FLIGHT OPERATIONS OFFICERS COURSE

AIRLAW

D. DEFINITIONS
1. INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND ORGANIZATIONS
2. AIRWORTHINESS OF AIRCRAFT
3. AIRCRAFT NATIONALITY AND REGISTRATION MARKS
4. FLIGHT CREW LICENSING
5. RULES OF THE AIR
6. INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES - DEPARTURES
7. APPROACH PROCEDURES
8. CIRCLING APPROACH
9. HOLDING PROCEDURES
10. ALTIMETER SETTING
11. PARALLEL OR NEAR-PARALLEL RUNWAY OPERATION
12. SSR AND ACAS
13. AIRSPACE
14. AIR TRAFFIC
15. SEPARATION
16. CONTROL OF AIRCRAFT
17. AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (AIS)
18. AERODROMES - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
19. AERODROMES - VISUAL AIDS, MARKINGS AND SIGNS
20. AERODROME LIGHTING
21. OBSTACLE MARKING AND AERODROME SERVICES
22. FACILITATION
23. SEARCH AND RESCUE
24. SECURITY
25. AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT INVESTIGATION
26. REVISION QUESTIONS

1
ABBREVIATIONS
A Amber
(or AAB, AAC . . . etc., in Sequence) Amended me-
AAA
teorological Message ( message type designator )
Aircraft accident investigation Board (AAID in
AAIB
Kenya)

AAD Assigned Altitude Deviation

AAL Above Aerodrome Level
ABI Advance Boundary Information
ABM Abeam
ABN Aerodrome Beacon
ABT About
ABV Above

2
AC Altocumulus
( to be pronounced "AY-CARS" ) Aircraft Commu-
ACARS
nication Addressing and Reporting System
ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
ACC Area Control Centre or Area Control
ACCID Notification of an Aircraft Accident
ACFT Aircraft
ACK Acknowledge
ACL Altimeter Check Location
ACN Aircraft Classification Number
ACP Acceptance( message type designator )
ACPT Accept or Accepted
ACT Active or Activated or Activity
AD Aerodrome
ADC Aerodrome Chart
ADA Advisory Area
ADDN Addition or Additional
ADF Automatic Direction-finding Equipment
( to be pronounced "AY-DIZ" ) Air Defence Identi-
ADIZ
fication Zone
ADJ Adjacent
ADO Aerodrome Office (specify service)
ADR Advisory Route
ADS Automatic Dependent Surveillance
ADSU Automatic Dependent Surveillance Unit
ADVS Advisory Service

3
ADZ Advise
AES Aircraft Earth Station
AFIL Flight Plan filed in the air
AFIS Aerodrome Flight Information Service
AFM Yes or Affirm or Affirmative or that is correct
AFS Aeronautical Fixed Service
AFT After . . . ( time or place )
AFTN Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network
A/G Air-to-Ground
AGA Aerodromes, Air Routes and Ground Aids
AGL Above Ground Level
AGN Again
AIC Aeronautical Information Circular
Air Traffic Services Inter-facility Data Communica-
AIDC
tion
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication
AIRAC Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control
AIREP Air Report (spoken form)
Information concerning en-route weather phenom-
AIRMET ena which may affect the safety of low-level aircraft
operations
AIS Aeronautical Information Services
ALA Alighting Area
ALERFA Alert Phase
ALR Alerting ( message type designator )
ALRS Alerting Service
ALS Approach Lighting System
4
ALT Altitude
ALTN Alternate or Alternating ( light alternates in colour )
AMA Area Minimum Altitude
Amend or Amended ( used to indicate amended me-
AMD
teorological )message; message type designator
AMDT Amendment ( AIP Amendment )
AMS Aeronautical Mobile Service
AMSL Above mean Sea Level
AMSS Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service
Aeronautical Chart 1:500,000 followed by name
ANC
and title
ANCS Aeronautical Navigational Chart Small scale
ANS Answer
AOC Aerodrome Obstacle Chart
AP Airport
( to be pronounced AY-PAPI ) Abbreviated Preci-
APAPI
sion Approach Path Indicator
APCH Approach
APDC Aircraft Parking/Docking Chart
APN Apron
Approach Control Office or Approach Control or
APP
Approach Control Service
APR April
APRX Approximate or Approximately
APSG After Passing
APV Approve or Approved or Approval
ARC Area Chart

5
 Area Forecast ( in aeronautical meteorological
ARFOR
code )
Forecast upper wind and temperature at specific
ARMET
points
ARNG Arrange
ARO Air Traffic Services Reporting Office
ARP Aerodrome Reference Point
ARQ Automatic Error Correction
ARR Arrive or Arrival
ARR. Arrival ( message type designator )
ARS Special Air-Report ( message type designator )
Arresting (specify (part of) aircraft arresting equip-
ARST
ment)
AS Altostratus
ASC Ascend to or Ascending to
ASDA Accelerate-Stop Distance Available
ASPH Asphalt
At (followed by time at which Weather change is
AT . . .
forecast to occur)
(to be pronounced AY-TEE-VASIS) Abbreviated T-
AT-VASIS
Visual Approach Slope Indicator System
ATA Actual Time of Arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control (in general)
ATD Actual Time of Departure
ATFM Air Traffic Flow Management
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service
ATM Air Traffic Management
ATN Aeronautical Telecommunication Network
6
ATP At . . . (time or place)
ATS Air Traffic Services
ATTN Attention
(to be pronounced AY-TEE-VASIS) Abbreviated T-
AT-VASIS
Visual Approach slope indicator system
ATZ Aerodrome Traffic Zone
AUG August
AUTH Authorized or Authorization
AUW All Up Weight
AUX Auxiliary
Abbreviated Visual Approach Slope Indicator Sys-
AVASIS
tem
AVBL Available or Availability
AVG Average
AVGAS Aviation Gasoline
AWTA Advise at What Time Able
AWY Airway
AZM Azimuth
B
B Blue
BA Braking Action
BASE Cloud Base
BCFG Fog Patches
BCN Beacon (aeronautical ground light)
BCST Broadcast
BDRY Boundary

7
BECMG Becoming
BFR Before
BKN Broken
Blowing (followed by DU = dust, SA = sand or SN
BL . . .
= snow)
BLDG Building
BLO Below clouds
BLW Below . . .
BOMB Bombing
BR Mist
Short (used to indicate the type of approach de-
BRF
sired or required)
BRG Bearing
BRKG Braking
BS Commercial Broadcasting Station
BTL Between Layers
BTN Between
C
C Centre (runway identification)
C Degrees Celsius (Centigrade)
CA Course to an altitude
CAA Civil Aviation Authority
CAT Category
CAT. Clear Air Turbulence
CB Cumulonimbus (to be pronounced as "CEE BEE")
CC Cirrocumulus

8
 Corrected Meteorological Message (or CCB,
CCA CCC . . . etc., in sequence) (message type designa-
tor)
CD Candela
CDN Coordination (message type designator)
CF Change Frequency to . . .
CFM Confirm or I confirm
CGL Circling Guidance Light(s)
CH Channel
CHG Modification (message type designator)
CI Cirrus
CIDIN Common ICAO Data Interchange Network
CIT Near or Over Large Towns
CIV Civil
CK Check
CL Centre Line
CLA Clear Type of Ice Formation
CLBR Calibration
CLD Cloud
CLG Calling
CLR Clear(s) or Cleared to . . . or Clearance
CLSD Close or Closed or Closing
CM Centimetre
CMB Climb to or Climbing to
CMPL Completion or Completed or Complete
CNL Cancel or Cancelled

9
CNL. Flight plan Cancellation (message type designator)
CNS Communications, Navigation and Surveillance
COM Communications
CONC Concrete
COND Condition
CONS Continuous
CONST Construction or Constructed
CONT Continue(s) or Continued
COOR Coordinate or Coordination
COORD Coordinates
COP Change Over Point
Correct or Correction or Corrected (used to indi-
COR cate corrected meteorological message; message
type designator)
COT At the Coast
COV Cover or Covered or Covering
CPDLC Controller-Pilot Data-link Communication
CPL Current Flight Plan (message type designator)
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
CRZ Cruise
CS Call-Sign
CS. Cirrostratus
CTA Control area
CTAM Climb to and Maintain
CTC Contact
CTL Control

10
CTN Caution
CTR Control Zone
CU Cumulus
CUF Cumuliform
CUST Customs
CVR Cockpit Voice Recorder
CW Continuous Wave
CWY Clearway
D
D... Danger Area ( followed by identification)
Downward (tendency in RVR during previous 10
D...
minutes)
DA Decision Altitude
( to be pronounced DEE-ATIS) Data Link Terminal
D-ATIS
information service
D-VOL-
Data Link VOLMET
MET
DCD Double Channel Duplex
DCKG Docking
DCPC Direct Controller-Pilot Communication
DCS Double channel simplex
Direct (in relation to flight plan clearances and type
DCT
of approach)
From (used to precede the Cs at the Calling Station
DE
- to be used in AFS as a procedure signal)
DEC December
DEG Degrees
DEP Depart or Departure
11
DEP. Departure (message type designator)
DES Descend to or Descending to
DEST Destination
DETRESFA Distress Phase
DEV Deviation or Deviating
DFDR Digital Flight Data Recorder
DFTI Distance From Touchdown Indicator
DH Decision Height
DIF Diffuse
DIST Distance
DIV Divert or Diverting
DLA Delay (message type designator)
DLA. Delay or Delayed
DLIC Data Link Initiation Capability
DLY Daily
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
DNG Danger or Dangerous
DOM Domestic
DP Dew Point Temperature
DPT Depth
DR Dead Reckoning
Low Drifting (followed by DU = dust, SA = sand or
DR . . .
SN = snow)
DRG During
DS Dust Storm
DSB Double Sideband
12
DTAM Descend to and Maintain
DTG Date-Time Group
DTHR Displaced Threshold
DTRT Deteriorate or Deteriorating
DTW Dual Tandem Wheels
DU Dust
DUC Dense Upper Cloud
This is Duplicate Message (to be used in AFS as a
DUPE
procedure signal)
DUR Duration
D-VOL-
Data Link Volmet
MET
DVOR Doppler VOR
DW Dual Wheels
DX Duplex
DZ Drizzle
E
E East or Eastern Longitude
EAT Expected Approach Time
EB Eastbound
ECL Exercise Caution when Landing
EEE Error (to be used in AFS as procedure signal)
EET Estimated Elapsed Time
EFC Expect Further Clearance
Extremely High Frequency (30 000 to 300 000
EHF
MHz)
ELBA Emergency Location Beacon Aircraft
13
ELEV Elevation
ELR Extra Long Range
ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter
EM Emission
Embedded in a Layer (to indicate cumulonimbus
EMBD
embedded in layers of other clouds)
EMERG Emergency
END Stop End (related to RVR)
ENE East North East
ENG Engine
ENR En route
ENRC En route Chart (followed by name/title)
EOBT Estimated Off-Block Time
EQPT Equipment
ER Here . . . or Herewith
ESE East South East
Estimate or Estimated or Estimate Message (mes-
EST
sage type designator)
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival or Estimating Arrival
Estimated Time of Departure or Estimating Depar-
ETD
ture
ETO Estimated Time Over Significant Point
EV Every
EXC Except
EXER Exercises or Exercising or To Exercise
EXP Expect or expected or Expecting
EXT Extension Numbers
14
EXTD Extend or Extending
F
F Fixed
FAC Facilities
FAF Final Approach Fix
FAL Facilitation of International Air Transport
FAP Final Approach Point
FATO Final Approach and Take-Off Area
FAX Facsimile Transmission
Light (used to indicate the intensity of weather phe-
FBL nomena, interference or static reports, e.g. FBL RA
= light rain)
FC Funnel Cloud (tornado or water spout)
FCST Forecast
FCT Friction Coefficient
FDPS Flight Data Processing System
FEB February
FEW Few
FG Fog
FIC Flight Information Centre
FIR Flight Information Region
FIS Flight Information Service
FISA Automated Flight Information Service
FL Flight Level
FLD Field
FLG Flashing

