0-1.5 kg/cm2.

Crop Variety and heat units required Base

Characters of cladding material

9. SOILLESS CULTIVATION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

 Drip culture/ Slop culture is also known as ‘sand culture’.

10. AGRI-EXPORT ZONES (AEZs) OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

11. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN HORTICULTURAL CROPS

 H.Q. of PPVFRA, New Delhi

DUS testing centers

 Bioprospecting: In search for commercially valuable biochemical and genetic

 Biopiracy: Is the theft or unsurpation of genetic materials especially plants

Geographical indications States

Assam-Orthodox tea, Karbi Anglong Ginger Assam

 CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992. It is 1st mechanism dealing

12. BIODIVERSITY OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS