CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Air transport is one of the world’s most important industries. Its development and its technical

and service achievements make it one of the greatest contributors to the advancement of modern

society. It also improves quality of life by broadening people’s leisure and cultural experiences. It

provides a wide choice of holiday destinations around the world and an affordable means to visit

distant friends and relatives. It also helps to improve living standards and alleviate poverty, through

tourism and transport contributes to sustainable development. By facilitating tourism and trade, it

generates economic growth, provides internal and external jobs, and provides the only worldwide

transportation network, which makes it essential for global business and tourism. It plays a vital role in

facilitating economic growth, particularly in developing countries.

An international airport is an airport that offers customs and immigration facilities for

passengers traveling between countries. International airports are typically larger than domestic

airports and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the heavier aircraft commonly

used for international and intercontinental travel. International airports often also host domestic

flights.

Composed of over 7,100 islands spread across a vast landscape, the Philippines presents a

unique challenge in transportation. Air travel emerges as the most versatile solution, overcoming

limitations of land-based infrastructure with minimal investment. Regardless of distance, it provides

simple access to all part of the archipelago. Transport by air makes it easier for people and things to

move quickly between areas of production and consumption, meeting a variety of demands. In

addition to its economic advantages, air travel is an effective means of promoting cultural interchange,

national security, and national unity.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The Philippines, an archipelago nation, heavily relies on air transportation for domestic and

international connectivity. Despite the crucial role of international airports in the country's economic

development and tourism industry, there are limitations and challenges that need to be addressed.

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International airports encounter challenges which includes overcrowding and outdated facilities, lack

of modern conveniences and accessibility features, manual processes leading to delays and

inefficiencies, limited accessibility options for persons with disabilities and a lack of adequate

amenities. Addressing these challenges faced by international airports is crucial that meets the ever-

growing demands of today's air travelers, the economic well-being of a nation, fostering job creation,

tourism growth, and global competitiveness, and the overall efficiency and functionality of

international airports. More specifically, the proposal shall aim to answer the following problems:

1. What design considerations and solutions will be used in designing the terminal building,

and other facilities in the airport?

2. How will the design affect passengers' perceptions of the poor quality of Philippine

airports?

3. What amenities and services for travelers are required within the passenger terminal

building?

4. What approaches and technology will be used to design the airport and other facilities?

5. How will the Philippine culture be represented in the design of the airport terminal?

1.3 OBJECTIVES

The goal of the proposal can be achieved through the following objectives:

 To analyze current terminal layouts and identify areas of congestion and inefficiency. To

develop design solutions that promote spatial optimization, natural light integration, and

efficient passenger flow.

 To evaluate the psychological impact of design elements on passenger experience and

perception. To analyze how improved aesthetics, functionality, and cultural representation

can change travelers' views of Philippine airports from poor quality to modern and

efficient.

 To conduct a user needs assessment to identify the types of amenities and services most

desired by travelers. Evaluate existing accessibility features for passengers with

disabilities and propose improvements for restrooms, elevators, and waiting areas.

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  To develop design proposals that showcase Filipino heritage and create a distinct sense of

place within the airport. To research various elements of Filipino culture that can be

incorporated into the terminal design.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of designing an international airport that bridges the gap Between Culture and

Global Connectivity. Cultural elements create a welcoming atmosphere, fostering appreciation and a

sense of place. This translates to a better tourism experience, potentially boosting the economy.

Furthermore, it cuts down cultural barriers, promotes local talent, and has the potential to preserve

cultural history. Airports enrich the travel experience by embracing diversity. This research is

significant to the following:

Passengers. The project will create a comfortable and relaxing terminal facility for both

domestic and international passengers. This project will meet the demands of all passengers inside the

airport. This project will provide travelers with convenient access to different means of transportation.

Community. This initiative will increase the number of employment and opportunities in the

E.B. Magalona community. It will help to enhance the number of tourists and boost the City's

economic growth, as well as tourism in Visayas and other nearby areas.

Employees. This project will provide extensive facilities for personnel to improve their work

and service to the passengers. It will also boost their earnings in the future.

Airlines. This project will provide more facilities to airlines and will accommodate their

aircrafts, allowing them to have more passengers.

Future Researchers. This study will help them gain knowledge base that provides valuable

data and insights for future research on designing and managing efficient, sustainable, and culturally-

inspired airports, passenger needs, and airport design's impact on tourism.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

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 This study focuses on catering the comfort and convenience of the passengers by means of

concentrating on providing the necessary facilities of an international airport. The formulation of the

architectural design of the structure focuses on its functionality, paragon, sustainability, safety and

security. All detailed structural, electrical, mechanical, and plumbing plans are beyond the

researcher’s capacity. The researcher only engaged to architectural and structural conceptualization.

CHAPTER 2

2.1 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Terminal buildings and other facilities in airports require careful design considerations to meet

the needs of passengers and reflect the identity of the country. Design elements such as architectural

form, structural systems, passenger preferences for interior design characteristics, and the level of

service (LoS) are crucial. (Menno, Hubregtse. 2022).These buildings must provide physiological and

psychological comfort, integrate with functional and operational systems, and incorporate expressive

symbolism and iconography. Passenger preferences for design characteristics like warm colors, cool

lighting, greenery, and specific ceiling shapes should also be taken into account to enhance

satisfaction and spending behaviors (M., Hasanzade., Clarine, van, Oel., 2022). Additionally, the

design should consider the impact on the surrounding environment at urban, social, and psychological

levels. Ultimately, airport terminal design serves not only as a functional node in transportation but

also as a means of projecting national status and encouraging passenger spending.

The design of Philippine airports significantly impacts passengers' perceptions of airport

quality. Research indicates that security checks, terminal facilities, and services play a crucial role in

shaping passengers' perceived value and satisfaction. Additionally, the eco-design of airport buildings

has been found to independently influence passengers' well-being and brand engagement, ultimately

affecting their overall experience (Dela Fuente et al., 2023).

Dale, et al., (2007) emphasized the importance of expertise expectations of airport employees

on passengers' perceptions of service quality, along with factors like time spent, spatial layout, and

functionality in the airport environment. By understanding these factors and incorporating passenger

feedback, airport management can enhance the overall airport experience, improve customer

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satisfaction, and influence travelers' intentions to revisit or recommend the airport (Patrik, et al.,

2022).

Incorporating elements of local architecture and culture into airport terminal design can

enhance the passenger experience and reflect the identity of the city. The Philippines, with its rich

cultural heritage, offers unique opportunities for such incorporation. By employing local architectural

elements, such as traditional materials, patterns, and design motifs, airport terminals can showcase the

country's history and culture (Yousif & Aldewach, 2022).

In summary, these studies emphasizes the importance of well-designed airport terminals that

cater to passenger needs, reflect national identity, and minimize environmental impact. By considering

passenger preferences, incorporating cultural elements, and utilizing sustainable practices, airports can

create a positive and memorable experience for travelers. The Philippines, with its rich culture, is

well-positioned to benefit from these design considerations.

2.2 IDEAL ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN APPROACH FOR INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS

IN THE PHILIPPINES

The approach to designing airport buildings must recognize their complexity both in terms of

functionality and their technical content; it should also reconcile the needs and expectations of the

various stakeholders including the operators, the airlines and most importantly the passengers. Ensure

that the design solution takes full account of the operators’ requirements, offers flexibility and

adaptability for the future, creates comfortable and stimulating environment and proves to be a

commercial success. (GMW MIMARLIK, 2018)

Integration with existing airport facilities & infrastructure:

The issue will be carefully considered in the master plan of the new terminal compound where

the new terminal and its associated buildings will be set to fit neatly into the existing infrastructure

including taxiways, roads and below ground services.

Passenger circulation:

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 The linear arrangement aims to minimize level changes, walking distances and to avoid

passenger cross flows.

Safety & security:

The internal arrangement of the terminal provides adequate space for security processing

facilities and queuing spaces. Terminal design also provides a good and safe working environment for

the staff.

Operational efficiency:

Passenger flow rates, particularly during peak periods have been used to determine the

physical space standards and the provision of systems and equipment.

Flexibility & adaptability:

The architectural design of terminals is tending to distinguish between long-term elements

(building structure, daylight, processional routes) and short-term alterations. This policy allows the

airport to survive as a recognizable entity yet still adapt to management changes.

Local factors:

A special attention shall be paid for local factors, including but not limited to Filipino culture,

special requirements for processors, religion requirements, passenger demography, process times,

driving habits and stakeholder requirements.

In conclusion, adopting this comprehensive approach, Philippine international airports can be

designed to not only function efficiently but also create a positive and memorable experience for

passengers while reflecting the nation's unique cultural identity.

2.3 LAYOUT AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

SITE SELECTION:

Aeronautical and environmental factors

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 Selecting a site for a new airport, or evaluating how well an existing site can be expanded to

provide a new major airport, is a complex process. A balance must be achieved between aeronautical

and air-transport requirements and the impact of the airport on its environment.

Aeronautical Needs:

 Flat Land: Airports require a significant area of flat land to accommodate runways, taxiways,

and other facilities.

 Free of Obstructions: Mountains, tall buildings, and other obstacles must be absent to ensure

safe flight paths.

Air Transport Needs:

 Accessibility: The airport should be reasonably close to population centers for convenient

passenger and cargo movement.

Environmental Considerations:

 Noise Pollution: Airport operations generate noise, so locating the airport too close to urban

areas can negatively impact residents.

 Land Use: Airport construction can disrupt natural beauty, sensitive ecosystems, or cultural

heritage sites.

The Challenge:

 Finding a location that balances all these needs becomes increasingly difficult as the size and

capacity of the envisioned airport grow.

Airport Size and Land Requirements:

 Small airports with a single runway require a minimum of 75 acres of flat land.

 Large, modern airports with multiple runways, extensive terminals, and parking areas can

require 3,000 acres or more.

The Selection Process

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 The site-selection process for large airports can take many months; in some notable cases it has

extended over many years. The procedure is complicated by the number of factors that must be taken

into account.

Operational Capability:

 Weather conditions: Favorable conditions with minimal fog, low visibility, or extreme weather

events like heavy snow/ice.

 Obstructions: Free of obstacles in takeoff and landing paths for safe flight operations.

 Airspace: Location within well-managed air traffic control airspace.

 Land Capacity: Sufficient flat land to accommodate runways and other airport facilities based

on expected size.

Accessibility:

 Distance from population centers: Close enough to be convenient for passengers and cargo.

 Ground transportation: Well-developed road network, access to public transport (railways) and

ample parking space.

Development Costs:

 Terrain characteristics: Flat land is ideal, minimizing construction costs associated with

complex terrain.

 Soil and rock conditions: Favorable soil conditions for construction and drainage.

 Local land value: Acquiring land at a reasonable cost.

Environmental Impact:

 Noise pollution: Minimizing impact on nearby communities through strategic placement and

noise reduction measures.

 Flora and fauna: Protecting endangered species and their habitat.

 Water pollution: Preventing chemical runoff from harming local water sources.

 Cultural heritage: Avoiding disruption of historical or cultural sites.

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  Land-use changes: Considering the impact on existing land-use plans and potential disruptions

to transportation networks.

AIRFIELD LAYOUT AND CONFIGURATION:

Operational Requirements

It is obvious even to the most casual observer that there is a large variation in the appearance

and layout of airport facilities.

Airport Layout Variations:

 Small airports designed for light aircraft have a similar, basic layout.

 Larger, more complex airports serving more passengers and cargo have unique layouts due to

specific needs.

Key Determinants of Airport Layout:

 Number and Orientation of Runways: This is influenced by:

o Obstacle Avoidance: Runways are positioned to avoid obstructions, especially during

critical landing and takeoff phases. For large airports, this extends up to 15 km (10 miles)

from the runways.

o Wind Conditions: Runway configuration aims to minimize crosswinds and tailwinds that

could hinder operations.

 Small airports: Light aircraft can't handle strong crosswinds exceeding 10 knots.

 All airports: Manufacturers advise against operating in tailwinds exceeding 10 knots

(10 knots, or nautical miles per hour, is equal to about 12 statute miles per hour or 19

km per hour).

Runway Configurations

The operational capacity of an airport, which is usually defined as the maximum possible

number of aircraft landings and takeoffs, is determined by the number of runways that are available

for use at any one time.

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 Four runway configurations.

 Single Runway: Most common layout, suitable

for low traffic volume.

 Crosswind Runways:

o Used when a single runway experiences frequent strong crosswinds.

o Capacity is lower compared to parallel runways under IFR conditions since they can't be

used simultaneously with the main runway.

o Configurations include: crossed, closed V, and open V.

o Less relevant as modern aircraft can handle stronger crosswinds.

 Parallel Runways:

o Increase capacity under VFR conditions.

o Independent parallel runways (minimum separation of 3,400 feet) allow simultaneous

landings and takeoffs under IFR (instrument flight rules).

Four parallel runway configurations.

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  Future Trends:

o As aircraft become larger and handle stronger crosswinds, the need for dedicated

crosswind runways might decrease.

o Master plans for some large airports consider eight runways, but these might be a

combination of independent close parallels and some for crosswind use (becoming less

common).

Runway Pavements

Runway Length:

 Early Aircraft (pre-1940s): Light aircraft operated on grass runways less than 600 meters

(2,000 feet) long.

 Heavy Aircraft (1930s onwards): The introduction of heavier aircraft like the DC-3

necessitated paved runways exceeding 900 meters (3,000 feet).

 Mid-1970s: Large jets like the DC-8 and Boeing 747 required even longer runways, reaching

almost 3,600 meters (12,000 feet) at sea level. Even longer runways were needed at higher

altitudes or hot temperatures.

 Since 1970s: Trend reversed due to: Pressure from airport operators and Development of

turbofan jet engines with improved takeoff performance.

 Benefits: Reduced land area needed for airports and less noise pollution around airports.

Airport Pavements:

 Materials: Now standard for runways, taxiways, aprons, and maneuvering areas.

 Design Requirements:

o Withstand aircraft weight without failure.

o Remain smooth and stable throughout their lifespan.

o Be free of dust and debris to avoid engine damage.

o Distribute aircraft weight to prevent subsoil failure.

o Prevent moisture infiltration from weakening the subsoil.

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 Types of Pavements:

 Rigid Pavements: Made of concrete slabs on a granular base.

o Load is transferred through the slabs to the subgrade.

 Flexible Pavements: Constructed with asphalt layers over a granular base.

o Distribute concentrated weight throughout the pavement layers.

Choosing a Pavement Type:

 Cost: Concrete or asphalt might be cheaper depending on the region.

 Fuel Spillage: Asphalt is susceptible to damage from jet fuel, so concrete is preferred for

aprons and runway ends.

Navigational Aids, Lighting, and Marking

Types of Airfields based on Weather Operations:

 Simple Airfields (VMC Only):

o Operate during daylight hours only.

o Minimal guidance provided: painted runway centerline and runway magnetic bearing

markings.

 Large Commercial Airports (VMC & IMC):

o Operate in all-weather conditions including darkness and low visibility.

o Utilize sophisticated navigation and visual aids:

 Radio navigational aids (navaids): Guide aircraft during approaches, takeoffs, and

ground maneuvering.

 Visual aids: Lighting and markings on runways and taxiways for better visibility.

Navigational Aids (NAVAIDS):

 Assist pilots during approaches, takeoffs, and ground maneuvering.

 Instrument Landing System (ILS): Most common approach aid.

o Radio signal guiding aircraft along the runway centerline and proper approach angle.

o Provides information on aircraft position relative to the ideal approach path.

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 Visual Approach Aids: Provide additional approach guidance to the pilot.

o Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS): Uses colored lights (white for above

glide slope, red for below).

o Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI): More modern system with similar functionality

as VASIS.

Airfield Lighting:

 Approach Lighting Systems: High-intensity white lights marking the runway centerline for

better visibility.

 Touchdown Zone Lighting: Lights embedded in the runway surface to guide pilots during final

moments of landing (low visibility conditions).

 Runway Lighting:

o Threshold: Green lights marking the beginning of the usable runway.

o Edges and Centerline: White lights for runway delineation.

o End of Runway: Red lights warning pilots of approaching runway end.

 Taxiway Lighting: Blue edge lights and green centerline lights for taxiway guidance.

Runway Markings:

 Painted markings providing additional visual guidance to pilots.

 Markings Indicate NAVAID Availability: Presence of markings suggests radio instrument

guidance is available.

 Precision Instrument Runways: Markings include runway edge lines, distance indicators, and

touchdown zone markings.

Air Traffic Control:

 Challenge: High volume of air traffic, especially around large airports. Aircraft require

significant airspace to avoid collisions.

 Solution: Strict adherence to ATC procedures: Ensures safe separation between aircraft.

 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Hierarchy:

o En Route Control: Guides aircraft during flight through designated areas (FIRs).
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 o Terminal Control Area (TCA): Highly monitored airspace near airports with dense traffic.

 TCA controllers use radar to track aircraft and issue instructions for navigation within

this zone.

o Approach Control: Oversees the final approach pattern for landing aircraft.

o Ground Control: Manages aircraft movements on runways and taxiways to prevent

conflicts.

 Provides instructions for reaching parking positions via taxiways and turnoffs.

o Apron Control (Optional): May be responsible for final positioning of aircraft at parking

stands.

 Departure Procedure: Follows a reverse order, transitioning from ground control to departure

control, then to terminal control area, and finally back to en route control.

Passenger Terminal Layout and Design

Passenger Requirements

 Passenger Terminal Importance: Grows in significance with increasing passenger volume. Can

represent over 70% of investment in large airports.

 Terminal Design Considerations:

o Passenger Volume: The main factor influencing terminal design.

o Passenger Type: Different passenger types have varying needs.

 Passenger Types and Needs:

o Business vs. Leisure: Business travelers typically pay more and expect higher service

quality (e.g., spacious and elegant terminals like Heathrow Airport).

o Scheduled vs. Charter: Needs differ at check-in and ground transportation. For example,

Palma Airport caters to charter tourists arriving/departing by bus.

o Transferring vs. Destination: Transfer/transit passengers mainly need airside facilities

(lounges, check-in desks). They don't require city access (parking, ground transportation).

Examples: Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International and Chicago O'Hare International

Airports.

 Hub Airports:
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 o High volume of transferring/transiting passengers.

o Aircraft arrivals and transfers are coordinated in waves.

o Airlines benefit from:

 Increased aircraft load factors (more passengers per flight).

 More frequent departures for passengers.

o Drawback: Inconvenient connections for passengers at the hub airport.

 Hub-and-spoke network: Airlines utilize hub airports to connect passengers to various

destinations. Passengers may experience layovers at the hub while switching flights.

Terminal Designs

Open Apron and Linear Designs

Six design concepts for airline passenger terminals.

 Open Apron Design (Simple &

o Oldest and simplest layout.

o Aircraft park directly next to the terminal building.

o Passengers walk across the apron to board using mobile stairs.

o Not suitable for large airports with high passenger volume.

 Linear Design (Common & Functional):

o Aircraft parked at gates adjacent to the terminal building.

o Passengers access aircraft through air bridges for direct boarding.

o Limitations:
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  Long building lengths required, leading to: Extensive walking distances for

connecting passengers. Operational challenges in managing long buildings (approx.

800 meters limit).

Pier and Satellite Designs

 Pier Design (For More Aircraft Gates):

o Developed in the 1950s for handling a larger number of gates.

o Passengers walk through long piers to reach aircraft gates.

o Examples: Frankfurt International Airport, Schiphol Airport.

o Disadvantages:

 Extremely long walking distances for passengers, especially in large terminals.

 Uncomfortable and unattractive experience for passengers due to large size.

 Satellite Design (Reduces Walking, But Not Ideal):

o Introduced in the 1960s to shorten walking distances within the terminal.

o Passengers transported to satellite buildings via automated people movers or trains.

o Limitations:

 Difficulty adapting to changing aircraft sizes.

 Inefficient use of apron space.

Transporter Designs (Not Widely Popular)

 Early 1960s concept to reduce aircraft maneuvering and eliminate stairs.

 Passengers access aircraft directly through specialized transporter vehicles.

 Examples: Dulles International Airport, King Abdul Aziz International Airport.

 Disadvantages:

o Longer passenger loading/unloading times, causing delays.

o Higher risk of aircraft damage from heavy transporters.

o Unpopular with both passengers and airlines.

Remote Pier Design (Efficient for Transfers)

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  Introduced in the 1980s, primarily for handling transfer passengers efficiently.

 Passengers transported to a remote pier via an automated people mover system.

 Requires a sophisticated people mover system due to long distances involved.

 Example: Stansted Airport near London.

Unit Terminals (Multi-Terminal Airports)

 Airports with multiple passenger buildings that can have:

o Similar designs (e.g., Dallas-Fort Worth and Kansas City).

o Different designs (e.g., London Heathrow).

o Different functions (e.g., general use vs specific airlines).

 Requires efficient rapid transit systems (e.g., automated people movers) for passenger

movement between buildings.

The Apron Area

One of the important requirements in the design of a terminal complex is minimizing the time

needed to service an aircraft when it is transiting an airport, especially for short-haul flights with tight

schedules.

 Minimizing Turnaround Time:

o Crucial for efficient airport operations, particularly for short-haul flights.

o Turnaround time for large passenger aircraft on short-haul routes can be as low as 25

minutes.

o Numerous service vehicles operate around aircraft during this short window.

 Challenges:

o Marshalling a large number of ground service vehicles and aircraft efficiently within the

limited apron area.

o Busiest airports can see an aircraft entering or leaving the terminal area every 20 seconds,

making marshalling even more complex.

The Design Process

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 The design of airport passenger terminals is a complex procedure normally undertaken only by

experts in that area.

Planning for Passenger Flow:

 Terminals are designed to handle a forecasted number of passengers in the future.

 Accommodating peak hours: The design anticipates periods exceeding normal capacity for

short durations.

 Specific measurements are used: These include "standard busy rate" and "typical peak-hour

passenger flow".

 The goal: Ensure minimal passenger inconvenience due to limited capacity.

 Target threshold: Ideally, insufficient capacity should occur for no more than 30 operational

hours annually.

 Passenger impact: In such scenarios, only an estimated 5% of passengers would experience

inconveniences.

Air Cargo Facilities: Design considerations and different handling methods.

Air Cargo Importance:

 Though a small portion of total freight tonnage (less than 1%), air cargo holds immense value.

Terminal Variations:

 Similar to passenger facilities, cargo terminals come in various sizes to handle different

volumes.

 Building size and handling methods adapt based on cargo volume.

Containerization:

 Modern air cargo facilities are designed for containers, as only 10% of cargo is loose or bulk.

Cargo Handling Methods:

 Manhandling (For Low-Volume Terminals):

o Economical in countries with cheap labor and low freight throughput.

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 o Not suitable for developed countries with high labor costs.

 Mechanized Handling (More Common):

o Even low-volume facilities utilize mobile equipment like stackers and forklifts.

o High-volume facilities use a combination of mobile equipment and complex fixed

systems.

o Fixed systems (transfer vehicles & elevating transfer vehicles) require specialized design

and maintenance.

Special Cargo Considerations:

 Special handling procedures exist for:

o Very heavy and oversized items

o Perishable goods

o Urgent materials (serums, organs)

o High-value items (diamonds, gold)

o Hazardous goods

o Livestock

Integrated Carriers and Small Package Delivery:

 A fast-growing segment of air cargo is handled by integrated carriers like FedEx.

 These companies offer premium door-to-door delivery of small packages.

 Separate terminals designed for overnight processing handle this type of cargo.

Airport Ground Transportation: Importance of seamless ground transportation options for passengers

and staff traveling to and from airports.

Airport as a Transportation Hub:

 Airports connect various transport modes (air and surface).

 Ground access design is as crucial as terminal layout and site selection.

Ground Traffic Volume:

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  Large airports can generate over 100,000 daily access trips for passengers, workers, and others.

Design Considerations:

 Internal circulation roads for efficient movement within the airport.

 Access highways for connection to city centers and surrounding areas.

 Passenger drop-off/pick-up zones.

 Short-term and long-term parking facilities.

Transportation Services:

 Larger airports can support taxis, limousines, and buses.

 Many major airports connect to rail systems (intercity, suburban, metro).

Challenges of Remote Airports:

 Peak traffic on access roads coincides with rush hour, making travel time unpredictable.

 As airports move farther from city centers, travel times and congestion worsen.

 Increased delay costs make air travel less competitive with ground transportation.

STOL (Short Takeoff and Landing) Aircraft:

 Proposed as a solution for airports closer to city centers due to their reduced space needs.

 However, STOL aircraft haven't been successful due to:

o Small size (uncomfortable and expensive to operate).

o Limited range due to low cruising speeds.

Future of Urban Airports:

 VTOL (Vertical Takeoff and Landing) aircraft like helicopters are generally too expensive.

 Large tilt-rotor aircraft might revolutionize the use of city-center airports.

Airport Capacity

An airport's capacity is determined by its ability to handle passenger and cargo flow without causing

inconvenience to users. There are several factors that can limit an airport's capacity, such as:

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  Air traffic delays

 Congestion on runways, taxiways, and aprons

 Crowding and delays in terminal buildings

 Congestion in access facilities like parking areas, roads, and public transport

Airport Capacity by Number of Runways

Number Of Estimated Annual Passenger Main Capacity Constraints

Runways Capacity
One Up To 25 Million Terminal Space
Two 55 To 65 Million Terminal Space
Four Over 100 Million Airspace And Access Facilities

Smaller airports with a single runway typically reach capacity limitations in the terminal areas first. As

passenger volumes increase, additional runways may be required to handle peak periods. However,

even large airports with multiple runways can face capacity constraints related to airspace and access

facilities. In fact, many of the world's largest airports are likely to face access problems before they

reach the operational capacity of their runways. Here are some additional factors that can affect airport

capacity:

 The types of aircraft that the airport serves: Larger aircraft can handle more passengers, but

they also require more space on runways and taxiways.

 The mix of domestic and international traffic: International flights typically require more

processing time than domestic flights, which can slow down passenger flow.

 The efficiency of the airport's operations: Airports that can efficiently move passengers and

cargo through the terminal will have a higher capacity than those that cannot.

Drainage

Large Airports as Urban Centers:

 Large airports resemble small cities with:

o High daily passenger volumes (over 100,000)

o Large workforce (over 50,000 employees)

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 Sewage System Challenges:

 Large daily flows of sanitary sewage from passengers and employees.

 Extensive paved areas create significant rainwater and snowmelt runoff.

 Some airports require dedicated sewage treatment plants due to the massive scale.

 Low-lying airport locations often necessitate extensive pumping systems for sewage

management.

Environmental Concerns and Storm water Runoff:

 Growing environmental awareness restricts direct discharge of runoff into water bodies.

 De-icing chemicals and cleaning agents pose a serious threat to water quality.

 Regulations mandate primary treatment of runoff and restrict the use of harmful chemicals.

Noise

Rise of Aircraft Noise as a Problem (Early 1960s):

 Increasing air traffic and noisy jet engines (e.g., early Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8) led to

significant noise issues.

 Public opposition to airport expansion plans due to noise concerns.

 Examples: London, Munich (new airport development impacted).

 Noise curfews implemented at existing airports (e.g., JFK International, Heathrow, Sydney).

Combating Noise at the Source (Aircraft Design):

 Regulations by ICAO and FAA promote quieter aircraft certification.

 Older, noisier aircraft are phased out as stricter noise standards are introduced.

 Advancements like high-bypass turbofan engines and improved climb performance contribute

to noise reduction.

Noise Reduction Measures by Airports:

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  Night Curfews: Limiting airport operations during night hours due to higher public sensitivity

to nighttime noise.

 Aircraft Restrictions: Banning or limiting operation of particularly noisy aircraft.

 Runway Selection: Strategic runway use to minimize noise impact on populated areas.

 Flight Path Optimization: Choosing approach and departure routes over less densely populated

areas.

 Operating Procedure Adjustments: Encouraging airlines to modify flight paths and procedures

to reduce engine noise over populated areas.

 Performance Monitoring and Penalties: Monitoring airlines' noise performance and imposing

penalties for violations.

Airport Security

The Evolution of Airport Security:

Pre-1960s:

 Airport security focused on preventing common crimes like theft and vandalism.

 Civilian police provided basic security.

The Rise of Hijackings (1960s):

 Civil aviation became a target for politically motivated crimes (hijackings, bombings).

 Early hijackings were rare (mostly in the 1930s) and often lacked political motive.

 By the late 1960s, hijackings, especially to Cuba, became frequent.

International Response (1960s & 1970s):

 The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recognized the threat and established

conventions:

o Tokyo Convention (1963): Addressed crimes onboard aircraft, jeopardizing safety.

o Hague Convention (1970): Focused on hijacking and extradition of offenders.

o Montreal Convention (1971): Expanded on the Hague Convention to include sabotage.

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 ICAO recommendations for stricter security measures followed, but enforcement varied by

country.

Early Security Measures:

 Focused on preventing weapons and explosives onboard.

 Passenger screening with magnetometers, body searches, and X-ray machines for carry-on

luggage.

 Limited public access to operational areas and secured terminals for staff.

Shifting Threats - Sabotage (Late 1990s):

 As hijackings declined, sabotage with explosives in checked baggage became a concern.

 ICAO recommended screening all checked baggage.

 Enhanced security fencing, access control, and CCTV surveillance in operational areas.

Post 9/11 Sea Change (2001):

 The September 11 attacks marked a turning point in airport security.

 Terrorists used hijacked airplanes as weapons, causing unprecedented destruction.

 Intensified security measures worldwide:

o More thorough passenger and baggage screening.

o No-fly lists and watch lists to identify risky individuals.

o Increased security personnel and equipment at airports.

o Longer recommended check-in times for international flights.

Heightened Baggage Scrutiny:

 X-ray equipment for metal detection and Electronic Detection Systems (EDS) for explosives

became widely used.

 EDS installation often requires building modifications and space allocation.

 Security equipment needs government approval and certification.

Car Bomb Threat:

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  Increased vigilance regarding car and truck bomb threats near airports.

 Reevaluation of pick-up areas, parking facilities, and integrated parking garages.

 Closure of integrated parking structures deemed a safety risk.

The Future of Airport Security:

 Relaxed security is unlikely due to the ongoing threat of terrorism.

 Potential future measures:

o Security checks for everyone entering terminals.

o Thorough passenger and baggage screening for weapons and explosives.

o Profiling interviews to identify potential threats.

2.4 AIRPORT FACILITY REQUIREMENT

SPACE REQUIREMENTS

 Land Side Facilities

o Pedestrian Facilities: This includes walkways, sidewalks, and covered paths for passengers

to navigate the terminal complex comfortably. The space needed depends on passenger

volume; wider walkways are needed for busier airports.

o Public Transportation Facilities: Dedicated areas for buses, trains, taxis, and ride-sharing

services to pick up and drop off passengers. The space required is determined by the

volume and type of public transport serving the airport.

o Parking Facilities: Short-term and long-term parking areas to accommodate passenger

vehicles. The space needed depends on the number of passengers and their parking

duration. Multi-story parking structures can be a space-saving solution.

o Entry & Exit Roadways: Efficient road access for vehicles entering and exiting the airport

complex. The number of lanes, traffic flow patterns, and separation from passenger areas

all influence space requirements.

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 o Airport Cargo Facility: Warehouses and handling areas for processing incoming and

outgoing cargo. The space needed depends on cargo volume and the types of goods being

handled.

 Air Side Facilities

o Runway: The paved landing and takeoff strip for aircraft. Runway length is determined by

the largest aircraft the airport can accommodate.

o Apron, Aircraft Parking, Gate Positions: This is the area where arriving aircraft taxi, park,

and load/unload passengers and cargo. The number of gates and their layout influence the

space required.

o Hangar & Maintenance Operations: Enclosed buildings for storing, repairing, and

maintaining aircraft. The space needed depends on the size and number of aircraft served

by the airport.

o Control Tower: A raised structure offering air traffic controllers a clear view of the runway

and surrounding airspace. The control tower's footprint is relatively small.

 Terminal Building

o Public Lobby: The main entrance area for passengers, often including information booths

and passenger service areas. It should be spacious to accommodate passenger flow.

o Check-In Facilities/ Central Ticketing Facilities: Areas where passengers check in for

flights, including counters, kiosks, and self-service baggage drop-off points. The space

needed depends on the number of check-in counters and the expected passenger volume.

o Security & Border Checkpoints: Areas where passengers and their belongings are screened

for security purposes. The space required depends on passenger volume and security

screening procedures.

o Baggage Handling System/ Baggage Claim Facilities: The network of conveyor belts and

sorting systems that transport checked baggage. Baggage claim areas should be spacious

enough to accommodate arriving passengers waiting for their luggage.

o Gate Lounge/ Departure Lounge: Areas where passengers wait for boarding after clearing

security. The space needed depends on the number of gates and passenger capacity per

flight.
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 o Administrative Offices: Office space for airport management, airlines, and other airport-

related operations. Space needs vary depending on the number of personnel and their

functions.

o Amenities Area

 Food & Beverage Services: Restaurants, cafes, and concession stands catering to

passengers. The space needed depends on passenger volume and the variety of food

options offered.

 Concessionaire & Building Services: Shops and service providers like newsstands,

currency exchange, and business centers. The space allocation depends on the types of

services offered and passenger demand.

2.5 AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

TAXIWAY DESIGN

The main function of taxiway is to provide access to the aircrafts from the runways to the

loading apron or service hangar and back.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARD

The speed of an aircraft on taxiway is much lower than speed on a runway during the landing

or take-off. Thus the design standards for a taxiway are not as rigid as they are runway and can be

listed as:

1. Length of taxiway

2. Width of taxiway

3. Width of safety area

4. Longitudinal gradient

5. Transverse gradient

6. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient

7. Sight distance

8. Turning radius

Length of Taxiway

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It should be as short as practicable. This will save the fuel consumption.

Width of Taxi way

 It is observed that the width of a taxiway is much lower than the runway width.

 This may be because, when aircrafts run on taxiway they are not air borne.

 The speed of the aircraft on the taxiway is also lower than the speed that the aircraft may

maintain on a runway.

 The pilot can, therefore, comfortably maneuver the aircraft over a smaller width of taxiway

than on a runway.

Width of Safety Area

 This area includes taxiway pavement shoulders on either side that may be partially paved plus

the area that is graded and drained.

 This may extend up to a point where it intersects a parallel runway, taxiway or an apron.

Longitudinal Gradient

 If the gradient is steep, there will be greater fuel consumption.

 It is recommends that the longitudinal gradient should not exceed 1.5 per cent for A and B

types and 3 per cent for other types of airports

Transverse Gradient

 This is essential for quick drainage of surface water.

 ICAO recommends that for taxi way pavement, like runway, the transverse gradient should not

exceed a value of 1.5 per cent for A, B, and C types and 2 percent for D and E types of

airports.

 A minimum transverse gradient of 0.50 per cent is suggested.

Rate of Change of Longitudinal Gradient

 This directly affects the available sight distance on the pavement.

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  ICAO recommends that rate of change of slope in longitudinal direction shouldnot exceed 1

percent per 30 m length of vertical curve for A, B and C types and 1.2 per cent for D and E

types of airports.

Sight Distance

 Since the speed of aircraft on taxiway is lower than on runway, smaller value of sight distance

will be sufficient on taxiway.

 ICAO recommends that the surface of a taxiway must be visible from 3 m height for a distance

of 300 m for A, B and C types and distance of 250 m be visible from 2.1 m height for D and E

types of airports.

Turning Radius

 Whenever there is a change in the direction of a taxiway, a horizontal curve isprovided.

 The curve is so designed that the aircraft can negotiate it without reducing the speed. Circular

curve of large radius is suitable for this purpose.

TERMINAL AREA AND AIRPORT LAYOUT

TERMINAL AREA

 It is the portion of an airport other than the landing area.

 It includes terminal and operational buildings, vehicle parking area, aircraft service hangars

etc.

 The terminal and operational buildings usually house all managerial and operational activities

for the aircrafts.

 The size of these facilities is determined by the expected type and volume of airport activities.

BUILDING AND BUILDING AREA

 The purpose of airport building is to provide shelter and space for various surface activities

related to the air transportation.

 They are planned for the maximum efficiency, convenience and economy.

Building Functions
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  The essential building categories for a commercial airport are terminal and operational.

 The size of each category may vary depending upon the scope and type of operations.

Terminal building

 It usually refers to a building mainly, used for passengers, airline and administration facilities.

 Its layout is such as to offer the enplaning passengers, the convenient and direct access from

the vehicle platform or street side of the building, through the booking and waiting rooms, to

the aircraft loading positions on the apron

 Deplaning passengers are also provided with a direct route from the aircraft to the baggage

claim counter and then to the vehicle platform.

Operational category

 It includes control tower, weather bureau and other government services related to the aviation.

 In many cases the terminal building fulfills the function of the operational building as well.

 The various facilities provided in the airport buildings are as follows :

1. Passengers and baggage handling counters for booking

2. Baggage claim section

3. Enquiry counter

4. Space for handling and processing mail, express and light cargo

5. Public telephone booth

6. Waiting hall for passengers and visitors

7. Toilet facilities

8. Restaurants and bars

9. First aid room

10. General store and gift shops

11. Space for magazines, newspapers, advertisement display etc.

12. Office space for airport staff

13. Weather bureau

14. Post office and banking facilities

15. Custom control

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 16. . Passport and health control

17. Control tower

SITE LOCATION FOR TERMINAL BUILDING.

The suitability of an area, as a site for terminal building development, is evolved inaccordance

with the following requirements:

1. Sufficient area for the first stage of building development with possibility of future expansion

2. Sufficient area for roadways

3. Adequate area for car parking

4. Layout of above items providing functional relationship with each other

5. Convenient access of the main highway

6. Central location with respect to runway

7. Proximity and easy installation of utilities, e.g. telephone electricity, water, sewage, etc.

8. Favorable orientation with respect to the topography and prevailing wind etc.

9. Good subsoil water characteristics including the natural drainage.

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS FOR TERMINAL BUILDING

Two concepts are there for planning of the terminal buildings for a commercial airport

1. Centralization

2. Decentralization

In the centralized plan, all passengers, baggage and cargo are funneled through a central

building and are then dispersed to the respective aircraft positions.

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 In the decentralized plan, the passengers and baggage arrive at a point near the departing plane.

 The choice of a particular type of plan is governed by the space needed for parking of the

aircrafts.

 When the aircraft parking area is located at an overall walking distance exceeding 180 m, a

change from the centralized system to decentralized system.

 Further, when the number of g a t e positions (loading area required for each aircraft) required

for the individual airline at one airport exceeds the decentralized plan also becomes

operationally uneconomical. Uneconomical

 This results in series of centralized airline spaces, arranged in a decentralized pattern.

APRON

 It is a paved area for parking of aircrafts, loading and unloading of passengers and cargo. It is

usually located close to the terminal building or hangars.

 The size of apron depends upon

1. Size of loading area required for each type of aircraft. This area is also known as gate position.

2. Number of gate positions.

3. Aircraft parking system.

Size of Gate Position

o This depends upon the following factors:

 The size of the aircraft and its minimum turning radius.

 The manner in which the aircraft enters and leaves the gate position under its own power or

when pushed by a tractor.

 Aircraft parking configuration: Aircraft are parked causing the

least interference due to heat, fumes and blast during maneuvering

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 into and out of the gate position. Jet engines are more critical in this respect than the piston

engine aircrafts.

 The basic parking configurations are illustrated in

Number of Gate Positions

 This mainly depends upon the peak hourly aircraft movements and the time during which each

aircraft remains in a gate position.

 This time in also known as the ramp lime and it varies from few minutes for small aircraft to

more than an hour depending on the size.

 The required number of gate positions can be obtained from relationship,

Aircraft Parking System

Aircrafts can be grouped adjacent to terminal building in various ways;

1. Frontal system

2. Open apron system

3. Finger system

4. Satellite system

Frontal system:

 It is very simple and economical system.

 But its use is limited only to small airports requiring few gate

positions

Open apron system:

 In this system the aircrafts are parked in rows.

 If the number of aircrafts is too large, passengers may have to walk long distances or reach the

aircrafts parked in the outermost row.

 They are thus exposed to weather, noise and hot blast of the jet

aircrafts.

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  To protect the passengers from such nuisance, some sort of closed vehicle conveyance for the

passengers may be essential such as buses.

Finger system:

Processing of passengers and their

baggage is mainly done within the terminal

building. But the facilities for passengers, for

entering and leaving the aircraft, often require

extensions of the terminal building. Such

extension is known as pier finger. It can be a straight, T-shaped or Y-shaped. Its main advantages are:

 If enclosed, it provides adequate protection to the passengers from weather, noise, fumes etc.

even when they come out of the terminal building.

 Future expansion is easier.

 All aircrafts remain close to the terminal building.

 It permits the installation of a short nose loading bridge or a swinging gang plank for the

convenience of the passengers.

 Satellite system:

Satellites are small buildings located on the apron.

 Aircrafts are parked around the satellite

buildings which are connected to the main

terminal building by underground tunnel.

 This system is in use at the International airport

of Los Angeles.

 It is advantageous, compared to the pier finger system only when the connections to satellite

buildings are through the tunnels.

 The disadvantages of this system are: (a) Large construction cost, (b) Passengers have to

change the levels several times as they leave the terminal building for boarding the aircraft.

HANGAR

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  The primary function of a

hangar is to provide an

enclosure for servicing,

overhauling and doing repairs of

the aircrafts.

 They are usually constructed of

steel frames and covered with galvanized iron sheets.

 They are also provided with machine shops and stores for spare parts.

 The size of hangar depends upon the size of aircraft and its turning radius.

 Adequate lighting inside the hangar is of prime importance. Sometime ceilings of hangar and

some portions of its side walls are glazed, which work as light reflectors.

 The number of hangars depends upon the peak hour volume of aircrafts and demand of

hangars on rental basis by different airline agencies.

TYPICAL AIRPORT LAYOUTS

The typical airport layouts for the basic runway configurations are illustrated in Figures.

VISUAL AIDS

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 The pilot needs visual aids while landing or taking off during all weathers and at every time.

The pilot usually takes help of the perspective view of the runway and other ground reference marks

during the landing operations. In order to enhance the day time visibility, runways, taxiways and other

allied structures are marked with lines and numbers.

AIRPORT MARKING

The airport markings are divided into the following.

1. Runway marking

2. Taxiway marking

3. Runway and taxiway shoulder marking

4. Apron marking

5. Wind direction indicator

6. Landing direction indicator

Runway Marking

The markings made on the runway are of the following.

1. Runway threshold marking

2. Runway touchdown zone or landing zone mark:

3. Runway edge strip marking

4. Runway centre line marking

5. Runway number

6. If there are two or more number of parallel runways, they are marked as follows at the

threshold:

a) Two parallel runways; L, R (i.e. left and right)

b) Three parallel runways; L, C, R

c) Four parallel runways; L, LC, RC, R

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  Runway threshold is indicated by a series of parallel lines starting from a distance of 6 m from

the runway end

 Runway touchdown area is indicated by series of strips marked parallel to the centre line of

runway. The number of strips decreases gradually in the direction of landing. For normal

landing, the pilot should be able to touch the runway within the touch down area.

 Runway edge strip is normally required when the runway-pavement width is 45 m or more. It

consists of a long continuous strip 0.9 m wide and placed near the edges of the runway.

Taxiway Marking

 All these markings are in yellow color

paint.

 The centre line of taxiway is marked with

a single strip having 15 cm width.

 This centre line normally terminates at the runway edge except in the case of exit taxiway

where the taxiway centre line is curved into the centre line of runway.

Runway and Taxiway Shoulder Marking

 It is done with a yellow paint. Runway shoulders are marked with

diagonal lines each having a width of 0.90 m.

 Taxiway and holding apron shoulders are marked with lines

perpendicular to the direction of travel of aircraft.

Apron Marking

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  Certain guide lines are painted on the apron to help the pilot in maneuvering the aircraft on the

apron.

 The marking is done with a yellow paint.

 Since the aprons are likely to be subjected to fuel spillage, the paint used is of a special type

which is fuel resistant.

 Usually, the guide line is painted to indicate the path of the nose gear of the most critical

aircraft.

Wind Direction Indicator

 The wind direction indicator, which may be a wind cone, is

usually placed at the centre of the segmented circle (airport).

 This helps the pilot in locating the airport and the wind

direction indicator.

 In most cases the panels are painted white so as to obtain a

distinctive colour contrast between the marker and its

surroundings and to protect them against weather.

 The segmented circle should have an inside diameter of 30 m

and the panel width varying from 0.90 m to 2.40 m.

 The wind direction indicator is generally in the form of a truncated cone made of fabric.

 Its length should not be less than 3-6 m and the diameter at the larger end should not be less

than 0.9 m as shown in Figure.

 It must be placed at a distinct place away from the buildings, so that it is not affected by the

eddies.

 It should be so coloured that it is visible from a height of 300 m.

 To achieve a better colour contrast with respect to its background, it may be painted with

bands of two different colours, viz., red and white, orange and white etc.

Landing Direction Indicator

 This is in the form of a Tee or Tetrahedron and is

placed at the centre of segmented circle

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  The purpose of this is to indicate to the pilot the direction of active runway of the airport.

 It is provided at a distinct place and is lighted during night time.

 The dimensions of a typical Tee type of landing direction indicator are shown in Figure.

AIRPORT LIGHTING

During landing, the pilot should have the following guidance.

Alignment guidance.

 The pilot must know if his aircraft is heading straight towards the runway.

 Most of the runways are 45 to 60 m wide and have lengths varying from 900 to 3900 m.

 Therefore, the runway appears like a long narrow ribbon when first seen from a great distance.

Airport marking and lighting which develop contrast of the pavement with respect to its

surroundings help the pilot in attaining the alignment information.

Height information.

 The pilot must know how much high the aero plane is above the ground.

 A large percentage of accident, even during good visibility conditions, has been due to

inadequate ground reference data which caused difficulty to the pilot in judging the height

while landing.

 One purpose of providing lighting at the airport is to impart adequate ground reference data to

the pilot.

Distance estimation

 The pilot must know how far he is from the runway.

 In the daytime, when weather is clear, the pilot uses the markings on the runway and the

surrounding terrain conditions as the side for distance estimation.