15
FLR Flares
FLT Flight
FLTCK Flight Check
FLUC Fluctuating or Fluctuation or Fluctuated
FLW Follow(s) or Following
FLY Fly or Flying
FM From
From (followed by time weather change is forecast
FM . . .
to begin)
FMS Flight Management System
FMU Flow Management Unit
FNA Final Approach
FPL Filed Flight Plan (message type designator)
FPM Feet Per Minute
FPR Flight Plan Route
FR Fuel Remaining
FREQ Frequency
FRI Friday
FRNG Firing
FRONT Front (relating to weather)
FRQ Frequent
FSL Full Stop Landing
FSS Flight Service Station
FST First
FT Feet (dimensional unit)
FU Smoke
16
FZ Freezing
FZDZ Freezing Drizzle
FZFG Freezing Fog
FZRA Freezing Rain
G
G Green
Go Ahead - resume sending (to be used in AFS as a
GA
procedure signal)
G/A Ground-To-Air
G/A/G Ground-To-Air and Air-To-Ground
GAMET Area Forecast for Low-Level Flights
Ground Controlled Approach System or Ground
GCA
Controlled Approach
GEN General
GEO Geographic or True
GES Ground Earth Station
GLD Glider
GLONASS Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System
GMC Ground Movement Chart
GND Ground
GNDCK Ground Check
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GP Glide Path
GPM Gallons per Minute
GPS Global Positioning System
GR Hail

17
GRADU Gradual or Gradually
GRASS Grass landing area
Processed meteorological data in the form of grid
GRIB point values expressed in Binary form (aeronautical
meteorological code)
GRVL Gravel
GS Ground Speed
GS. Small Hail and/or Snow Pellets
GUND Geoid Undulation
H
H24 Continuous Day and Night Service
HAPI Helicopter Approach Path Indicator
HBN Hazard Beacon
HDF High Frequency Direction Finding Station
HDG Heading
HEL Helicopter
HF High Frequency [3 000 to 30 000 kHz]
HGT Height or Height Above
HJ Sunrise to Sunset
HLDG Holding
HN Sunset to Sunrise
Service Available to Meet Operational Require-
HO
ments
HOL Holiday
HOSP Hospital Aircraft
HOW Hours of Watch
HPA Hectopascals
18
HR Hours
Service Available During Hours of Scheduled Oper-
HS
ations
HT Minutes Past the Hour (all hours)
HURCN Hurricane
High and Very High Frequency Direction-Finding
HVDF
Stations (at the same location)
Heavy (used to indicate the intensity of
HVY
weather phenomena, e.g. HVY RA = heavy rain)
HX No Specific Working Hours
HYR Higher
HZ Haze
HZ Hertz (cycle per second)
I
IAC Instrument Approach Chart
IAF Initial Approach Fix
IAL Instrument Approach Landing Chart
IAO In and out of clouds
IAR Intersection of Air Routes
IAS Indicated Air Speed
IBN Identification Beacon
Ice Crystals (very small ice crystals in suspension,
IC
also known as diamond dust)
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
ICE Icing
ID Identifier or Identify
IDENT Identification

19
IF Intermediate Approach Fix
IFF Identification Friend/Foe
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
IGA International General Aviation
ILS Instrument Landing System
IM Inner Marker
IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions
IMG Immigration
IMI Interrogation Sign
IMPR Improve or Improving
IMT Immediate or Immediately
INA Initial Approach
INBD Inbound
INC In Cloud
INCERFA Uncertainty Phase
INFO Information
INOP Inoperative
INP If Not Possible
INPR In Progress
INS Inches (dimension units)
INS. Inertial Navigation System
INSTR Instrument
INT Intersection
INTER Intermittent
INTL International

20
INTRG Interrogator
INTRP Interrupt or Interruption or Interrupted
INTSF Intensify or Intensifying
INTST Intensity
INSTL Install or Installed or Installation
IR Ice on Runway
ISA International Standard Atmosphere
ISB Independent Sideband
ISOL Isolated
J
JAN January
JTST Jet Stream
JUL July
JUN June
K
KAA Kenya Airports Authority
KCAA Kenya Civil Aviation Authority
KG Kilograms
KHZ Kilohertz
KM Kilometres
KMH Kilometres Per Hour
KPA Kilopascal
KT Knots
KW Kilowatts
L

21
L Left (runway identification)
L. Locator (see LM, LO)
L.. Low pressure area or the centre of low pressure
Logical Acknowledgment (message type designa-
LAM
tor)
LAN Inland
LAT Latitude
LDA Landing Distance available
LDAH Landing Distance Available, Helicopter
LDG Landing
LDI Landing Direction Indicator
LEN Length
LF Low Frequency [30 to 300 kHz]
LGT Light or Lighting
LGTD Lighted
LIH Light Intensity High
LIL Light Intensity Low
LIM Light Intensity Medium
LLZ Localizer
LM Locator, Middle
LMT Local Mean Time
Long (used to indicate the type of approach desired
LNG
or required)
LO Locator, Outer
LOC Local or Locally or Location or Located
LONG Longitude

22
LORAN LORAN (long range air navigation system)
The last message received by me was... (to be used
LR
in AFS as procedure signal)
LRG Long Range
The last message sent by me was...or last message
LS
was (to be used in AFS as procedure signal)
LTD Limited
LTT Landline Tele-Typewriter
LV Light and Variable (relating to wind)
LVE Leave or Leaving
LVL Level
LYR Layer or Layered
M
M Metres (preceded by figures)
M Mach Number (followed by figures )
MAA Maximum Authorized Altitude
MAG Magnetic
MAINT Maintenance
MAP Aeronautical Maps and Charts
MAPT Missed Approach Point
MAR March
MAR. At Sea
MAS Manual Al Simplex
MAX Maximum
MAY May
MBST Microburst

23
MCA Minimum Crossing Altitude
MCW Modulated Continuous Wave
MDA Minimum Descent Altitude
MDF Medium Frequency Direction-Finding Station
MDH Minimum Descent Height
MEA Minimum En-route Altitude
Minimum Eye Height Over Threshold (for visual
MEHT
approach slope indicator systems)
MET Meteorological or Meteorology
Aviation Routine Weather Report (in aeronauti-
METAR
cal meteorological code)
MET RE-
Local routine meteorological report
PORT
MF Medium Frequency [300 to 3 000 kHz
Medium and High Frequency Direction Finding
MHDF
Stations (at the same location)
Medium, High and Very High Frequency Direction-
MHVDF
Finding Stations(at the same location)
MHZ Megahertz
MID Mid-Point (related to RVR)
MIFG Shallow Fog
MIL Military
MIN Minutes
Missing .... (transmission to be used in AFS as pro-
MIS
cedure signal)
MKR Marker Radio Beacon
ML Statute Miles
MLS Microwave Landing System

24
MM Middle Marker
MNM Minimum
MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications
MNT Monitor or Monitoring or Monitored
MNTN Maintain
MOA Military Operating Area
MOC Minimum Obstacle Clearance (required)
Moderate (used to indicate the intensity of weather
MOD phenomena, interference or static reports, e.g.
MOD RA = moderate rain)
MON Monday
MON. Above Mountains
MOPS Minimum Operational Performance Standards
Meteorological Operational Telecommunications
MOTNE
Network Europe
MOV Move or Moving or Movement
MPA Minimum Tyre Pressure Allowable
MPH Statute Miles Per Hour
MPS Metres Per Second
MRA Minimum Reception Altitude
MRG Medium Range
MRP ATS/MET Reporting Point
MS Minus
MSA Minimum Sector Altitude
MSG Message
MSL Mean Sea Level
MSR Message (transmission identification - has been
25
 misrouted to be used in AFS as a procedure signal)
MSSR Monopulse Secondary Surveillance Radar
MT Mountain
MTU Metric Units
MTW Mountain Waves
Medium and Very High Frequency Direction-Find-
MVDF
ing Stations (at the same location)
MWO Meteorological Watch Office
MX Mixed Type of Ice Formation (white and clear)
N
N North or Northern (latitude)
No Distinct Tendency (in RVR during previous 10
N.
minutes)
NASC National AIS System Centre
NAT North Atlantic
NAV Navigation
NB Northbound
NBFR Not Before
NC No Change
NDB Non-Directional Radio Beacon
NE North-East
NEB North-Eastbound
No or Negative or Permission Not Granted or that is
NEG
Not Correct
NGT Night
NIL None or I Have Nothing to Send To You
NM Nautical Miles
26
NML Normal
NNE North North east
NNW North North west
No/Negative (to be used in AFS as a procedure sig-
NO
nal)
NOF International NOTAM Office
No Significant Change (used in trend-type landing
NOSIG
forecasts)
NOTAM Notice To Airmen
NOV November
NOZ Normal Operation Zone
NR Number
NRH No Reply Heard
NS Nimbostratus
NSC Nil Significant Cloud
NSW Nil Significant Weather
NTL National
NTZ No transgression Zone
NW North-West
NWB North-Westbound
NXT Next
O
OAC Oceanic Area Control Centre
OAS Obstacle Assessment Surface
OBS Observe or Observed or Observation
OBSC Obscure or Obscured or Obscuring

27
OBST Obstacle
OCA Obstacle Clearance Altitude
OCA. Oceanic Control Area
OCC Occulting (light)
OCH Obstacle Clearance Height
OCNL Occasional or Occasionally
OCS Obstacle Clearance Surface
OCT October
OFZ Obstacle Free Zone
OGN Originate (to be used in AFS as a procedure signal)
OHD Overhead
OK We Agree or It is Correct
OLDI On-line Data Interchange
OM Outer Marker
OPA Opaque, White Type of Ice Formation
OPC Control Indicated is Operational Control
OPMET Operational Meteorological (information)
OPN Open or Opening or Opened
Operator or Operate or Operative or Operating or
OPR
Operational
OPS Operations
O/R On Request
ORD Indication of an Order
OSV Ocean Station Vessel
Outlook (used in SIGMET messages for volcanic
OTLK
ash and tropical cyclones)

28
OTP On Top
OTS Organized Track System
OUBD Outbound
OVC Overcast
P
Indicator for maximum value of wind speed or run-
P way visual range (used in METAR/SPECI and TAF
code forms
P... Prohibited Area (followed by identification)
Precision Approach Lighting System (specify cate-
PALS
gory)
PANS Procedures For Air Navigation Services
PAPA Parallax Aircraft Parting Aid
PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator
PAR Precision Approach Radar
PARL Parallel
PATC Precision Approach Terrain Chart
PAX Passenger(s)
PCD Proceed or Proceeding
PCL Pilot Controlled Lighting
PCN Pavement Classification Number
PDC Pre-departure clearance
PDG Procedure Design Gradient
PE Ice Pellets
PER Performance
PERM Permanent
PIB Pre-Flight Information Bulletin
29
PJE Parachute Jumping Exercise
PL Private Licences
PLA Practice Low Approach
PLN Flight Plan
PLVL Present Level
PN Prior Notice Required
PNR Point of No Return
PO Dust/Sand Whirls (dust devils)
POB Persons on Board
POSS Possible
PPI Plan Position Indicator
PPR Prior Permission Required
PPSN Present Position
PRFG Aerodrome Partially Covered by Fog
PRI Primary
PRKG Parking
PROB Probability
PROC Procedure
PROV Provisional
PS Plus
PSG Passing
PSN Position
PSP Pierced Steel Plank
PSR Primary Surveillance Radar
PSYS Pressure system(s)

30
PTN Procedure Turn
PTS Polar Track Structure
PWR Power
Q
QBI Compulsory IFR Flight
Do you intend to ask me for a series of bearings? Or
QDL I intend to ask you for a series of bearings (to be
used in radio telephony as a Q code)
QDM Magnetic Heading (zero wind)
QDR Magnetic Bearing
Atmospheric Pressure at Aerodrome Elevation (or
QFE
at runway threshold)
QFU Magnetic Orientation of runway
What is my distance to your station? Or Your dis-
QGE tance to my station is.... (distance in figures and
units - to be used in radio telephony as a Q Code)
Shall I run my test tape/a test sentence? or Run your
QJH
test tape/a test sentence (to be used in AFS Q code)
Altimeter Sub-Scale Setting to Obtain Elevation
QNH
when on the ground
Will you relay to..... free of charge or I will relay
QSP
to ....free of charge(to be used in AFS as a Q Code)
Shall I cancel telegram number.....? or cancel tele-
QTA
gram number.....(to be used in AFS as a Q code)
QTE True Bearing
QUAD Quadrant
Will you indicate the TRUE TRACK to reach you?
QUJ Or the true track to reach me is degree at..... hours
(to be used in AFS as a Q code)
R
31
 Indicator for Runway Visual Range (used in
R
METAR/SPECI and TAF code forms)
R. Red
R.. Right (runway identification)
R... Restricted area (followed by indentification)
Received (acknowledgment of receipts) (to be used
R....
in AFS identification)
RA Rain
RAC Rules Of The Air And Air Traffic Services
RAD Radar
RAFC Regional Area Forecast Centre
RAG. Ragged
RAG.. Runway Arresting Gear
RAI Runway Alignment Indicator
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
RASC Regional AIS System Centre
RB Rescue Boat
RCA Reach Cruising Altitude
RCC Rescue Co-ordination Centre
Radio Communication Failure (message type desig-
RCF
nator)
RCH Reach or Reaching
RCL Runway Centre Line
RCLL Runway Centre Line Light(s)
RCLR Recleared
RDH Reference Datum Height (for ILS)
RDL Radial
32
RDO Radio
Recent (used to qualify weather phenomena, e.g.
RE . . .
RERA = recent rain)
REC Receive or Receiver
REDL Runway Edge Light(s)
REF Reference To . . . or Refer To . . .
REG Registration
RENL Runway End Light(s)
REPOFF Reporting Officer
REP Report or Reporting or Reporting point
REQ Request or Requested
RERTE Reroute
RESA Runway End Safety Area
RG Range (Lights)
RHC Right-Hand Circuit
RIF Re-clearance in Flight
RITE Right (direction of turn)
RL Report Leaving
RLA Relay To
RLCE Request Level Change En route
RLLS Runway Lead-in Lighting System
RLNA Request Level Not Available
RMK Remark
RNAV Area Navigation (to be pronounced "AR-NAV")
RNG Radio Range
RNP Required Navigation Performance
33
ROBEX Regional OPMET Bulletin Exchange (scheme)
ROC Rate of Climb
ROD Rate of Descent
Route Forecast (in aeronautical meteorological
ROFOR
code)
RON Receiving Only
RPI Radar Position Indicators
RPL Repetitive Flight Plan
RPLC Replace or Replaced
RPS Radar Position Symbol
Indication of a request (to be used in AFS as a pro-
RQ
cedure signal)
RPT Repeat or I repeat
RQMNTS Requirements
RQP Request Flight Plan (message type designator)
Request Supplementary Flight Plan (message type
RQS
designator)
RR Report Reaching
Delayed Meteorological Message (or RRB,
RRA
RRC....etc.,in sequence)(message type designator)
RSC Rescue Sub-Centre
RSCD Runway Surface Condition
RSP Responder Beacon
RSR En-route Surveillance Radar
Delayed (used to indicate delayed meteorological
RTD
message;message type designator)
RTE Route
RTF Radiotelephone
34
RTG Radiotelegraph
RTHL Runway Threshold Light(s)
RTN Return or Returned or Returning
RTODAH Rejected Take-off Distance Available, Helicopter
RTS Return to Service
RTT Radio Teletypewriter
RTZL Runway Touchdown Zone Light(s)
RUT Standard Regional Route Transmitting Frequencies
RV Rescue Vessel
RVR Runway Visual Range
RWY Runway
S
S South or Southern Latitude
SA Sand
SALS Simple Approach Lighting System
SAN Sanitary
SAP As Soon As Possible
SAR Search and Rescue
SARPS Standards and Recommended Practices (ICAO)
SAT Saturday
SATCOM Satellite Communication
SB Southbound
SC Stratocumulus
SCT Scattered
SDBY Standby

35
SE South-East
Sea (used in connection with sea surface tempera-
SEA
ture and state of the sea)
SEB South EastBound
SEC Seconds
SECN Section
SECT Sector
SELCAL Selective Calling System
SEP September
SER Service or Servicing or Served
Severe (used e.g. to qualify icing and Turbulence
SEV
reports)
SFC Surface
SG Snow Grains
SGL Signal
Showers (followed by RA = rain, SN = snow, PE =
ice pellets, GR = hail, GS = small hail and/or snow
SH....
pellets or combinations thereof, e.g. SHRASN=
showers of rain and snow)
SHF Super High Frequency [3,000 to 30,000 MHz]
SID Standard Instrument Departure
SIF Selective Identification Feature
Information Concerning En-route
SIGMET Weather Phenomena Which May Affect the Safety
of Aircraft Operations
SIGWX Significant Weather
SIMUL Simultaneous or Simultaneously
SIWL Single Isolated Wheel Load

36
SKC Sky Clear
SKED Schedule or Scheduled
SLP Speed Limiting Point
SLW Slow
SMC Surface Movement Control
SMR Surface Movement Radar
SN Snow
Indicator for the aerodrome being closed due to
SNOLCO snow on the runway(Used in the METAR/SPECI
code forms)
A Special Series NOTAM Notifying the Presence
or removal of hazardous Conditions due to Snow,
SNOW-
Ice, Slush Or Standing Water Associated with
TAM
Snow, slush and ice on the movement area, by
means of a specific format.
Aviation Selected Special Weather Report (in aero-
SPECI
nauticalmeteorological code)
Special Meteorological Report ( in abbreviated
SPECIAL
plain language)
Supplementary Flight Plan (message type designa-
SPL
tor)
SPOC SAR Point of Contact
SPOT Spot Wind
SQ Squall
SQL Squall Line
SR Sunrise
SRA Surveillance Radar Approach
Surveillance Radar Element of Precision Approach
SRE
Radar System

37
SRG Short Range
SRR Search and Rescue Region
SRY Secondary
SS Sandstorm
SS Sunset
SSB Single Sideband
SSE South South East
SSR Secondary Surveillance Radar
SST Supersonic Transport
SSW South South West
ST Stratus
STA Straight in Approach
STAR Standard Instrument Arrival
STD Standard
STF Stratiform
STN Station
STNR Stationary
STOL Short Take-off and Landing
STS Status
STWL Stopway Light(s)
SUBJ Subject To
SUN Sunday
SUP Supplement (AIP Supplement)
SUPPS Regional Supplementary Procedures
SVC Service Message

38
SVCBL Serviceable
SW South-West
SWB South-Westbound
SWY Stopway
T
T Temperature
T True
TA Transition Altitude
TACAN UHF Tactical Air Navigation Aid
TAF Aerodrome Forecast
TAIL Tail Wind
TAR Terminal Area Surveillance Radar
TAS True Airspeed
TAX Taxiing or Taxi
TC Tropical Cyclone
TCAC Tropical cyclone advisory centre
TCU Towering Cumulus
TDO Tornado
TDZ Touchdown Zone
TECR Technical Reason
TEL Telephone
TELEG ADD Telegraphic Address
TEMPO Temporary or Temporarily
TFC Traffic
TGL Touch-and-go Landing

39
TGS Taxiing Guidance System
THR Threshold
THRU Through
THU Thursday
TIBA Traffic Information Broadcast by Aircraft
TIL Until
TIP Until Past . . . (place)
TKOF Take-off
Till (followed by time by which Weather change is
TL
forecast to end)
TLOF Touchdown and Lift-off Area
TMA Terminal Control Area
Indicator for minimum temperature (used in the
TN
TAF code form)
TNA Turn Altitude
TNH Turn Height
TO To . . . (place)
TOC Top of Climb
TODA Take-off Distance Available
TODAH Take-off Distance Available, Helicopter
TOP Cloud top
TORA Take-off Run Available
TP Turning point
TR Track
TRA Temporary Reserved Airspace
TRANS Transmits or Transmitter

40
TREND Trend forecast
TRL Transition Level
TROP Tropopause
Thunderstorm (in aerodrome reports and forecasts,
TS TS used alone means thunder heard but no precipi-
tation at the aerodrome)
Thunderstorm (followed by RA = RAIN, SN = snow,
PE = ice pellets, GR = hail,GS = small hail and/or
TS . . .
snow pellets or combinations thereof, e.g. TSRASN
=thunderstorm with rain and snow)
TT Teletypewriter
TUE Tuesday
TURB Turbulence
(to be pronounced "TEE-VASIS") T-Visual Ap-
T-VASIS
proach Slope Indicator System
TVOR Terminal VOR
TWR Aerodrome Control Tower or Aerodrome Control
TWY Taxiway
TWYL Taxiway-link
Indicator for maximum temperature (used in the
TX
TAF code form)
TXT Text
TYP Type of Aircraft
TYPH Typhoon
U
Upward (tendency in RVR during previous 10 min-
U
utes)
UAB Until Advised By . . .
UAC Upper Area Control Centre
41
UAR Upper Air Route
UDF Ultra High Frequency Direction - finding Station
UFN Until Further Notice
UHDT Unable Higher Due Traffic
UHF Ultra High Frequency (300 to 3 000 MHz)
UIC Upper Information Centre
UIR Upper Flight Information Region
ULR Ultra Long Range
UNA Unable
UNAP Unable to Approve
UNL Unlimited
UNREL Unreliable
U/S Unserviceable
UTA Upper Control Area
UTC Co-ordinated Universal Time
V
VA Volcanic Ash
VAAC Volcanic ice advisory centre
VAC Visual Approach Chart
VAL In Valleys
VAN Runway Control Van
VAR Magnetic Variation
VAR. Visual-aural Radio Range
VASIS Visual Approach Slope Indicator system
VC Vicinity of the Aerodrome (followed by FG = fog,
FC = funnel cloud SH = showers, PO = dust/ sand
42
 whirls, BLDU = blowing dust,BLSA = blowing sand
or BLSN = blowing snow, e.g. VC FG = vicinity
fog)
VCY Vicinity
VDF Very High Frequency Direction finding Station
VER Vertical
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VHF Very High Frequency [30 to 300 MHz]
VIP Very Important Person
VIS Visibility
VLF Very Low Frequency [3 to 30 kHz]
VLR Very Long Range
VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions
VOLMET Meteorological Information for Aircraft in Flight
VOR VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range
VORTAC VOR and TACAN Combination
VOT VOR Airborne Equipment Test Facility
VRB Variable
VSA By visual Reference to the Ground
VSP Vertical Speed
VTOL Vertical Take-off and Landing
W
W West or Western Longitude
W. White
World Aeronautical Chart -ICAO 1:1 000 000 ( fol-
WAC
lowed by name and title )
WAFC World Area Forecast Centre
43
WB Westbound
WBAR Wing Bar Lights
WDI Wind Direction Indicator
WDSPR Widespread
WED Wednesday
WEF With Effect From or Effective From
WGS84 World Geodetic System 1984
WI Within
WID Width
WIE With Immediate Effect or Effective Immediately
WILCO Will Comply
WIND Wind
WINTEM Forecast Upper Wind and Temperature for Aviation
WIP Work in Progress
WKN Weaken or Weakening
WNW West North West
WO Without
WPT Way-point
WRNG Warning
WS Wind Shear
WSPD Wind Speed
WSW West South West
WT Weight
WTSPT Waterspout
WWW Worldwide Web

44
WX Weather

X Cross
XBAR Crossbar ( of approach lighting system )
XNG Crossing
XS Atmospherics
Y
Y Yellow
YCZ Yellow Caution Zone ( runway lighting )

YES Yes ( affirmative )

YR Your
Z
Co-ordinated Universal Time ( in meteorological
Z
messages )

DEFINITIONS

Accuracy: A degree of conformance between the estimated or mea-

sured value and the true value.

ADS-C agreement: A reporting plan which establishes the conditions

of ADS-C data reporting (i.e. data required by the air traffic services
unit and frequency of ADS-C reports which have to be agreed to prior

45
to using ADS-C in the provision of air traffic services).

ADS contract: A means by which the terms of an ADS agreement

will be exchanged between the ground system and the aircraft, specify-
ing under what conditions ADS reports would be initiated and what
data would be contained in the reports.

ADS service: A service using aircraft information provided by means

of automatic dependent surveillance.

Advisory airspace: An airspace of defined dimensions, or designated

route, within which air traffic advisory service is available.