 In the night and during bad weather, the guidance obtained from the terrain conditions is very

poor. The visibility is enhanced by lighting the airfield and conveying the distance estimation

by colour or intensity contrast.

Roll guidance.
Page | 39
  The pilot must know, if his aircraft is banked in relation to the ground surface.

 This is said to be as an aircraft roll or altitude.

 If such a condition is not corrected, the lower wing of the aircraft would strike the runway

pavement.

 The view of the horizon, the natural ground terrain and the water surface etc. provide sufficient

guidance for the correct angle of roll.

The airport lighting can be divided into the following elements:

1. Rotating beacon

2. Code beacon

3. Boundary lighting

4. Approach lighting

5. Threshold lighting

6. Runway lighting

7. Taxiway lighting

8. Apron and hangar lighting

9. Lighting of wind direction indicator

10. Lighting of landing direction indicator,

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

NEED OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

The control of air traffic deals with that phase of air transportation which ensures safe,

convenient and economic movement of aircraft from one airport to another airport. The aircraft flight

from one airport to another involves the following basic actions.

1. The aircraft takes off from an airport.

2. It maintains a proper altitude in air.

3. It navigates from point to point safely.

4. It lands at the desired airport.

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 The system of air traffic control mainly concerns with the above items. The primary functions

of air traffic control devices can, therefore, be summarized as follows:

1. Airport traffic control: This deals with the following :

a) To guide the aircraft, desiring to land or takeoff.

b) To control the taxing of arriving and departing aircraft on the airfield between the apron

and the runway.

2. Airway traffic control; this regulates the movement of aircraft along the air routes with

adequate lateral and vertical separation to avoid collision. This is particularly essential when

visibility is poor.

3. Airway communication: This deals with conveying of airway and weather information to the

pilot during the flight.

4. General or non-airway traffic control: This presents a serious problem when personal flying is

done by a large number of people. In such cases the movement of aircraft, not flying along the

airway, must be regulated to prevent interference to the main air traffic.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AIDS

During all visibility conditions, the following air traffic control aids are always available to the

pilot during the flight:

1. Enroute aids or airway aids

2. Landing aids

Enroute Aids or Airway Aid

The following aids are available to the pilot during his flight from one airport to another:

1. Airway beacon

2. Low/Medium frequency (LF/MF) ratio range

3. Very high frequency Omni-directional range (VOR)

4. Air ground communication

5. Tactical air navigation (TACAN)

6. Distance measuring equipment (DME)

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 7. Marker beacon

8. Direction finder

9. Air route surveillance radar (ARSR)

Landing Aids

The following aids are available to any aircraft while landing.

1. Instrument landing system (ILS)

2. Precision approach radar (PAR) or Ground approach control (GAO)

3. Airport surveillance radar (ASR)

4. Airport surface detection equipment (ASDE)

5. Approach lights

Instrument landing system (ILS):

 It is at present the most widely used system of landing.

 ILS system provides facilities for landing even when visibility is poor. In the airfield where

this facility does not exist, the landing under IFR conditions is difficult, and the aircraft is

diverted to the adjoining airport where either proper visibility or equipped with ILS.

ILS consists of three components as follows

A. Localiser antenna

B. Glide slope antenna

C. Outer and middle markers (sometimes termed as fan marker)

2.6 LEGAL AND SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

Laws, regulations and official guidance in reports and audits provide information and

justification for security-related construction and refurbishment at airports. They influence the content

of the recommended security guidelines and their use by airport operators. Consulting these

documents will give airport management and affected parties insight into current and future

requirements, and planned government actions. Newly available technological tools for threat and

Page | 42
vulnerability assessments, risk management, flow modeling, and bomb blast protection can reduce

guesswork and minimize certain expenditures for security enhancements and improvements in new

airport facilities and structures.

A set of laws, international and national standards and recommended practices, other

regulations, documents, and manuals specify the legal framework for airport and heliport design,

negotiating, and airport technical documentation.

 THE CIVIL AVIATION ACT (Aviation Act), No. 143/1998,

 BUILDING ACT (Law on Town and Country Planning and Building Code), No. 50/1976,

 LAW ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT, No. 24/2006.

The basic standards and recommended practices for design and assessing airports is the

national standard L-14 Airports, Volume I. Design and operation of airport of 20th June 2009.

The limitation of the national regulation is that it was issued in 2009 on the basis of the 4th

edition of Annex 14/I. of July 2004 and has not been updated since then (the latest issue of the

Annex 14/I is the 6th edition of July 2013). Some of the parameters, for example for general

aviation airports, need to be discussed "ad hoc" in cooperation with the Transport Authority.

For an aerodrome which is open to public use, serves commercial air transport, and where

operations using instrument approach or departure procedures are provided, and:

o has a paved runway of 800 meters or above; or

o exclusively serves helicopters.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6541

An Act to Ordain and Institute a National Building Code of the Philippines Section 1.01.04

(a) This Code shall apply to all buildings and structures constructed and any change or repair made

thereon after the approval of said Code. Buildings or structures constructed before the approval of this

Code shall not be affected thereby; Except, where their continued use or occupancy is dangerous to

life or limb; or where alterations, additions, conversions, or repairs are to be made thereon, this Code

shall apply only to such portions of the buildings or structure which have to be altered in order to

effect such damages or repairs.

Page | 43
BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 344

An Act to Enhance the Mobility of Disabled Persons by requiring Certain Buildings;

Institutions, Establishments, and Public Utilities to install Facilities and other devices.

Section 1

In order to promote the realization of the rights of disabled persons to participate fully in the

social life and the development of the societies in which they live and the enjoyment of the

opportunities available to other citizens, no license or permit for the construction, repair or renovation

of public and private buildings for public use, educational institutions, airports, sports and recreation

centers and complexes, shopping centers or establishments, public parking spaces, workplaces, public

utilities, shall be granted or issued unless the owner or operator thereof shall install and incorporate in

such building, establishment, institution or public utility, such architectural facilities or structural

features as shall reasonably enhance the mobility of disabled persons such as sidewalks, ramps,

railings and the like. If feasible, all such existing building, institutions, establishments, or public

utilities may be renovated or altered to enable the disabled persons to have access to the: Provided

however, that buildings, institutions, establishments, or public utilities to be constructed or established

for which licenses or permits had already been issued may comply with the requirements of this law:

Provided further, that in case of government buildings, streets and highways, the Ministry of Public

Works and Highways shall see to it that the same shall be provided with architectural facilities or

structural features for disabled persons. In the case of the parking place of any of the above

institutions, buildings, or establishments, or public utilities, the owner or operator shall reserve

sufficient and suitable space for the use of disabled persons.

AN ACT TO ORDAIN AND INSTITUTE

A NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

SECTION 1.01.05 Building Use Affecting Public Health and Safety

(a) Any building or structure, or any ancillary or accessory facility thereto, and any alteration or

addition to any building or structure already existing, shall conform in all respects to the principles of

Page | 44
safe construction, shall be suited to the purpose for which the building is designed, and shall, in no

case contribute to making the community in which it is located at eyesore, a slum, or a blighted area.

(b) Adequate environmental safeguards shall be observed in the design, construction, and use of any

building or structure for the manufacture and production of any kind of article or product which

constitutes a hazard or nuisance affecting public health and safety, such as explosives, gas, noxious

chemicals, inflammable compounds, or the like.

SECTION 1.01.06: Maintenance

(a) All buildings or structures, both existing and new, and all parts thereof shall be maintained in a

safe and sanitary condition. All devices or safeguards, which are required by this Code in a building or

structure when constructed, altered, or repaired, shall be maintained on good working order.

SECTION 1.01.07: Insanitary, Unsafe, Hazardous, or Dangerous Sites

(a) The land or site upon which will be constructed any building or structure, or any ancillary or

auxiliary facility thereto, shall be sanitary, hygienic or safe. Where the land or site is polluted,

insanitary, unhygienic, unsafe, or hazardous, conditions contributing to or causing its being polluted,

insanitary, unhygienic, unsafe, or hazardous shall be reasonably improved or corrected, or proper

remedial measures shall be prescribed or incorporated in the design or construction of the building or

structure in accordance with the provisions of this Code.

(b) The land or site upon which be constructed a building of a structure or any ancillary or accessory

facility thereto, for use of human habitation or abode, shall be at a safe distance from streamers or

bodies of water and/source of air considered to be polluted, volcano or volcanic site, and building or

structure considered to be a potential source of fire or explosion, such as ammunitions factory or dump

and storage place for highly inflammable material.

AVIATION SAFETY AND NOISE ABATEMENT ACT OF 1979

The Act provides assistance to airport owners to prepare and carry out noise compatibility

programs to ensure continued safety in aviation, and for other purposes. The Aviation Safety and

Noise Abatement Act of 1979 required the following actions are taken:

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  Establishment of a single system of measuring noise, for which there is a highly reliable

relationship between projected noise exposure and surveyed reactions of people to noise, to be

uniformly applied in measuring the noise at airports and the areas surrounding airports;

 Establishment of a single system for determining exposure of individuals to noise which results

from the operations of an airport and which includes, but is not limited to, noise intensity,

duration, frequency, and time of occurrence; and

 Identification of land uses which are normally compatible with various exposures of

individuals to noise.

Section 103 of the Act authorized the Secretary of the DOT to make grants for airport noise

compatibility planning to minimize noise impacts on communities in and around airports. According

to the ASNA, a noise compatibility program identifies measures that an airport owner has taken or has

proposed for the reduction of existing incompatible land uses, and the prevention of additional

incompatible land uses within the area covered by noise exposure maps.

AIRPORT AND AIRWAY IMPROVEMENT ACT OF 1982

The Act’s goal was to promote the development of a civil system of airports nationwide. Funds

were appropriated from the general fund of the U.S. Treasury. The Airport and Airway Development

Act (AADA) replaced the FAAP in 1970. In addition, there are several other assurances of the Act

relating to planning, land use plan consistency, public participation, and safety, including:

Assurance 6: Consistency with Local Plans – A finding of consistency or inconsistency with

local plans based upon the results of the intergovernmental review process is required at the time of

application.

Assurance 7: Consideration of Local Interests – The non-airport sponsor certifies that fair

consideration has been given to the interests of local communities. This does not require the sponsor

to receive concurrence from all local communities, only that during project development their interests

have been fairly considered in reaching decisions relative to the project.

Assurance 13: Operation and Maintenance – Applies to federally assisted noise compatibility

project items and requires a sponsor to operate and maintain certain noise project items.

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 Assurance 20: Hazard Removal and Mitigation –When funds are allocated for developing new

runways, runway safety areas, or to improve existing runways, the airport sponsor must own, acquire,

or agree to acquire adequate property interest.

Assurance 29: Airport Layout Plan – Each project for airport development must provide for

updating the airport layout plan unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator of the FAA. By this

assurance, the airport sponsor (owner/operator) agrees to keep the ALP current at all times.

AIRPORT NOISE AND CAPACITY ACT OF 1990 (National Noise Policy)

This act required the establishment of a National Noise Policy. The emphasis for establishing a

National Noise Policy came about due to the magnitude of noise complaints from the public. The

opposition to aircraft noise by the public is one of the major obstacles to expanding and increasing

capacity at our nation’s airports. Resolution of the noise debate is one of the most important issues

facing the aviation industry. The lack of a National Noise Policy had created conflict between the

airlines, the airport owners, and the communities they serve.