Advisory route: A designated route along which air traffic advisory

service is available.

Aerodrome: A defined area on land or water (including any buildings,

installations and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in
part for the arrival, departure and surface movement of aircraft.

Aerodrome control service : Air traffic control service for aerodrome

traffic.

46
Aerodrome control tower :A unit established to provide air traffic
control service to aerodrome traffic.

Aerodrome elevation : The elevation of the highest point of the land-

ing area.

Aerodrome operating minima : The limits of usability of an aero-

drome for either take off or landing, usually expressed in terms of visi-
bility or runway visual range, decision altitude/height or minima de-
scent altitude/height and cloud conditions.

Aerodrome taxi circuit: The specified path of aircraft on the manoeu-

vering area during specific wind conditions.

Aerodrome traffic : All traffic on the manoeuvring area of an aero-

drome and all aircraft flying in the vicinity of an aerodrome.

Note: An aircraft is in the vicinity of an aerodrome when it is entering

or leaving an aerodrome traffic circuit.

47
Aerodrome traffic circuit : The specified path to be flown by aircraft
operating in the vicinity of an aerodrome.

Aerodrome traffic zone : An airspace of defined dimensions estab-

lished around an aerodrome for the protection of aerodrome traffic.

Aeronautical fixed service (AFS): A telecommunication service be-

tween specified fixed points provided primarily for the safety of air
navigation and / or the regular efficient and economical operation of air
services.

Aeronautical fixed station : A station in the aeronautical fixed service.

Aeronautical ground light : Any light specially provided as an aid to

air navigation, other than light displayed on an aircraft.

Aeronautical information publication : A publication issued by or

with the authority of a State and containing aeronautical information of
a lasting character essential to air navigation.
48
Aeronautical mobile service : A mobile service between aeronautical
stations and aircraft stations, or between aircraft stations, in which sur-
vival craft stations may participate; emergency position-indicating ra-
dio beacon stations may also participate in this service on designated
distress and emergency frequencies.

Aeronautical station : A land station in the aeronautical mobile ser-

vice. In certain instances, an aeronautical station may be located, for
example, on board ship or on a platform at sea.

Aeronautical Telecommunication service : A telecommunication ser-

vice provided for any aeronautical purpose.

Aeronautical telecommunication station: A station in the aeronauti-

cal telecommunication service.

Airborne collision Avoidance System (ACAS): An aircraft system

based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponder signals which
operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide advice to
the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft that are equipped with SSR
transponders.
49
Aircraft : Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from
the reactions of the air other than the reactions of the air against the
earth’s surface.

Aircraft address : A unique combination of 24 bits available for as-

signing to an aircraft for the purpose of air ground communications,
navigation and surveillance.

Aircraft classification number (ACN): A number expressing the rel-

ative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a specified standard sub-
grade strength.

Aircraft identification : A group of letters, figures, or a combination

thereof which is either identical to, or the coded equivalent of, the air-
craft callsign to be used in air-ground communication, and which is
used to identify the aircraft in ground-ground air traffic service commu-
nications.

Aircraft observation : The evaluation of one or more meteorological

elements made from an aircraft in flight.

50
Aircraft Proximity: A situation in which in the opinion of a pilot or
air traffic services personnel, the distance between aircraft as well as
their relative positions and speed have been such that the safety of air-
craft involved may have been compromised. An aircraft proximity is
classified as follows:-

Risk of collision: The risk classification of an aircraft proximity in

which serious risk of collision has existed.

Safety not assured : The risk classification of an aircraft proximity in

which the safety of an aircraft may have been compromised

No risk of collision: The risk classification of an aircraft proximity in

which no risk of collision has existed.

Risk not determined: The risk classification of an aircraft proximity in

which insufficient information was available to determine the risk in-
volved, or inconclusive or conflicting evidence precluded such determi-
nation.

51
Air-ground communication : Two-way communication between air-
craft and stations or locations on the surface of the earth.

Air ground control radio station: An aeronautical telecommunication

station having primary responsibility for handling communication per-
taining to the operation and control of aircraft in a given area.

Air-ground radio station : An aeronautical telecommunication station

having primary responsibility for handling communications pertaining
to the operation and control of aircraft in a given area.

AIRMET information: Information issued by a meteorological watch

office concerning the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified
en-route weather phenomena which may affect the safety of low-level
aircraft operations and which was not already included in the forecast
issued for low level flights in the flight information region concerned
or sub area thereof .

AIRPROX: The code word used in an air traffic incident report to des-
ignate proximity.

52
Air-report: A report from an aircraft in flight prepared in conformity
with requirements for position and operations and/or meteorological re-
porting.

Air-taxiing: Movement of a helicopter/VTOL above the surface of an

aerodrome, normally in ground effect and at a ground speed normally
less than 37 km/h (20 kt).

Note.— The actual height may vary, and some helicopters may require
air-taxiing above 8 m (25 ft) AGL to reduce ground effect turbulence or
provide clearance for cargo slingloads.

Air-to-ground communications : One way communication from air-

craft to stations or locations on the surface of the earth.

Air traffic : All aircraft in flight or operating on the manoeuvring area

of an aerodrome.

Air traffic advisory service : A service provided within advisory

airspace, to ensure separation, in so far as possible, between aircraft
which are operating on IFR flight plans.

53
Air traffic control clearance : Authorization for an aircraft to proceed
under conditions, specified by an air traffic control unit.

Note 1: For convenience, the term air traffic control clearance is fre-
quently abbreviated to ‘clearance’ when used in appropriate contexts.

Note 2: The abbreviated term ‘clearance’ may be prefixed by words

‘taxi’, ‘take-off’, ‘departure’, ‘en route’, ‘approach’ or ‘landing’ to in-
dicate the particular portion of flight to which the air traffic control
clearance relates.

Air traffic control instructions : Directives issued by air traffic con-

trol for the purpose of requiring a pilot to take a specific action.

Air traffic control service : A service provided for the purpose of:
Preventing collisions;between aircraft, and on the manoeuvring area
between aircraft and obstructions; and
Expediting and maintaining orderly flow of air traffic.

Air traffic control unit: A generic term meaning variously, area con-
trol centre, approach control unit or aerodrome control tower.

54
Air traffic flow management: A service established with the objec-
tive of contributing to a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of air traffic
by ensuring that ATC capacity is utilized to the maximum extent possi-
ble and that the traffic volume is compatible with the capacities de-
clared by the appropriate ATS authority.

Air traffic management: The aggregation of the airborne functions

and ground- based functions (air traffic services airspace management
and air traffic flow management) required to ensure the safe and effi-
cient movement of aircraft during all phases of operations.

Air traffic service (ATS): A generic term meaning variously, flight in-
formation service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traf-
fic control service (area control service, approach control service or
aerodrome control service).

Air traffic services reporting office: A unit established for the pur-
pose of receiving reports concerning air traffic services and flight plans
submitted before departure.

Note: An air traffic service reporting office may be established as a

separate unit, or combined with an existing unit, such as another air
55
traffic service unit or aeronautical information service.

Air traffic services unit: A generic term meaning variously, air traffic
control unit, flight information centre or air traffic services reporting
office.

Airway: A control area or portion thereof established in the form of a

corridor.

ALERFA: A code word used to designate an alert phase.

Alerting service: A service provided to notify appropriate organiza-

tions regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue aid and assist such
organizations as required.

Alert phase: A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety

of an aircraft and its occupants.

Alternate aerodrome: An aerodrome to which an aircraft may pro-

ceed when it becomes either impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or
to land at the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes in-
56
clude the following;

Take off alternate: An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can

land should this become necessary after take off and it is not possible to
use the aerodrome of departure.

En-route alternate: An aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able

to land after experiencing an abnormal or emergency condition while
en route.

Destination alternate : An alternate aerodrome to which an aircraft

may proceed should it become either impossible or inadvisable to land
at the aerodrome of intended landing.

Note: The aerodrome from which a flight departs may also be an en-
route or a destination alternate aerodrome for that flight.

Altitude: The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object consid-

ered as a point, measured from mean sea level (MSL).

Approach control service: Air Traffic Control Service for arriving or

departing controlled flights.
57
Approach control unit: A unit established to provide air traffic con-
trol service to controlled flights arriving at, or departing from, one or
more aerodromes.

Approach funnel: A specified airspace around a nominal approach

path within which an aircraft approaching to land is considered to be
making a normal approach.

Approach sequence: The order in which two or more aircraft are

cleared to approach to land at an aerodrome.

Appropriate ATS authority: The relevant authority designated by the

State responsible for providing air traffic services in the airspace con-
cerned

Appropriate Authority:
Regarding flight over the high seas: The relevant authority of the State
of Registry.
Regarding flight other than over the high seas: The relevant authority
of the State having sovereignty over the territory being over-flown.
58
Apron: A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate
aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading passengers mail or cargo,
fueling, parking or maintenance.

Apron management service: A service provided to regulate the activ-

ities and the movement of aircraft and vehicles on an apron.

Area control centre: A unit established to provide air traffic control

services to controlled flights in control areas under its jurisdiction.

Area control service: Air traffic control service for controlled flights
in control areas.

Area minimum altitude: The lowest Altitude to be used under instru-

ment meteorological conditions (IMC) which will provide a minimum
vertical clearance of 300m (1000ft) or in designated mountainous ter-
rain 600m (2000ft) above all obstacles located in the area specified,
rounded up to nearest (next higher) 30m (100ft).

59
Area navigation (RNAV) : A method of navigation which permits air-
craft operations on any desired flight path within the coverage of sta-
tion-reference navigation aids or within the limits of the capability of
self-contained aids, or a combination of these.

Area navigation route: An ATS route established for the use of air-
craft capable of employing area navigation.

Assignment, assign: Distribution of frequencies to stations. Distribu-

tion of SSR Codes or 24-bit aircraft addresses to aircraft.

ATS route: A specified route designed for channeling the flow of traf-
fic as necessary for the provision of air traffic services.

Note:1 The term ATS Route is used to mean variously, airways, advi-
sory route, controlled or uncontrolled route, arrival or departure route
etc.

Note:2 An ATS route is defined by route specifications which include

an ATS route designator, the track to or from significant points (way-
points),distance between significant points, reporting requirements
60
and, as determined by the appropriate ATS authority, the lowest safe
altitude.

Automatic dependent surveillance — broadcast (ADS-

B): A means by which aircraft, aerodrome vehicles and other objects
can automatically transmit and/or receive data such as identification,
position andadditional data, as appropriate, in a broadcast mode via a
data link.

Automatic dependent surveillance — contract (ADS-C): A means

by which the terms of an ADS-C agreement will be exchanged between
the ground system and the aircraft, via a data link, specifying under
what conditions ADS-C reports would be initi-
ated, and what data would be contained in the reports.

Automatic terminal information service (ATIS): The automatic pro-

vision of current, routine information to arriving and departing aircraft
throughout 24 hours or a specified portion thereof:

Data link-automatic terminal information service (D-ATIS) : The pro-

vision of ATIS via data link.

Voice-automatic terminal information service (Voice-ATIS) : The pro-

vision of ATIS by means of continuous and repetitive voice broadcasts.

61
Base turn : A turn executed by the aircraft during the initial approach
between the end of the outbound track and the beginning of the inter-
mediate or final approach track. The tracks are not reciprocal.

Note. – Base turns may be designated as being made either in level

flight or while descending, according to the circumstances of each indi-
vidual procedure.

Blind transmission: A transmission from one station to another station

in circumstances where two-way communication cannot be established,
but where it is believed that the called station is able to receive the
transmission.

Broadcast: A transmission of information relating to air navigation

that is not addressed to a specific station or stations.

Ceiling: The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest
layer of cloud below 6000 meters (20,000 feet) covering more than half
the sky.

62
Change-over point: The point at which an aircraft navigating on an
ATS route segment defined by reference to very high frequency omni
directional radio ranges is expected to transfer its primary navigational
reference from the facility behind the aircraft to the next facility ahead
of the aircraft.

Clearance limit: The point to which an aircraft is granted an air traffic

control clearance.

Clearway: A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the

control of the appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable
area over which an aeroplane may make its initial climb to a specified
height.

Code (SSR): The number assigned to a particular multiple pulse reply

signal transmitted by a transponder in Mode A or Mode C.

Computer : A device which performs sequences of arithmetical and

logical steps upon data without human intervention.

Conference Communications: Communication facilities whereby di-

63
rect speech conversation may be conducted between three or more lo-
cations simultaneously.

Contact point: The position, time or level at which an arriving aircraft

is to establish communication with Approach Control.

Control area: A controlled airspace extending upwards from a speci-

fied limit above the earth.

Controlled aerodrome: An aerodrome at which air traffic control ser-

vice is provided to aerodrome traffic.

Note: The term Controlled Aerodrome indicates that air traffic control
service is provided to aerodrome traffic but does not necessarily imply
that a Control Zone exists.

Controlled airspace: An airspace of defined dimensions within which

air traffic control service is provided in accordance with the airspace
classification.

64
Controlled flight: Any flight which is subject to an air traffic control
clearance.

Controller–pilot data link communication (CPDLC): A means of

communication between controller and pilot, using data link for ATC
communications.

Control zone: A controlled airspace extending upwards from the sur-

face of the earth to a specified upper limit.

CPDLC message: Information exchanged between an airborne system

and its ground counterpart. A CPDLC message consists of a single
message element or a combination of message elements conveyed in a
single transmission by the initiator.

CPDLC message set: A list of standard message elements and free

text message elements.

Cruise climb: An aeroplane cruising technique resulting in a net in-

crease in altitude as the aeroplane mass decreases.

65
Cruising level: A level maintained during a significant portion of a
flight.

Current data authority. The designated ground system through

which a CPDLC dialogue between a pilot and a controller currently re-
sponsible for the flight is permitted to take place.

Current flight plan (CPL) : The flight plan including changes, if any,
brought about by subsequent clearances.

Note: When the word “message” is used as a suffix to this term, it de-
notes the content and format of the current flight plan data sent from
one unit to another.

Cyclic redundancy check (CAC): A mathematical algorithm applied

to digital expression of data that provides a level of assurance against
loss or alteration of data.

Danger Area: An airspace of defined dimensions within which activi-

ties dangerous to the flight of aircraft may exist at specified times.
66
Data convention: An agreed set of rules governing the manner or se-
quence in which a set of data may be combined into a meaningful com-
munication.

Data link communications: A form of communication intended for

the exchanges of messages via a data link.

Data link initiation capability (DLIC): A data link application that

provides the ability to exchange addresses, names and version numbers
necessary to initiate data link application.

Data processing: A systematic sequence of operations performed on

data.

Note.— Examples of operations are the merging, sorting, computing or

any other transformation or rearrangement with the object of extract-
ing or revising information, or of altering the representation of infor-
mation.

Data quality: A degree or level of confidence that the data provided

meets the requirements of the data user in terms of accuracy, resolution
67
and integrity .

Decision altitude (DA) or decision height (DH): A specified altitude

or height in a 3D instrument approach operation at which a missed ap-
proach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the
approach has not been established.

Note 1.— Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level and d
ecision height (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation.

Note 2.— The required visual reference means that section of the vis-
ual aids or of the approach area which should have been in view for
sufficient time for the pilot to have made an assessment of the aircraft
position and rate of change of position, in relation to the desired flight
path.
In Category III operations with a decision height the required vis-
ual reference is that specified for the particular procedure and opera-
tion.
Note 3.— For convenience where both expressions are used they may
be written in the form “decision altitude/ height” and abbreviated
“DA/H”.

Declared capacity: A measure of the ability of the ATC system or any

of its subsystems or operating positions to provide service to aircraft
during normal activities. It is expressed as the number of the aircraft
entering a specified portion of airspace in a given period of time, taking
due account of weather, ATC unit configuration, staff and equipment
available, and any other factors that may affect the workload of the
controller responsible for the airspace.
68
DETRESFA: The code word used to designate a distress phase.

Discrete code: A four digit SSR code with the last two digits not being
“00”.

Distress phase: A situation wherein there is a reasonable certainty that

an aircraft and its occupants are threatened by grave and imminent dan-
ger or require immediate assistance.

Diversion: The act of proceeding to an aerodrome other than the

planned destination for the purpose of effecting a landing.

D-Value: The amount (positive or negative) by which the altitude (Z)

of a point on an isobaric surface differs from the altitude (Zp) of the
same isobaric surface in the ICAO standard atmosphere (i. e. D-Value
= Z - Zp).

Elevation: The vertical distance of a point or a level, on or affixed to

69
the surface of the earth, measured from mean sea level.

Emergency phase: A generic term meaning as the case may be, uncer-
tainty phase, alert phase or distress phase.

Estimated elapsed time: The estimated time required to proceed

from one significant point to another.

Estimated off-block time: The estimated time at which the aircraft

will commence movement associated with departure.

Estimated time of arrival (ETA): For IFR flights, the time at which it
is estimated that the aircraft will arrive over that designated point, de-
fined by reference to navigation aids, from which it is intended that an
instrument approach procedure will be commenced, or, if no navigation
aid is associated with the aerodrome, the time at which the aircraft will
arrive over the aerodrome. For VFR flights, the time at which it is esti-
mated that the aircraft will arrive over the aerodrome.

Estimated time of departure (ETD): The time at which is calculated

that an aircraft will become airborne assuming no delays for Air Traffic
Control reasons are experienced.
70
 Expected approach time (EAT): The time at which ATC expects that
an arriving aircraft following a delay, will leave the holding fix to com-
plete its approach for a landing.

Note: The actual time of leaving the holding fix will depend upon the
approach clearance.

Filed flight plan: The flight plan as filed with an ATS unit by the pilot
or a designated representative, without any subsequent changes.

Note: When the word “message” is used as a suffix to this term, it de-
notes the content and format of the filed flight plan data as transmit-
ted.

Final approach : That part of an instrument approach procedure which

commences at the specified final approach fix or point, or where such a
fix or point is not specified,
a. at the end of the last procedure turn, base turn or inbound turn of a
racetrack procedure, if specified; or
b. At the point of interception of the last track specified in the approach
71
procedure; and ends at a point in the vicinity of an aerodrome from
which:
A landing can be made; or
A missed approach procedure is initiated.

Final approach fix or point: That fix or point of an instrument ap-

proach procedure where the final approach segment commences.

Final approach segment: That segment of an instrument approach

procedure in which alignment and descent for landing are accom-
plished.

Flight crew member: A licensed crew member charged with duties es-
sential to the operation of an aircraft during a flight duty period.

Flight information centre : A unit established to provide flight infor-

mation service and alerting services.

Flight information region (FIR) : An airspace of defined dimensions

within which flight information service and alerting service are pro-
vided.
72
 Flight information service: A service provided for the purpose of giv-
ing advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of
flights.

Flight level: A surface of constant atmospheric pressure which is re-

lated to a specific pressure datum, 1013.2 hPa, and is separated from
other such surfaces by specific pressure intervals.

Note 1: A pressure type altimeter calibrated in accordance with the

Standard Atmosphere:
a. when set to a QNH altimeter setting, will indicate altitude;
b. when set to a QFE altimeter setting, will indicate height above the QFE
reference datum;
c. when set to a pressure of 1013.2hPa,may be used to indicate flight lev-
els

Note 2.— The terms “height” and “altitude”, used in Note 1 above, in-
dicate altimetric rather than geometric heights and altitudes.

73
Flight plan: Specified information provided to air traffic services units
relative to an intended flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft.

Flight status : An indication of whether a given aircraft requires spe-

cial handling by air traffic services units or not.

Flight visibility: The visibility forward from the cockpit of an aircraft

in flight.

Flow control : Measures designed to adjust the flow of traffic into a

given airspace along a given route or bound for a given aerodrome, so
as to ensure the most effective utilization of the airspace.

Forecast: A statement of expected meteorological conditions for a

specified time or period, and for a specified area or portion of airspace.

Geodetic datum: A minimum set of parameters required to define lo-

cation and orientation of the local reference system with respect to the
global reference system/frame.

74
Glide path: A descent profile determined for vertical guidance during
a final approach.

Ground effect: A condition of improved performance (lift) due to the

interference of the surface with the airflow pattern of the rotor sys-
tem when a helicopter or other VTOL aircraft is operating near the
ground.

Note: Rotor efficiency is increased by ground effect to a height of about

one rotor diameter for most helicopters.

Ground-to-air communication: One way communication from sta-

tions or locations on the surface of the earth to aircraft.

Ground visibility : The visibility at an aerodrome, as reported by an

accredited observer or by automatic systems.

Heading: The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft is

pointed, usually expressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic, com-
75
pass or grid).

Height: The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered

as a point, measured from a specified datum.

Holding fix: A specified location, identified by visual or other means,

in the vicinity of which the position of an aircraft in flight is maintained
in accordance with air traffic control clearances.

Holding procedure : A predetermined manoeuver which keeps an air-

craft within a specified airspace whilst awaiting further clearance.

Horizontal separation : A distance between vertical lines passing

through aircraft measured in the horizontal plane.

Hot spot: A location on an aerodrome movement area with a history or

potential risk of collision or runway incursion, and where heightened
attention by pilots/drivers is necessary.

76
Human factors principles : Principles which apply to aeronautical de-
sign, certification, training, operations and maintenance and which seek
safe interface between the human and other system components by
proper consideration to human performance.

Human performance: Human capabilities and limitations which have

an impact on the safety and efficiency of aeronautical operations.

Identification: The situation which exists when the position indication

of a particular aircraft is seen on a situation display and positively iden-
tified.

IFR: The symbol used to designate the instrument flight rules.

IFR flight: A flight conducted in accordance with the instrument flight

rules.

IMC: The symbol used to designate instrument meteorological condi-

tions.
77
INCERFA: The code word used to designate an uncertainty phase.

Incident : An occurrence other than an accident, associated with the

operation of an aircraft which affects or could affect the safety of oper-
ation.

Initial approach segment : That segment of an instrument approach

procedure between the initial approach fix and the intermediate ap-
proach fix or, where applicable, the final approach fix or point.

Integrity (aeronautical data): A degree of assurance that aeronautical

data and its value has not been lost nor altered since the data origina-
tion or authorized amendment.

Instrument approach procedure: A series of predetermined manoeu-

vres by reference to flight instruments with specified protection from
obstacles from the initial approach fix, or where applicable, from the
beginning of a defined arrival route to a point from which a landing can
be completed and thereafter, if a landing is not completed, to a position
at which holding or en-route obstacle clearance criteria apply.

78
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC): Meteorological con-
ditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceil-
ing, less than the minima specified for visual meteorological conditions

Intermediate approach segment: That segment of an instrument ap-

proach procedure between either the intermediate approach fix and the
final approach fix or point, or between the end of a reversal, racetrack
or dead reckoning track procedure and the final approach fix or point,
as appropriate.

International NOTAM Office : An office designated by a state for

the exchange of NOTAM internationally.

Known traffic: Traffic which is in communication with or the current

flight details and intentions of which are known to the controller con-
cerned.

Landing area: That part of a movement area intended for the landing
or take-off of aircraft.

79
Level: A generic term relating to the vertical position of an aircraft in
flight and meaning variously; height, altitude or flight level.

Localizer course (ILS): The locus of points, in any given horizontal

plane, of which the DDM (difference in depth of modulation) is zero.

Note: In terms of the received radiation pattern this is equivalent to

zero deflection of a normally adjusted airborne localizer indicator.

Location indicator : A four letter code group formulated in accordance

with rules prescribed by ICAO and assigned to the location of an aero-
nautical fixed station.

Logon address: A specified code used for data link logon to an ATS
unit.

Longitudinal separation : The longitudinal spacing of aircraft, with

inadequate vertical separation by a minimum distance expressed in
units of time.
80
Manoeuvring area: That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-
off, landing and taxiing of aircraft excluding aprons.

Meteorological information: Meteorological reports, analysis, fore-

casts and any other statement relating to existing or expected meteoro-
logical conditions.

Meteorological office: An office designated to provide meteorological

services for international air navigation.

Meteorological report: A statement of observed meteorological condi-

tions related to a specified time and location.

Minimum fuel: The term used to describe a situation in which an air-

craft’s fuel supply has reached a state where the
flight is committed to land at a specific aerodrome and no additional de
lay can be accepted.