AVIATION SECURITY IMPROVEMENT ACT OF 1990

Develop guidelines for airport design and construction, in consultation with airport operators,

air carriers, and other appropriate experts, to take security enhancements and improvements into

account at the earliest stages of planning and design. This legislation was influenced by

recommendations of the 1990 President’s Commission on Aviation Security and Terrorism, which

believed that the FAA should determine the security features necessary for new airport facilities, and

ensure that they are included in design and construction, recognizing that many airport structures did

not accommodate the application of appropriate security measures at that time. The requirement for

these guidelines was codified in 49 USC § 44914, and a later act added the requirement to consider the

results of threat and vulnerability assessments performed under § 44904 when drafting these

guidelines.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT (NEPA) OF 1969

This Act established the fundamental commitment of the federal government to fully consider

the effects of a proposed action on the human environment. It also set the basic requirements for the

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contents of a “detailed statement” (of impact) to be prepared for “major federal actions.” The Council

on Environmental Quality (CEQ), which was created by NEPA, has developed regulations for the

implementation of NEPA, and each federal agency has developed guidelines for the application of this

national policy to its specific programs. NEPA applies to every federal approval process. In terms of

aviation, this would include, but not be limited to, such actions as approval of an Airport Layout Plan

(ALP) revision, construction of a new runway, or a major runway extension.

2.7 BP 344 IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS (IRR) AMENDMENTS

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR ACCESSIBILITY

A. GENERAL PROVISIONS

1.Accessible Ramps

1.1 Changes in level shall require a ramp except when served by a dropped

sidewalk, curb ramp, an elevator, or other mechanical device.

1.2 Accessible ramps shall have the following facilities and features:

1.2.1 Minimum clear width of 1.20 m.

1.2.2 Gradient not steeper than 1:12.

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 Fig. A.1.1

Fig. A.1.2

DESIGN OF RAMP WIDER THAN 1.20 M. BUT NOT LESS THAN 3000 mm.

REQUIRING INTERMEDIATE HANDRAILS

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 Fig. A.1.3

1.2.3 For accessible ramps 3m or more in width, provide intermediate handrails at the

center. Use of double “J” type handrail supports are recommended.

1.2.4. Maximum length of 6.00 m.: Accessible ramps with a total length longer than

6.00 m shall be provided with intermediate landings with a minimum length of 1.50 m.

Fig. A.1.4 RAMP DIMENSIONS

1.2.5 Level area not less than 1.80 m at the top and bottom of any ramp.

1.2.6 Handrails on both sides of the ramp at 700 mm and 900 mm from the floor of

the ramp. (See Fig. A.4.1; A.4.2)

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 1.2.7 300 mm long extension of the handrail shall be provided at the top and bottom

of ramps.

1.2.8 Curbs on both sides of the ramp with a minimum height of 100 mm.

Fig. A.1.5 CURB HEIGHT AT RAMP

1.3 Any ramp with a rise greater than 170 mm and leads down towards an area

where vehicular traffic is possible, should have a railing across the full width of its lower

end, not less than 1.80 meters from the foot of the ramp.

Fig. A.1.6 RAMPS & VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

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 2.Slip Resistant Materials

2.1. Slip resistant materials shall have a Coefficient of Friction of 0.6 for level

surfaces and 0.8 for sloping surfaces (ASTM).

2.2. If carpets or carpet tiles are used on a floor surface:

2.2.1. it shall be securely attached;

2.2.2. have a firm cushion, pad, or backing;

2.2.3. have a level loop, textured loop, level cut pile, or level cut/uncut pile

texture;

2.2.4. maximum pile thickness shall be 13 mm;

2.2.5. Exposed edges of carpet shall be fastened to floor surfaces and have trim

along the entire length of the exposed edge;

2.2.6. Carpet edge trim shall comply with 4.5.2. Appendix Note (ADA).

3. Handrails and Grab Bars

3.1. Handrails shall be required for accessible ramps for changes in grade higher than

170 mm.

3.2. Handrails shall be installed at both sides of ramps and stairs. Handrails may be

provided at dropped sidewalks but should not be installed beyond the width of any crossing

so as not to obstruct pedestrian traffic.

3.3. Handrails shall be installed at 900 mm and 700 mm above stairs or ramps.

Fig. A.3.1

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 Fig. A.3.2

3.4. Railings for protection should be installed at a height of 1100mm minimum,

measured from the top of the rail to the finish floor for ramps, balconies, landings or

porches which are more than 750 mm above adjacent grade. These shall be installed in

addition to the handrails required for accessible ramps (Section C, Item 2). (per NBC Rule

XII under Guard Rails.)

3.5. A 300 mm long extension of the handrail shall be provided at the top and bottom

of ramps and stairs.

Fig A.3.3 EASY TO GRASP DESIGN

3.6. Handrails and grab bars that require full grip should have an outside diameter

of 38 mm (minimum) to 45 mm (maximum).

3.7. Handrails attached to walls should have a minimum clear distance of 50 mm

from the wall. Handrails on ledges should have a minimum clear distance of 40 mm.

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 Stair handrails shall be continuous throughout the entire length and around landings less

than 2100 mm in length, except where it is intersected by an alternative path of ravel

or has an entry door leading into it.

4.1. Accessible Parking Slot Requirement

Where parking spaces are required to be provided, the number of accessible parking lots

for vehicles driven by persons with disabilities or vehicles with passengers with disabilities

shall be in accordance with Table B.1.1 below:

ACCESSIBLE PARKING SLOT REQUIREMENT

TOTAL NUMBER OF REQUIRED NUMBER OF
PARKING SLOT ACCESSIBLE PARKING SLOTS
1 – 25 1
26 – 50 2
51 – 75 3
76 – 100 4
101 – 150 5
151 – 200 6
201 – 300 7
301 – 400 8
401 – 500 9
501 – 1000 2% OF TOTAL SPACES
1001 - OVER 20+ (1 FOR EACH 100 OR A
FRACTION THEREOF OVER 1000)
Table A.4.1 ACCESSIBLE PARKING SLOT REQUIREMENT

The building management should impose appropriate sanctions for the unauthorized

use of the reserved parking slots for vehicles of PWDs.

4.2. Parking slots for persons with disabilities should allow enough space for a person

to transfer from a vehicle to a wheelchair.

4.3. Accessible parking slots shall be located nearest to accessible main entrances.

4.4. PWDs should be on board the vehicle to be able to use the reserved parking space

for PWDs (for control use). In addition, an access parking sticker/card is required with

control number.

4.5. Whenever and wherever possible, accessible parking slots should be

perpendicular or to an angle to the road or circulation aisles.

4.6. Parallel parking is discouraged unless it can be situated so that persons entering

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and exiting vehicles will be out of the flow of traffic.

4.7. Accessible parking slots shall have:

4.7.1 A minimum width of 3.70 m and a length of 5.00 m.

4.7.2 A walkway with a minimum clear width of 1.20 m. provided between the

front ends of parked cars.

4.7.3 Dropped sidewalks or curb ramps leading to the parking level where access

walkways are raised.

Fig. A.4.1: ACCESSIBLE PARKING SLOT (PLAN)

Fig. A.4.2: ACCESSIBLE PARKING SLOT (3D VIEW)

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 4.7.4 Pavement markings, upright, pole mounted signages

4.7.5 Have a firm, level surface without aeration slabs.

Fig. A.4.3: ACCESSIBLE PARKING SLOT (SHOWING UPRIGHT/POLE

MOUNTED SIGNAGE

4.8.Parking slots for persons with disabilities shall never be located at ramped or sloping

areas.

4.9.For multi-storey indoor parking structures, accessible parking slots shall be located

right next to accessible elevators, or as close as possible to accessible pedestrian entrances.

4.10. In buildings with multiple accessible entrances with adjacent parking, accessible

parking slots shall be dispersed and located closest to the accessible entrances.

4.11. In parking facilities that do not serve a particular building, accessible parking

shall be located on the shortest accessible route of travel to an accessible pedestrian

entrance of the parking facility.

4.12. For all accessible parking slots, provide the following signage:

4.12.1 Pole mounted parking signage, 600 mm x 600 mm in size and mounted at a

minimum clear height of 2.00 m from the parking floor.

4.12.2 Pavement sign painted or marked on the designated lot complying with the

following:

(a) a square with dimensions of at least 1.00 m but not more than 1.50 m;

(b) be located in the center of the accessible parking slot;

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 The International Symbol of Access shall be composed of a white symbolized figure of a

person in a wheelchair with a square background in UN Blue Color. The symbolized figure

shall always face to the right.

4. Signages

5.1. Symbol of Access

The International Symbol of Access shall be composed of a white symbolized figure of a

person in a wheelchair with a square background in UN Blue Color. The symbolized figure

shall always face to the right. Provide directional arrows when the space/area/function

being referred to is facing left.

Fig. A.5.1

5.2. Directional and information (Audio, Visual, and Tactile) signages shall be

located at points that can be conveniently seen, heard, and felt by all persons with

disabilities.

Fig. A.5.2
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 Viewing Distance (m) Size (mm)

Up to 7.0 60 x 60

7.0 to 18.0 100 x 100

Above 18.0 200 x 200 t0 450 x 450

Height of Letters

Required Viewing Distance Minimum Height of Letters

(m) (mm)
1.5 50
2.0 60
2.5 100
3.0 120
4.5 150
6.0 200
8.0 250
Table A.5.1

5.3. Signages should be kept simple and easy to understand. Signages should be

made of contrasting colors and contrasting gray value to make detection and reading easy.

Tactile maps shall be provided to guide persons with visual impairment.

5.4. The International Symbol of Access should be used to designate routes and

facilities that are accessible in combination with pictographs. Directional signs

incorporating the INTERNATIONAL SYMBOL OF ACCESS, as shown in Figure A.5.1,

shall be installed at passageways, and at points where there are changes in direction to lead

persons with disabilities to various facilities such as lifts/elevators, entrances, telephone

booths, toilets, parking and the like.

Fig. A.5.2

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 5.5. Should a sign protrude into a sidewalk/walkway or route, a minimum vertical

clearance of 2.00 m should be provided. Obstacles, projections or other protrusions shall be

avoided in pedestrian areas such as sidewalks/walkways, halls, corridors, passageways or

aisles. Pedestrians with visual impairments often travel using the edge of the building line,

hence, objects mounted on walls, posts, or sides of buildings, should therefore not protrude

more than 100 mm into sidewalks/walkways and corridors.

5.6. Signs (graphics, text, and Braille) on walls and doors should be installed at a

maximum height of 1.50 m from the finish floor to the center of the sign.

Fig. A.5.3: SIGN ON DOORS & WALLS

5.7. Signs shall incorporate graphic, text, and Braille.

Fig. A.5.4

5.8 Signs and labels for public rooms, areas, and places should have tactile symbols,

letters or numbers that should be embossed with a minimum height of 1 mm; Braille

symbols shall be incorporated in signs indicating public places and safety routes.
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 5.9 Tactile Ground Surface Indicators

Positional, directional, and warning tactile blocks must be provided to warn people with

visual impairments that they are approaching:

5.9.1 Stairways, other than fire exit stairs

5.9.2 Escalators

5.9.3 Passenger conveyors or moving walks

5.9.4 Ramps other than fire-exit ramps, curb ramps, swimming pool ramps

5.9.5 In the absence of suitable protective barriers:

a. overhead obstructions less than 2.0 m above floor level

b. areas where pedestrian and vehicular traffic intersect.

6.0 Tactile warning indicators should have a 50% contrasting gray value from

adjacent floor finishes.

a. Tactile Maps Character

Proportion

Tactile letters and numbers on signs shall have a width to height ratio between 3:5

and 1:1 and a stroke width to height ratio between 1:5 and 1:10

Raised and Brailled Characters and Pictorial Symbol Signs (Pictograms)

Letters and numerals shall be raised 0.75mm, upper case, sans serif or simple

serif type and shall be accompanied with Grade 2 Braille. Raised characters shall be at least

16mm high, but no higher than 50mm. Pictograms shall be accompanied by the

equivalent verbal description placed directly below the pictogram. The border dimension

of the pictogram shall be 150mm minimum in height.