Minimum sector altitude: The lowest altitude which may be used

which will provide a minimum clearance of 300 m (1,000ft) above all
objects located in the area contained within a sector of a circle of 46
km (25 NM) radius centred on significant point, the aerodrome refer-
ence point (ARP) or the heliport reference point.

81
Missed approach point: (MAPt): That point in an instrument ap-
proach procedure at or before which the prescribed missed approach
procedure must be initiated in order to ensure that the minimum obsta-
cle clearance is not infringed.

Missed approach procedure: The procedure to be followed if the ap-

proach cannot be continued.

Mode (SSR) : The conventional identifier related to specific functions

of the interrogation signals transmitted by an SSR interrogator. There
are four modes specified in ANNEX 10 A,C,S and intermode.

Movement area: That part of an aerodrome to be used for take-off ,

landing and taxiing of aircraft consisting of the manoeuvring area and
apron(s).

Multilateration (MLAT) system: A group of equipment configured to

provide position derived from the secondary surveillance radar (SSR)
transponder signals (replies or squitters) primarily using time difference
of arrival (TDOA) techniques. Additional information, including iden-
tification, can be extracted from the received signals.

82
Next data Authority: The ground system so designated by the current
data authority through which an onward transfer of communications
and control can take place.

Night : The period between 15 minutes after sunset and 15 minutes be-
fore sunrise, provided that it shall be assumed to be night when, be-
tween the hours of sunset and sunrise, any prominent object cannot
clearly be seen at a distance of 4572 metres (5000 yards)

Non-radar separation: The separation used when aircraft position in-

formation is derived from sources other than radar.

Normal operating zone (NOZ): Airspace of defined dimensions ex-

tending to either side of an ILS localizer course and/or MLS final ap-
proach track. Only the inner half of the normal operating zone is taken
into account in independent parallel approaches.

NOTAM: A notice distributed by means of telecommunication con-

taining information concerning the establishment, condition or change
in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the timely
knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight op-
83
erations.

Obstacle clearance altitude (OCA) or obstacle clearance height

(OCH): The lowest altitude or the lowest height above the elevation of
the relevant runway threshold or the aerodrome elevation as applicable,
used in establishing compliance with appropriate obstacle clearance cri-
teria.

Obstacle free zone: The airspace above the inner approach surface, in-
ner transitional surfaces, and balked landing surface and that portion of
the strip bounded by these surfaces, which is not penetrated by any
fixed obstacles other than a low-mass and frangibly mounted one re-
quired for air navigation purposes.

Operator: A person, organization or enterprise engaged in or offering

to engage in an aircraft operation.

Operational control: The exercise of authority over the initiation, con-

tinuation, diversion or termination of a flight in the interest of the
safety of the aircraft and the regularity and efficiency of the flight.

Pavement classification number (PCN): A number expressing the

84
bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations.

Performance-based navigation (PBN): Area navigation based on per-

formance requirements for aircraft operating along an ATS route, on an
instrument approach procedure or in a designated airspace.
Note.— Performance requirements are expressed in navigation specifi-
cations (RNAV specification, RNP specification) in terms of accuracy,
integrity, continuity, availability and functionality needed for the pro-
posed operation in the context of a particular airspace concept.

Performance-based surveillance (PBS): Surveillance based on per-

formance specifications applied to the provision of air traffic services.
Note.— An RSP specification includes surveillance performance re-
quirements that are allocated to system components in terms of the sur-
veillance to be provided and associated data delivery time, continuity,
availability, integrity, accuracy of the surveillance data, safety and
functionality needed for the proposed operation in the context of a par-
ticular airspace concept.

Pilot-in-command: The pilot designated by the operator, or in the case

of general aviation, the owner, as being in command and charged with
the safe conduct of a flight.

85
Position indication: The visual indication, in non-symbolic and/or
symbolic form, on a situation display, of the position of an aircraft,
aerodrome vehicle or other object.

Position symbol: The visual indication in symbolic form, on a situa-

tion display, of the position of an aircraft, aerodrome vehicle or other
object, obtained after automatic processing of positional data derived
from any source.

Precision approach procedure: An instrument approach procedure

utilizing azimuth and glide path information provided by ILS or PAR.

Precision approach radar (PAR): Primary radar equipment used to

determine the position of an aircraft during the final approach, in terms
of lateral and vertical deviations relative to a nominal approach path,
and in range relative to touchdown.

Note: Precision approach radars are designated to enable pilots of air-

craft to be given guidance by radio communication during the final
stages of the approach to land.

Pressure-altitude: An atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of alti-

tude which corresponds to that pressure in the Standard Atmosphere.
86
Primary radar: A radar system that uses reflected radio signals.

Primary surveillance radar (PSR): A surveillance radar system

which uses reflected radio signals.

Procedural control: Term used to indicate that information derived

from an ATS surveillance system is not required for the provision of air
traffic control service.

Procedural separation: The separation used when providing proce-

dural control.

Procedure Turn : A manoeuvre in which a turn is made away from a

designated track followed by a turn in the opposite direction to permit
the aircraft to intercept and proceed along the reciprocal of the desig-
nated track.

Note I: Procedure turns are designated “left” or “right” according to the

87
direction of the initial turn.

Note II: Procedure turns may be designated as being made either in

level flight or while descending, according to the circumstances of each
individual instrument approach procedure.

Profile: The orthogonal projection of a flight path or portion thereof on

the vertical surface containing the nominal track.

Prohibited area: An airspace of defined dimensions, above land areas

or territorial waters of a state, within which the flight of aircraft is pro-
hibited.

PSR blip: The visual indication, in non symbolic form, on a radar dis-
play of the position of an aircraft obtained by primary radar.

Radar: A radio detection device which provides information on range,

azimuth and/or elevation of objects.

88
Radar approach: An approach in which the final approach phase is
executed under the direction of a controller using radar.

Radar blip: A generic term for the visual indication, in non-symbolic

form, on a radar display of the position of an aircraft obtained by pri-
mary or secondary radar.

Radar clutter: The visual indication on a radar display of unwanted

signals.

Radar contact: The situation which exist when the radar position of a
particular aircraft is seen and identified on a radar display.

Radar control: Term used to indicated that radar-derived information

is employed directly in the provision of air traffic control service.

Radar controller: A qualified air traffic controller holding a radar rat-

ing appropriate to the functions to which he is assigned.

89
Radar departure : The control of a departing aircraft by the use of
surveillance radar to assist to leave the vicinity of an aerodrome safely
and expeditiously.

Radar echo: The visual indication on a radar display of a radar signal

reflected from an object.

Radar handover: Transfer of responsibility for the control of an air-

craft between two controllers using radar following identification of the
aircraft by both controllers.

Radar identification: The situation which exists when the radar posi-
tion of a particular aircraft is seen on a radar display and positively
identified by the air traffic controller.

Radar map: Information superimposed on a radar display to provide

ready indication of selected features.

Radar monitoring: The use of radar for the purpose of providing air-
craft with information and advise relative to significant deviations from
nominal flight path, including deviations from the terms of their air
traffic control clearances.
90
Radar position indication (RPI): The visual indication, in non-sym-
bolic and/or symbolic form, on a radar display of the position of an air-
craft obtained by primary and/or secondary surveillance radar.

Radar position symbol (RPS): The visual indication, in symbolic

form, on a radar display, of the position of an aircraft obtained after au-
tomatic processing of positional data derived from primary and/or sec-
ondary surveillance radar.

Radar separation: The separation used when aircraft position infor-

mation is derived from radar sources.

Radar service: Term used to indicate a service provided directly by

means of radar.

Radar track position: An extrapolation of aircraft position by the

computer based upon radar information and used by the computer for
tracking purposes.

Radar unit: That element of an air traffic services unit which uses
91
radar equipment to provide one or more services.

Radio telephony: A form of radio communication primarily intended

for the exchange of information in the form of speech.

Receiving unit/controller: Air Traffic services unit/air traffic con-

troller to which a message is sent.

Note: See definition of sending unit/controller.

Repetitive flight plan (RPL): A flight plan related to a series of fre-

quently recurring, regularly operated individual flights with identical
basic features, submitted by an operator for retention and repetitive use
by ATS Units.

Reporting point: A specified geographical location in relation to

which the position of an aircraft can be reported.

Required communication performance (RCP) specification: A set

92
of requirements for air traffic service provision and associated ground
equipment, aircraft capability, and operations needed to support perfor-
mance-based
communication.

Required navigation performance (RNP) : A statement of the navi-

gation performance necessary for operation within a defined airspace.

Note.—
Navigation performance and requirements are defined for a particular
RNP type and/or application.

Rescue coordination centre: A unit responsible for promoting effi-

cient organization of search and rescue services and for coordinating
the conduct of search and rescue operation within a search and rescue
region.

Rescue sub-centre: A unit subordinate to a rescue coordination centre

established to complement the latter within a specified portion of a
search and rescue region.

Rescue unit: A unit composed of trained personnel and provided with

93
equipment suitable for the expeditious conduct of search and rescue.

Restricted area: An Airspace of defined dimensions above the land ar-

eas or territorial waters of a State, within which the flight of an aircraft
is restricted in accordance with certain specified conditions.

Reversal procedure: A procedure designed to enable aircraft to re-

verse direction during the initial approach segment of an instrument ap-
proach procedure. The sequence may include procedure turns or base
turns.

RNP type: A containment value expressed as a distance in nautical

miles from the intended position within which flights would be for at
least 95 per cent of the total flying time.

Rules of the air: The rules of the air as laid down Civil Aviation
(Rules of the air) Regulations.

Runway: A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for

the landing and take-off of aircraft.

94
Runway incursion: Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the in-
correct presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area
of a surface designated for the landing and take-off of aircraft.

Runway-holding position: A designated position intended to protect a

runway, an obstacle limitation surface, or an ILS/MLS critical/sensitive
area at which taxiing aircraft and vehicle shall stop and hold, unless
otherwise authorized by the aerodrome control tower.

Note.— In radiotelephony phraseologies, the expression “holding

point” is used to designate the runway-holding position .

Runway visual range (RVR): The range over which the pilot of an
aircraft on the center line of a runway can see the runway surface mark-
ings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its centre line.

Safety management system (SMS): A systematic approach to manag-

ing safety, including the necessary organizational structures, account-
ability, responsibilities, policies and procedures.

95
Sartime: This term, entered under Item “18” of a flight plan, followed
by a six figure group indicating the date and time (e.g. SRT011530)
UTC indicates that no Search and Rescue is expected by a pilot unless
notification of an arrival is not received by Air Traffic Control service
by the time specified, or unless doubt as to the aircraft’s safety is re-
ceived by incidental means.

Search and rescue region: An area of defined dimensions within

which search and rescue service is provided.

Search and rescue service unit: A generic term meaning, as the case
may be, rescue coordination centre, rescue sub-centre or alerting port.

Secondary radar: A radar system wherein a radio signal transmitted

from the radar station initiates the transmission of a radio signal from
another station.

Secondary surveillance radar (SSR): A surveillance radar system

which uses transmitters /receivers (interrogators) and transponders .

96
Sending unit/controller: Air traffic services unit/air traffic controller
transmitting a message.

Note: See definition of receiving controller unit.

Shoreline : A line following the general contour of the shore, except

that in the case of inlet or bays less than 30 nm in width , the line shall
pass directly across the inlet or bay to intersect the general contour on
the opposite side.

SIGMET information: Information issued by a meteorological watch

office concerning the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified
en-route weather and other phenomena in the atmosphere that may af-
fect the safety of aircraft operations.

Signal area: An area on the aerodrome used for the display of ground
signals.

Significant obstacle: Any natural terrain feature or man made fixed

97
object, permanent or temporary, which has vertical significance in rela-
tion to adjacent and surrounding features and which is considered a po-
tential hazard to the safe passage of aircraft in the type of operation for
which the individual chart series is designed.

Significant point: A specified geographical location used in defining

an ATS route or the flight path of an aircraft and for other navigation
and ATS purposes.

Situation display: An electronic display depicting the position and

movement of aircraft and other information as required.

Slush: Water-saturated snow which with a heel-and-toe slap-down mo-

tion against the ground will be displayed with a splatter; specific grav-
ity: 0.5 up to 0.8.