Finish and Contrast

The characters and background of signs shall be eggshell, matt or other non-glare

finish. Characters and symbols shall contrast with their background – either light characters

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on a dark background or dark characters on a light background.

Table A.5.2

b. Tactile Floor Surfaces

Fig. A.5.5

Fig. A.5.6

Fig.A.5.7

Fig. A.5.7

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 SAMPLE USAGE OF TACTILE SURFACES

5. Stairs

5.1 Uniform risers of 150 mm (maximum) and treads of 300 mm (minimum) shall be

used.

5.2 Tread surfaces shall be of slip-resistant material; nosings shall be slip resistant to

further minimize slipping.

5.3 Slanted nosings are preferred than protruding nosings so as not to pose difficulty

for people using crutches or braces whose feet have a tendency to get caught in protruding

nosings.

5.4 Open stringers shall be avoided.

5.5 The leading edge of each step on both runner and riser should be marked with a

paint or non-skid material that has a color and gray value which is in high contrast to the

gray value of the rest of the stairs.

5.6 A tactile strip 300 mm wide shall be installed before hazardous areas such as

sudden changes in floor levels and at the top, bottom and intermediate landings of stairs;

special care must be taken to ensure the proper mounting or adhesion of tactile strips so as

not to cause accidents.

5.7 Handrails shall be installed at 900 mm and 700 mm above stair treads. A 300

mm long extension of the handrail should be provided at the top and bottom, of stairs.

5.8 Stair handrails shall be continuous throughout the entire length and extend not

less than 300 mm beyond the top and bottom step.

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 Fig. A.6.1

Fig. A.6.2

B. OUTSIDE AND AROUND BUILDINGS

1.Dropped Sidewalks

1.1 Dropped sidewalks should be provided at pedestrian crossings and at the end of

walkways of a private street or access road.

1.2 Dropped sidewalks at crossings shall have a width corresponding to the width

of the crossing.

1.3 For crossings and walkways less than 1.50 m. in width, the base/level surface

at the bottom of the ramp shall have a minimum depth of

1.50 m. with a width corresponding to the width of the crossing.

For crossings and walkways less than 1.50 m. in width, the base/level surface at the

bottom of the ramp shall have a minimum width corresponding to the width of the crossing

(4.00 M minimum for national roads and as mandated by Local ordinances for local roads).

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FIG. B.1.1 Perspective of Dropped Sidewalk

Fig. B.1.2: Plan of DROPPED SIDEWALK

Fig. B.1.3a: VARIATION OF DROPPED SIDEWALK AT

CORNER

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Fig. B.1.3b: OTHER VARIATION OF DROPPED SIDEWALK AT CORNERS

4.1.1 Dropped sidewalks shall be sloped towards the road with a maximum cross

gradient of 1:100 (1%) to prevent water from collecting.

Fig. B.1.4: SECTION OF DROPPED SIDEWALK

4.1.2 The difference in elevation between the base/level area of a dropped sidewalk

from the road or gutter shall not exceed 19 mm.

4.1.3Provide the following signage:

(a) Pole mounted signage, 600 mm x 600 mm in size and mounted at a minimum

clear height of 2.00 m from the sidewalk floor. Pole mounted signs (planted) should not

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 obstruct the path of pedestrians. {Refer to DPWH Guidelines (Road Signs and

Pavement Marking Manual) for installing pole mounted signs on sidewalks.}

(b) Pavement sign painted or marked on the ramp complying with the following:

• a square with dimensions of at least 600 mm (for ramps less than 1.20 m wide)

but not more than 800 mm (for ramps 1.20 m. and wider);

• be located at the center of each ramp;

• the color of the International Symbol of Access shall be white on a blue

background.

4.2. Curb Ramps

4.2.1 Curb ramps shall only be allowed when it will not obstruct a sidewalk/walkway or

in any way lessen the width of a sidewalk/walkway or lessen the level/turning area of

1.50 m x 1.50 m. Curb ramps shall only be allowed if the width of sidewalks/walkways

are more than 3.30 m with a corresponding curb height of 150 mm, otherwise dropped

sidewalks shall be used.

1.4 For drop off points for persons with disabilities at loading bays, the

minimum width of a curb ramp should be 900 mm.

Fig. B.2.1

Fig. B.2.2

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 Fig. B.2.3: CURB RAMP

Table B.2.1

1.5 Curb ramps shall have a gradient not steeper than 1:12.

1.6 Provide the following signage:

1.6.1 Pole mounted signage, 600 mm x 600 mm in size and mounted at a

minimum clear height of 2.00 m from the sidewalk floor. Pole mounted signs (planted)

should not obstruct the path of pedestrian. (Refer to DPWH guidelines for installing pole

mounted signs on sidewalks.)

1.6.2 Pavement sign painted or marked on the ramp complying with the

following:
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 (a) a square with dimensions of at least 600 mm (for ramps less than

1.20 m wide) but not more than 800 mm (for ramps 1.20 m. and wider);

(b) be located in the center of the ramp;

(c) the color of the International Symbol of Access shall be white on a

blue background.

2.Sidewalks and Walkways

2.1 The gradient along the length of sidewalks/walkways should be kept as level as

possible and shall make use of slip resistant material. Slip resistant materials shall have a

Coefficient of Friction of 0.6 for level surfaces and 0.8 for sloping surfaces (ASTM).

3.1 Whenever and wherever possible, sidewalks/walkways should have a gradient

not steeper than 1:20 or 5%.

3.2 Sidewalks/walkways should have a maximum cross gradient of 1:100 or 1%.

3.3 Sidewalks/walkways shall have a minimum width of 1.20 meters.

Fig. B.3.1: SIDEWALK / WALKWAYS

3.4 If possible, gratings should never be located along sidewalks/walkways. When

occurring along sidewalks/walkways, grills of grating openings shall:

a. be perpendicular to line of travel

b. have a maximum center to center dimension spacing of 13 mm between

members;

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 c. not project nor be recessed more than 6mm above or below the level of the

sidewalk/walkway.

3.5 Sidewalks/walkways should have a continuing surface without abrupt pitches in

angle or interruptions by cracks or breaks creating edges above 6 mm.

Fig. B.3.2: GRATINGS

3.6 In lengthy or busy sidewalks/walkways, spaces should be provided at some point

along the route so that a wheelchair may pass another or turn around. These spaces should

have a minimum clear dimension of

1.50 m and should be spaced at a maximum distance of 12.00 m between rest stops.

Fig. B.3.3: REST STOP ON BUSY OR LENGTHY SIDEWALK /

WALKWAYS

3.7 To guide the person with visual impairment, sidewalks/walkways should as

much as possible follow straightforward routes with right angle turns.

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 Fig. B.3.4

3.8 Where planting is provided adjacent to the sidewalk/walkway, regular trimming

is essential to ensure that branches of trees or shrubs do not extend beyond

sidewalks/walkways or paths, as not only do these present a particular danger to the person

with visual impairment, but they also reduce the effective sidewalk/walkway width

available to pedestrians in general.

Fig. B.3.5

Fig. B.3.6
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 3.9 Sidewalk/walkway headroom should not be less than 2.00 m and preferably

higher.

Fig. B.3.7: SIDEWALK/WALKWAY HEADROOM

3.10 Sidewalks/walkways should not be obstructed by street furniture, bollards, sign

posts or columns along the defined route as they can be hazardous to persons with

disabilities.

3. Open Spaces

3.1 Where open spaces are provided, persons with visual impairment can become

particularly disoriented. Therefore it is extremely helpful if sidewalks/walkways or paths

can be given defined edges either through the use of planters with dwarf walls, or a grass

verge, or similar, which provides a texture different from the path. Tactile

surfaces/markings should be provided.

4. Provide Pedestrian Dominated Priority Zones in commercial complexes, to create a

feeling of safety particularly persons with disabilities Crossings

In order to reduce the exposure time to vehicular traffic, all crossings at grade shall:

4.1 Be as perpendicular as possible to the carriageway.

4.2 Be located at the narrowest, most convenient part of the carriageway for mid-block

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crossings.

4.3 Have a median/island of at least 1.5 m in depth, preferably 200 mm, provided as a

pedestrian refuge, where the width of carriageway to be crossed exceeds 10.0 m or at least

4 lanes.

Fig. 5.1.1

4.4 Pedestrian crossings shall not be located at street corners but at a minimum

distance of 2000 mm from the corner.

4.5 Provide directional tactile strips in the immediate vicinity of crossings as an aid to

persons with visual impairment.

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 Fig. 5.1.2

4.6 Secondary national and local roads with pedestrian crossings shall be provided

with light controlled pedestrian crossing signals with synchronized audible pedestrian

traffic signals.

4.7 The audible signal used for crossings should be easily distinguishable from other

sounds in the environment to prevent confusion to persons with visual impairment. A

prolonged sound should be audible to warn persons with visual impairment that the lights

are about to change.

4.8 The flashing green period required for the person with disability should be

determined on the basis of a walking speed of 900 mm/sec. rather than 1200 mm/sec.

which is what is normally used. The minimum period for the steady green (for

pedestrians) should be the crossing distance times 900 mm/sec. (Refer to Traffic

Engineering Center Guidelines for pedestrians with Disabilities).

C. INSIDE BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

1. Accessible Entrances
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 1.1 Entrances shall be accessible from arrival and departure points to the interior

lobby.

1.2 One (1) entrance levels should be provided where elevators are

accessible.

1.3 In case entrances are not on the same level of the site arrival grade, accessible

ramps should be provided as access to the entrance level.

Fig. C.1.1

1.4 Entrances with vestibules shall be provided with a level area with at least a 1.80

m. depth and a 1.50 m. width. (See Fig. C.1.2)

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 Fig. C.1.2 ENTRANCES WITH VESTIBULES

1.5 In cases where frameless transparent glass doors and any other vertical

transparent glass panels are provided, such glass panels should be provided with

horizontal or graphical patterns with contrasting gray value color against adjacent and

background colors, between 800 mm and 1.50 m. above the floor to prevent PWDs from

bumping against it.

1.6 Accessible entrance/exit of a building shall be provided with large overhanging

roof (canopy) to protect PWDs as well as non-PWDs from rain.

2. Doors

2.1 All doors shall have a minimum clear width of 900 mm.

2.2 Clear openings shall be measured from the face of a fully open door at 90

degrees and the door jamb

Fig. C.2.1 Plan of SLIDING DOOR

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 Fig. C.2.2 Plan of SWING DOOR

2.3 Lever type locksets should be operable by a pressure or force not more than 1.0

kg; the door closer device pressure on an interior door shall not exceed 4.0 kg.

2.4 A minimum clear level space of 1500 mm x 1500 mm shall be provided before

and extending beyond a door;

EXCEPTION: where a door shall open onto but not into a corridor, the required clear,

level space on the corridor side of the door may be a minimum of 1200 mm corridor width.

2.5 Protection should be provided from doors that swing into corridors.

Fig. C.2.3

2.6 Out-swinging doors should be provided at storage rooms, closets, toilets and

accessible restroom stalls.

2.7 Latching or non-latching hardware should not require wrist action or fine finger

manipulation.

2.8 Lever type locksets and other hardware should be located between 20 mm and

1.06 m above the floor; 900 mm is preferred.

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 Fig. C.2.4

2.9 Vertical pull handles, centered at 1.06 m above the floor, are preferred to

horizontal pull bars for swing doors or doors with locking devices.

2.10 Doors along major circulation routes should be provided with kick plates

made of durable materials at a height of 300 mm to 400 mm.

2.11 For doors with peepholes, provide a secondary peephole at a height of

1.1 m from the finish floor for wheelchair users.