Note: Combination of ice, snow and/or standing water may, especially

when rain, rain and snow, or snow is falling, produce substance with
specific gravities in excess of 0.8. These substances due to their height
water/ice content, will have a transparent rather than a cloudy appear-
ance and, at the higher specific gravities, will be readily distinguish-
able from slush.

98
Special VFR flight: A VFR flight authorised by air traffic control to
operate within a control zone under meteorological conditions below
the visual meteorological conditions or at night.

SSR response: The visual indication, in non -symbolic form, on a

radar situation of a response from an SSR transponder in reply to an in-
terrogation.

Station declination: An alignment variation between the zero degree

radial of a VOR and true north, determined at the time the VOR station
is calibrated.

Standard instrument arrival (STAR): A designated instrument flight

rule (IFR) arrival route linking a significant point normally on an ATS
route, with a point from which a published instrument approach proce-
dure can be commenced.

Standard instrument departure (SID): A designated instrument

flight rule(IFR) departure route linking the aerodrome or a specified
runway of the aerodrome with a specified significant point, normally
on a designated ATS route, at which the en-route phase of a flight com-
mences.

99
Stopway: A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of take-
off run available prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be
stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off.

Subgrade: The upper part of the soil, natural or constructed, which

supports the loads transmitted by the pavement.

Surveillance radar: Radar equipment used to determine the position

of an aircraft in range and azimuth.

Surveillance radar approach: An approach to a runway by an aircraft

under the direction of a radar controller using surveillance radar.

Taxiing: Movement of an aircraft on the surface of an aerodrome un-

der its own power, excluding take- off and landing.

Taxiway: A defined path on a land aerodrome established for the taxi-

ing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between one part of the
aerodrome and another including:
100
a. Aircraft Stand Taxi-lane: A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway
and intended to provide access to aircraft stands only.
b. Apron taxiway : A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and
intended to provide a through taxi across the apron.
c. Rapid Exit Taxiway: A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute an-
gle and designed to allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher
speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways and thereby minimiz-
ing runway occupancy times.

Terminal control area: A control area normally established at the con-

fluence of ATS routes in the vicinity of one or more major aerodromes.

Threshold: The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for the
landing.

Touchdown: The point where the nominal glide path intercepts the
runway.

Touchdown zone: The portion of a runway, beyond the threshold,

where it is intended landing aeroplanes first contact the runway.

Total estimated elapse time: For IFR flights, the estimated time re-
101
quired from take-off to arrive over that designated point defined by ref-
erence to navigation aids, from which it is intended that an instrument
approach procedure will be commenced or, if no navigation aid is asso-
ciated with the destination aerodrome, to arrive over the destination
aerodrome. For VFR flights, the estimated time required from take-off
to arrive over the destination aerodrome.

Track: The projection on the earth’s surface of the path of an aircraft,

the direction of which path at any point is usually expressed in degrees
from north (true, magnetic or grid).

Traffic avoidance advice: Advise provided by an air traffic control

unit specifying manoeuvres to assist a pilot to avoid a collision.

Traffic information : Information issued by an air traffic services unit

to alert a pilot to other known or observed air traffic which may be in
proximity to the position or intended route of flight and to help the pilot
avoid a collision.

Transfer of control point: A defined point located along the flight

path of an aircraft, at which the responsibility for providing air traffic
control service to the aircraft is transferred from one control unit or
control position to the next.

Transferring unit/controller : Air traffic control unit/air traffic con-

102
troller in the process of transferring the responsibility for providing air
traffic control service to an aircraft to the next air traffic control/air
traffic controller along the route of flight.

Note:See definition of accepting unit/ controller.

Transition altitude: The altitude at or below which the vertical posi-

tion of an aircraft is controlled by reference to altitudes.

Transition layer: The airspace between the transition altitude and the
transition level.

Transition level: The lowest flight level available for use above the
transition altitude.

Uncertainty phase: A situation wherein uncertainty exists as to the

safety of an aircraft and its occupants.

Unmanned free balloon : A non-power driven, unmanned lighter than

air aircraft in free flight.

Vectoring : Provision of navigational guidance to aircraft in the form

of specific headings, based on the use of an ATS surveillance system.

Vertical separation: The vertical spacing of aircraft.

103
 VFR: The symbol used to designate the visual flight rules.

VFR flight: A flight conducted in accordance with the visual flight

rules.

Visibility: Visibility for aeronautical purposes is the greater of :

a. the greatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions, sit-
uated near the ground, can be seen and recognized when observed
against a bright background.
b. the greatest distance at which lights in the vicinity of 1000 candelas can
be seen and identified against an unlit background.

Visual approach: An approach by an IFR flight when either part or all

of the instrument approach procedure is not completed and the ap-
proach is executed in visual reference to terrain.

Visual meteorological conditions: Meteorological conditions ex-

pressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud and ceiling, equal to
or better than specified minima.

Note: The notified minima for VMC in Kenya are defined in ENR 1.2.

VMC: The symbol used to designate visual meteorological conditions.

104
Waypoint: A specified geographical location used to define an area
navigation route or the flight path of an aircraft employing area naviga-
tion. Waypoints are identified as either:

a. Fly-by waypoint: A waypoint which requires turn anticipation to

allow tangential interception of the next segment of a route or proce-
dure, or

b. Flyover waypoint: A waypoint at which a turn is initiated in order to-

join the next segment of a route or procedure.

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND ORGANIZA-

TIONS

Chapters
1. The Chicago Convention
2. International Law
3. Commercial Considerations
4. Customs and Excise, and Immigration
5. International Obligations of Contracted States
6. Duties of ICAO Member States
105
 7. Status of Annex Components
8. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
9. The Organization of ICAO
10. Regional Structure of ICAO
11. Regional Structure and Offices
12. ICAO Publications
13. Other International Agreements
14. The Conventions of Tokyo and the Hague
15. The Warsaw Convention .
16. The Rome Conventions
17. IATA .
18. Eurocontrol .
19. Single European Sky (SES)
20. Geneva Convention

INTRODUCTION
Air Law is a series of rules governing the use of airspace and its benefits
for aviation, the general public and the nations of the world.
Every aspect of air operation is governed by certain laws, for instance
when a person boards an aircraft as a passenger and reads the small print
on his ticket he suddenly realizes that he is bound by the provision of the
Warsaw Convention.
Besides, Air law is intertwined with other areas of laws. It involves many
aspects of Constitution law, Administrative Law, Civil law, Commercial
law and especially Criminal Law.
History of Aviation
From the first attempts at powered manned flight to regular space flight
we have only just exceeded 100 years of aviation and we have had sched-
uled commercial air services since 1919.
106
First World War 1914-1919.
Paris Conference of 1919 was convened, post First World war and being
the first International Conference on Civil Aviation.
This was aftter German balloons repeatedly made flights above French
territory.
The French Government was of the opinion that for safety reasons it
would be desirable for the two governments involved to try and reach an
agreement to resolve the problem.
The first international scheduled flight also took place in 1919 between
Paris and London.
Peacetime Aviation (1919-1927)
Post war period had a lot of surplus aircrafts and airmen. These were
heavier and stronger and improved aircrafts which promoted aviation ac-
tivities.
First trans-Atlantic flight took place in 1919 by US navy.
First Trans-Atlantic non-stop flight also took place in 1919, and lasted
16hrs 27mins.
Golden age of Aviation (1927-1939)

Second World War (1939-1945)

A lot of activities within these 6 years laid foundation of the modern avia-
tion.
Movement of troops and war hardware led to development of Jet aircrafts,
helicopters, Biplanes and bombers and a lot of trained Pilots which were
later converted to civilian aviation.

Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944)

107
International commercial aviation was considered to be of such impor-
tance and a priority issue, that the government of the United States con-
ducted exploratory discussions with other allied (friendly) nations during
the early months of 1944. Subsequently, invitations were sent to 55 states
to meet in Chicago in November 1944.
52 member states (contracting states) attended a five week meeting delib-
erating on problems in civil aviation.
The outcome was the Convention on International Civil Aviation, the pur-
pose of which was “…. to foster the future development of International
Civil Aviation, to help to create and preserve friendship and understand-
ing among peoples of the world, so as to prevent its abuse becoming a
threat to the general security thus promoting co-operation between peo-
ples”.
On this meeting a permanent body was subsequently charged with the ad-
ministration of the principles, the International Civil Aviation Organiza-
tion (ICAO)
ICAO has established the privileges and restrictions of all contracting
states, to provide for the adoption of International Standards and Recom-
mended Practices (ISARPs) for:
 Regulating air navigation
 The installation of navigation facilities by contracting states
 The facilitation of air transport by the reduction of customs and immi-
gration formalities

International Law
There is no international law since there exists no international parliament
to make these laws.

108
However at conventions of states (meetings), arrangements are made to
regulate activities affecting more than one state through common agree-
ment, and these are not enforceable since there is no international police.
The national delegation of the States present these agreements to their re-
spective parliaments as a proposal to make them the laws of the state.
This is known as adoption.
Once the text is discussed and ratified by the state, the internationally
agreed laws become locally enforceable in the concerned states, and of-
fense committed against such laws is punishable under penal codes of
each contracting state.
Territorial airspace
Aviation recognizes territorial jurisdiction of a state as extending to lateral
limits and unlimited vertically.
Lateral limits are agreed internationally e.g. where such limits do not co-
incide with international boundaries including territorial waters.
National laws are applicable within the national jurisdiction of a state/
contracting state.
Every contracting state has sovereignty over the airspace above its terri-
tory.
No scheduled international air service may operate over or into the terri-
tory of a contracting state without that state’s previous consent (approval)
High seas
Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zones (1958)
defines high seas as all the seas outside of territorial seas.
The early international maritime agreements concerned the right to use
the “high seas” unhindered.
In these (and other) conventions, the established privileges and freedoms
of mariners, including those of the flag state (the State in which a vessel is
109
registered and the flag of which the vessel is allowed to fly), were applied
to aeroplanes. The rights of non-coastal states to ply the seas under the
flag of those countries, requires the co-operation of coastal states to allow
free access to the sea. In aviation, similar freedoms are embodied in the
Chicago Convention to allow contracting states to fly over the territory of
other contracting states for the purpose of international civil aviation op-
erations. At the subsequent UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
the original agreements were updated and reinforced.
Sovereignty. This is the right of a country (or contracting ICAO state) to
impose national law to users of the State’s territorial airspace.

COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS
International Civil Aviation.
ICAO attached great importance the question of exchange of commercial
rights in international civil aviation.
The states addressed the subject, resulting in contracting states agreeing,
bilaterally, to grant each other certain rights regarding the commercial ex-
ploitation of civil aviation.
These rights are now known as the Freedoms of the Air.
Definitions;
Scheduled Flight is a flight, for which agreement has been reached be-
tween states (at government level), concerning the schedule.
For instance, how many flights would be allowed in any period, what
aerodromes could be used, what time of day the flights would be allowed,
and what reciprocal arrangements would be required.
A state is not obliged to grant permission for an operator to operate a
schedule.

110
Non-scheduled flights; Those not attached to a schedule. i.e. one-off
flights or charter flights that are not flown on a regular basis.
A state cannot refuse, on political or economic grounds, to accept a non-
scheduled flight.
Cabotage.
Cabotage is defined as the transport of goods or passengers between two
points in the same country. In aviation, the term cabotage is used in asso-
ciation with internal (domestic) scheduled commercial air transport.
It allows a State the right to restrict internal domestic scheduled (or non-
scheduled) air services to aircraft and operators registered in that state.
In international aviation, cabotage is permitted and the US is the prime
example. No foreign carrier is permitted to operate internally in the US.
In the EC, the treaty of Rome demands free access to territory of all EC
states and cabotage in aviation within individual EC states is forbidden.
This is why Ryanair (an Irish airline) is permitted to operate scheduled
services within the UK and other EC states.
However, the EC applies cabotage and doesn’t permit non-EC states to
operate internally within the EC!