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Fig. C.2.5

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 CHAPTER 3

3.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research aims to develop design-centric solutions for improving the functionality,

aesthetics, and passenger experience of international airports the Philippines, a detailed and

factual research shall be conducted to interpret the existing situation of such facilities. It shall be

one of the significant parts of the study to gather data on passenger experiences, operational

challenges, and existing infrastructure limitations that will be essential to the development of the

design of the retirement community.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design used for the study were descriptive and analysis, during this

process some problems and factors were considered. Site inspection and survey, data gathered

were reviewed and analyzed in the succeeding chapter. Related literature and studies were also

used as a basis in this study.

3.3 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The researcher collected data through sources coming from related published materials

such as books, maps and existing plans of the public spaces that will help for the development of

the proposed project. Also, incudes supplementary information related to the study through

magazines, books and other related studies in connection with the study. Analyzing the collected

data to identify patterns, trends, and key considerations for the proposed international airport.

Utilize both qualitative and quantitative methods to derive meaningful insights from the literature

review and interview responses.

Conducting both unstructured and structured interviews with individuals possessing

specialized knowledge about the needs and optimal action plans for an international airport in the

municipality of E.B Magalona. This will involve engaging with experts, stakeholders, and

professionals to gather insights into the specific requirements and challenges faced by

passengers.

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3.4 RESEARCH LOCALE

The chosen research locale for the case

study is at the 225.4 hectares interior lot

located in Brgy. Alicante, E.B

Magalona, Municipality of Negros

Occidental Province, facing the national

highway.

3.5 POPULATION UNIVERSE

This study likely has multiple target populations, considering the focus on both improved

passenger experience and national identity/cultural representation. Passengers is the primary

target population, including domestic travelers, international travelers, and passengers with

diverse needs. Stakeholders in the Philippine Aviation Industry are also part of the target

population including Airport Authorities and Airlines.

By addressing the needs of both passengers and stakeholders, the research aims to design

an international airports that are not only user-friendly and efficient but also contribute to the

overall growth and success of the aviation industry in the Philippines.

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 CHAPTER 4

4.1 SITE SELECTION

This chapter shall present and discuss the possible sites for the proposal based on the

designated criteria. Afterwards is the analysis of the presented data for identification of the

chosen sites justified based on its strength and weaknesses, and further discussion of its macro

and micro setting. The last part shall present schemes for site development plan of the selected

site.

4.2 SITE SELECTION AND PROCESS

4.2.1 CRITERIA FOR SITE SELECTION

In choosing the most appropriate site for the proposal, several criteria shall be considered

which shall be emphasized by the following:

Accessibility

 Transportation: The site should be easily accessible by land, sea, or air. This means

being close to major highways, railways, or existing airports. There should be enough

space for future road and rail connections to be built.

 Distance to population centers: The airport should be close enough to major population

centers to be convenient for passengers and cargo, but far enough away to minimize noise

pollution.

Climate

 Minimal fog and cloud cover: This is important for safe takeoffs and landings.

 Minimal wind shear: Strong and unpredictable winds can make it difficult for airplanes

to take off and land.

 Minimal precipitation: Heavy rain or hail can disrupt airport operations.

Safety

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  Free from natural hazards: The site should not be located in an area prone to

earthquakes, typhoons, floods, or landslides.

 Adequate buffer zones: There should be enough space between the airport and any

obstacles, such as mountains or buildings.

Community compatibility

 Noise pollution: The airport should be located in an area where noise pollution will not

disrupt the lives of residents.

 Air pollution: The airport's impact on air quality should be minimized.

 Land use: The airport should be built on land that is not currently being used for

something else, such as agriculture or residential housing.

Topography

 Flat land: The land should be relatively flat to minimize the cost of construction.

 Enough space for expansion: The site should be large enough to accommodate the

airport's initial needs and future expansion.

Soil conditions

 Stable soil: The soil should be strong enough to support the weight of airplanes and

airport buildings.

 Good drainage: The soil should drain well to prevent flooding.

Environmental factors

 Minimize impact on wildlife: The airport should be built in a way that minimizes its

impact on wildlife and their habitats.

 Minimize deforestation: The construction of the airport should not require the

deforestation of large areas of land.

Size and shape

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  The size and shape of the site should be appropriate for the type of airport that is being

planned. A large international airport will need a much larger site than a small domestic

airport.

 The shape of the site should allow for efficient runway layout and future expansion.

Zoning and regulations

 The site should be zoned for airport use. This will help to ensure that there are no

conflicts with other land uses.

 The airport will need to comply with all applicable aviation safety regulations.

4.2.2 SITE OPTION DESCRIPTION

The study shall have three (3) possible sites that shall serve as the choices in describing

the most appropriate site location for the proposed structure. These sites shall comply with the

site criteria as required by the proponent.

SITE A:

Brgy. Alicante, Saravia, E.B. Magalona, Negros Occidental

Area = 225.4 ha

LOCATION

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 Alicante is a barangay (in the municipality of Enrique B. Magalona (also known as

Saravia), in the province of Negros Occidental, Philippines. Brgy. Alicante is located in the

eastern part of the municipality of Enrique B. Magalona, about 5 kilometers (3 miles) from the

town center. It is bordered by the barangays of Consing to the north, Poblacion III to the east,

Cudangdang to the south, and Gahit to the west. Brgy. Alicante is home to a number of historical

landmarks, including the Alicante Spanish Fort and the Alicante Church.

POPULATION

Its population as determined by the 2020 Census was 7,297. This represented 11.35% of

the total population of Enrique B. Magalona.

CLIMATE

Located at an elevation of None meters (0 feet) above sea level, Enrique B. Magalona has

a Tropical monsoon climate (Classification: Am). The district’s yearly temperature is 27.17ºC

(80.91ºF) and it is -0.05% lower than Philippines’s averages. Enrique B. Magalona typically

receives about 181.81 millimeters (7.16 inches) of precipitation and has 237.92 rainy days

(65.18% of the time) annually.

TOPOGRAPHY

Brgy. Alicante boasts a mostly flat topography, with an elevation of approximately at 7.4

meters or 24.3 feet above mean sea level. This characteristic contributes to its suitability for

agricultural activities.

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SOIL CONDITION

The dominant soil type across E.B. Magalona, including Barangay Alicante, is generally

classified as Silay Loam. This type of soil is moderately fertile, suitable for various crops like

rice, corn, and sugarcane. Loam texture, meaning it has a good balance of sand, silt, and clay,

offering good water retention and drainage. Slightly higher areas in the west and northwest might

have slightly different soil compositions compared to the flat central and eastern areas. Areas

closer to rivers or creeks might have more fertile alluvial soils.

SITE B:

Brgy. Nangka, Bayawan City, Negros Oriental

Area = 170.19 ha

LOCATION

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 Barangay Nangka is a part of Bayawan City, located in the province of Negros Oriental

within Region 7 (Central Visayas), Philippines. Brgy. Nangka is situated on Negros Island at

approximately 9.4320° North, 122.8274° East. Bayawan City is known for its scenic beauty,

agricultural industry, and vibrant culture. Nangka is one of its barangays, or administrative

divisions, contributing to the city's diversity and community spirit.

POPULATION

Its population as determined by the 2020 Census was 10,637. This represented 8.67% of

the total population of Bayawan.

CLIMATE

Located at an elevation of 241.21 meters (791.37 feet) above sea level, Bayawan City has

a Tropical monsoon climate (Classification: Am). The district’s yearly temperature is 26.52ºC

(79.74ºF) and it is -0.7% lower than Philippines’s averages. Bayawan City typically receives

about 170.0 millimeters (6.69 inches) of precipitation and has 242.68 rainy days (66.49% of the

time) annually.

TOPOGRAPHY

The topography of Brgy. Nangka itself is likely on the flatter side, given its recorded

elevation of approximately 12 meters above sea level. Bayawan City has a coastline of

approximately 15 kilometers, with several barangays bordering the Negros Oriental coast. These

areas have low elevations, generally at sea level.

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SOIL CONDITION

Faraon Clay is the prevalent type of soil in the area. This black soil type is derived from

the decomposition of coralline limestone. Faraon Clay might not be the ideal soil type for an

airport due to its strength, drainage, and shrink-swell potential, it's not necessarily impossible to

build on.

SITE C:

Brgy.

Poblacion, Ubay, Bohol

Area = 234.47 ha

LOCATION

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 Poblacion is one of the 44 barangays of the municipality of Ubay, in the province of

Bohol, Philippines. The barangay serves as the central barangay or town center of the

municipality. Poblacion is bounded to the north by Camotes Sea, to the east by Fatima, to the

south by Bood, and to the west by Casate and Tapon.

POPULATION

Its population as determined by the 2020 Census was 2,749. This represented 3.36% of

the total population of Ubay.

CLIMATE

Located at an elevation of None meters (0 feet) above sea level, Ubay has a Tropical

rainforest climate (Classification: Af). The district’s yearly temperature is 28.89ºC (84.0ºF) and

it is 1.67% higher than Philippines’s averages. Ubay typically receives about 72.77 millimeters

(2.86 inches) of precipitation and has 157.57 rainy days (43.17% of the time) annually.

TOPOGRAPHY

Ubay is a coastal municipality in the province of Bohol, Central Visayas region (Region

VII), Philippines. Elevation at these coordinates is estimated at 7.3 meters or 23.9 feet above

mean sea level. The topography of Poblacion, Ubay is likely flat or gently rolling terrain.

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SOIL CONDITION

The municipality of Ubay falls within two types of soil. The Soil Map of Bohol provided

by the Provincial Planning and Development Office (PPDO) indicates two types present within

Brgy. Poblacion, including Candijay clay and Ubay Clay.

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA

 1- SEVERE LIMITATION

 2- MODERATE CONSTRAIN

 3- GOOD CONDITION

 4- EXCELLENT CONDITION

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA SITE A SITE B SITE C

Accessibility 4 3 4

Climate 4 4 4

Safety 3 3 4

Proximity to amenities 3 2 3

Community compatibility 4 3 3

Topography 4 4 4

Soil conditions 4 2 3

Environmental factors 4 3 3

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 Size and shape 4 4 4

Zoning and regulations 4 4 4

TOTAL 3.8 3.2 3.6

PERCENTAGE 95% 80% 90%

4.3. THE CHOSEN SITE

Alicante is a barangay in the municipality of Enrique B. Magalona, in the province of

Negros Occidental. Its population as determined by the 2020 Census was 7,297. This represented

11.35% of the total population of Enrique B. Magalona.

Like many barangays in E.B. Magalona, Alicante has its own distinct qualities, such as

residential neighborhoods, commercial establishments, and community facilities. It also has

access to coastal areas, which allows for fishing and other coastal-related activities.

Based on thorough analysis on the data gathered regarding the three site options, the

selected site for the proposal is the site A, which is in the inner part of Barangay Alicante. The

site is an interior lot facing the national highway with a land area of 225.4 hectares.

Alicante, like many low-lying areas along the coast in E.B. Magalona, Negros

Occidental, may be susceptible to floods under specific circumstances. However, the chosen site

has a low flood susceptibility due to its 0%-8% slope level and undulating terrain. Terrain

features flat coastal sections, undulating hills, and pockets of green space.

4.4 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this research has established a framework for reimagining Philippine

international airports, prioritizing passenger experience, cultural representation, and

sustainability. Municipality of E.B. Magalona, particularly Barangay Alicante, could be a

potential location for a new international airport. By applying this research framework to

Barangay Alicante, a comprehensive assessment can be conducted to determine its suitability. If

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suitable, the airport design could prioritize the elements identified in this research: passenger

comfort, efficiency, and cultural immersion. This would create a positive experience for travelers

and contribute to the Philippines' aviation industry.

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