Customs and excise, and immigration

Facilitation (ICAO Annex 9)
Under international law the imposition of customs tariffs and the prohibi-
tion of the importation of proscribed items, is allowed.
In this respect, international flights are required to make the first point of
landing in a contracting state at a recognized international airport which
provides customs, health and immigration facilities.
This is order to allow contracting states to maintain national Customs and
Excise regulations.
Within the EU the removal of restrictions to free trade now allows flights
from one EU state to another to make the first point of landing at a non-
customs aerodrome providing certain rules are observed.
111
International obligations of contracted states
National and ‘International’ Law.
In becoming an ICAO Contracting State, states agree to observe the Inter-
national Standards specified by ICAO.
By accepting contracted status, each state accepts the responsibility for
enforcement of the rules and regulations within its sovereign territory and
airspace (through national law).
However a situation is recognised where national legislation and regula-
tions have precedent over international rules within the territorial airspace
of that State
Article 38 of the Chicago Convention requires each Sovereign State to no-
tify ICAO of any differences between their national regulations and the
International Standards adopted.
Where flights are conducted over the high seas, the international rules ap-
ply without exception.

Rules of the Air are (Annex 2) standardises the procedures for civil avia-
tion specifically for the safety of aircrew and passengers.
Other regulations are established to facilitate the smooth and expeditious
flow of air traffic by the adoption of Standards and Recommended Prac-
tices (SARPS).

Right to Prosecute Offenders.

Where an offence is committed in an aeroplane contrary to the ‘interna-
tional’ law, the state, in whose airspace the offence occurs, has the right to
try and punish offenders.

If the offence occurs over ‘the high seas’ the state of registration of the
aircraft has the right to prosecute the offender(s).
The international agreements oblige states to prosecute.
If a state doesn’t want to (for political reasons) another state may do so.
For instance: A bomb is placed on an American aeroplane (contrary to the
112
Montreal Convention and Protocols) by 2 Libyans, in Frankfurt or Rome.
The aeroplane explodes over Scotland. Who has the power to prosecute?
The order is as follows:
The UK (under Scottish law) – the offence happened over Scot-
land
The United States – the aeroplane was registered in the USA
The Italians – because the bomb was placed on board in Rome
The Germans – because the aeroplane made an intermediate stop
in Frankfurt
Any other state, the citizens of which were killed or injured.
Libya – because the suspects are Libyan
Note: If the UK had not prosecuted, the US most certainly would
have.

Search and Rescue (SAR)

In accepting contracted State status, each state specifically undertakes to
provide procedures and facilities for Search and Rescue (SAR) within the
territory of that state.
SAR services in areas of high seas, or areas of undetermined sovereignty,
will be established on the basis of Regional Air Navigation agreements.
The standards governing the provision of SAR services oblige the state to
provide at least the minimum service compatible with the type and fre-
quency of the air traffic using the airspace for which the state is responsi-
ble, and that service is to be available 24 hours per day.
States are also required to maintain a degree of co-operation with adja-
cent states and the readiness to assist with SAR operations if requested.

Conditions to be fulfilled with respect to aircraft as stipulated by the

Chicago Convention.
a. Documents ; Every aircraft engaged in international navigation shall
carry the following documents :
 Certificate of Registration
 Certificate of Airworthiness
113
  Crew member licences
 Journey Logbook
 Aircraft radio station licence - if equipped with a radio
 If passengers are carried, a list of names and place of both embarka-
tion and destination
 If cargo is carried, a manifest and detailed declaration of the cargo
b. Cargo restrictions. No munitions of war may be carried in or above
the territory of a State without the permission of that State
c. Photographic apparatus. Each Contracting State may prohibit or reg-
ulate the use of photographic apparatus in an aircraft over its territory.

DUTIES OF ICAO MEMBER STATES

Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs).
The stated aims of ICAO are to ensure safety, regularity and efficiency of
international civil aviation operations.
In order to achieve this, the contracting states are required to comply with
the Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs.
The SARPs are established after consultation with the contracting states
and interested international organisations, finalised by the ICAO Air Nav-
igation Commission and submitted to the Council where a two-thirds ma-
jority is required for adoption.
As mentioned earlier, SARPs are considered binding on contracting states
but if a state finds it impossible to implement the SARPs; it must inform
ICAO under the terms of Article 38, of any differences that will exist on
the applicability date of the amendment.
Such differences will be detailed in the national aeronautical information
publication (AIP) and summarised in a supplement to each Annex of the
Chicago Convention.

Customs Duty and Excise.

114
ICAO has addressed taxation in the field of international aviation and
member states are required to follow the resolutions and recommendation
of the Council in this respect.
States are asked to exempt fuel, lubricants, and other technical consum-
ables taken on an aircraft in a state other than the State of registry, provid-
ing such supplies are for consumption in flight.
Also to reduce or eliminate taxes on international air transport (fares) and
to grant, reciprocally to air transport enterprises of other States, exemp-
tion from taxation on income and profits.
Annex 9 (Facilitation) requires States to apply procedures, which allow
expeditious handling of goods and cargo intended for import or which are
passing through. The establishment of ‘free zones’ is encouraged.

Aircraft Certificates, Registration and Licenses.

Annex 7 (Aircraft Nationality and Registration Markings) requires con-
tracting states to apply standard procedures for registration, that includes
the format of registration marks and nationality symbols, including the
size and where these are to be displayed on aircraft.
It provides a sample of a certificate of registration for use by States.
Annex 8 (Airworthiness of Aircraft) requires States to provide a Certifi-
cate of Airworthiness, for each registered aircraft, declaring that the air-
craft is fit to fly.
Annex 1 (Personnel Licensing), SARPs are established requiring each
state to apply standardisation in the licensing of personnel involved in in-
ternational aviation including flight crew members (pilots, flight engi-
neers), air traffic controllers and maintenance technicians. These are
safety sensitive personnel.

Standardization ensures that all involved in air transport operations are li-
censed to common standards and able to operate throughout the world,
thus generating greater trust in aviation on the part of the traveller. A li-
cence issued by the authority in one state is not automatically valid in an-
other State. In this instance, the Annex requires states to establish proce-
dures for the validation of licences issued in other states and defines the
method by which such validation shall be annotated.
115
Carriage of Dangerous Cargo (Annex 18)
More than half the cargo carried by all modes of transport in the world is
classified as dangerous. Because of the speed advantages of air transport,
a great deal of this cargo is carried by aircraft.
In conformity with Annex 18 States are required to accept the SARPs as-
sociated with the carriage of dangerous goods and to implement the Tech-
nical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air.

ANNEX COMPONENTS
An annex is made up of the following component parts, not all of which
are necessarily found in every Annex:
Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) are adopted by the
Council and are considered binding upon all contracting states unless a
state has notified a ‘difference’ as defined under article 38 of the conven-
tion.
A Standard; specification for physical characteristics, configura-
tion, materiel, performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform applica-
tion of which is recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of in-
ternational air navigation and to which Contracting States will conform in
accordance with the Convention.
In the event of impossibility of compliance, notification to the Council is
compulsory under article 38 of the Convention.
A Recommended Practice; specification for physical characteris-
tics, configuration, materiel, performance, personnel or procedure, the
uniform application of which is recognized as desirable in the interest of
safety, regularity or efficiency of international air navigation and to which
Contracting States will endeavour to conform in accordance with the Con-
vention.
THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO)
Is an inter-governmental organization, and a specialised agency of the
United Nations concerned with standardisation and agreement between
116
Contracting States of all technical, economic and legal aspects of interna-
tional civil aviation.
The headquarters of ICAO is in Montreal, Canada.
ICAO Aims and Objectives.
 Ensure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation
throughout the world.
 Encourage arts of aircraft design and operation.
 Encourage the development of airways, airports and air naviga-
tion facilities.
 Meet the need for safe, regular, efficient and economical air trans-
port.
 Prevent waste caused by unreasonable competition.
 Ensure the rights of Contracting States are fully respected.
 Avoid discrimination between Contracting States.
 Promote the safety of flight in international aviation.
 Generally promote all aspect of international civil aeronautics.

ORGANIZATION OF ICAO
Consists of;
i) The Assemby;
Is the sovereign body of ICAO
Meets at least once every 3 years, conveyed by the council.
Each contracting state is represented and entitled to one vote. Decisions
are based on majority vote.
117
ii) Council
Is a permanent governing body of ICAO and is responsible to the assem-
bly.
Composed of 33 contracting states, elected by Assembly for a 3 year
term.

iii) Commissions and Committees

Composed of members, appointed by the Council, from nominations of
contracting states or elected from amongst Council members.
Includes;
 The Air Navigation Commission
 The Air Transport Committee
 The Legal Committee
 The Committee on Joint Support of Air Navigation Services
 The Personnel Committee
 The Finance Committee
 The Committee on Unlawful Interference
Air Navigation Commission. This is the body that proposes, formulates
and finalises the SARPs and presents them for adoption by the Council.
The ICAO Secretariat
Is divided into sections, each corresponding to a Committee, and supplies
technical and administrative aid to the Council.
It is headed by a Secretary- General, appointed by the Council, and is di-
vided into five main divisions:
 Air Navigation Bureau

118
  Air Transport Bureau
 Technical Assistance Bureau
 Legal Bureau
 Bureau of Administration and Services

REGIONAL STRUCTURE
ICAO has seven regional offices;
Bangkok, Dakar, Paris, Nairobi, Lima, Mexico city and Cairo
Each regional office is accredited to a group contracting states, making up
a 9 recognized geographical regions;
 AFI - Africa - Indian Ocean;
 NAM - North America;
 ASIA - Asia;
 CAR - Caribbean;
 NAT - North Atlantic;
 EUR - Europe;
 PAC - Pacific;
 MID - Middle East;
 SAM - South America
The main function of regional offices is maintaining, encouraging, assist-
ing, expediting and following-up the implementation of air navigation
plans.
The Need for a Regional Structure
In dealing with international civil aviation, there are many subjects that
ICAO considers on a regional basis as well as on a worldwide scale. In or-
der to facilitate:
 The planning of facilities and services

119
  The formulation of supplementary procedures to support in-
creases in traffic density
 New air routes
 The introduction of new types of aircraft
Regional Air Navigation (RAN)
Meetings are held periodically to consider the requirements of air opera-
tions within specified geographic areas. The plans emerging from a re-
gional meeting, is designed such that when the states concerned imple-
ment it, it will lead to an integrated, efficient system for the entire region
and contribute to the global system.
In addition to the duties detailed above, the regional offices are responsi-
ble for keeping the regional plans up to date.

Financial Assistance.
Through the regional offices, financial assistance is provide to assist states
in specific circumstances.
The provision of air traffic control, navigation aids and meteorological
services in Greenland and Iceland are examples of this specific aid, where
due to the intense air traffic using the airspace of those states such expen-
diture is disproportionate to the gross national product of those states.

ICAO PUBLICATIONS
1. The Annexes.
One of the major duties of the ICAO Council is to adopt International
Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPS) and incorporate these as
annexes to the Convention on International Civil Aviation. There are now

120
19 annexes to the 1944 convention which are constantly under review to
ensure that the content realistically meets the requirements of civil avia-
tion now.
The 19 annexes are:
Annex 1. Personnel Licensing
Annex 2. Rules of the Air
Annex 3. Meteorological Services for International Air Navi-
gation
Annex 4. Aeronautical Charts
Annex 5. Units of Measurement to be used in Air and Ground
Operations
Annex 6. Operation of Aircraft
Annex 7. Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
Annex 8. Airworthiness of Aircraft
Annex 9. Facilitation
Annex 10. Aeronautical Telecommunications
Annex 11. Air Traffic Services
Annex 12. Search and Rescue
Annex 13. Aircraft Accident Investigations
Annex 14. Aerodromes
Annex 15. Aeronautical Information Services
Annex 16. Environmental Protection
Annex 17. Security - Safeguarding International Civil Aviation
against Acts of
Unlawful Interference
Annex 18. The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
Annex 19. Safety management (SMS)

1. PANS (Procedures for Air Navigation)

SARPS are more technical and requires further explanations. SARPS are
adopted by the council.
ICAO publishes PANS which are then approved by the Council.

121
 PANS OPS (Doc 8168) -aircraft operations
Produced in two parts; Vol 1 describes ops procedures recommended for
flight operations personnel and VOL 2 describes procedures for special-
ists concerned with obstacle clearance for production of instrument flight
charts, IFR (instrument and approach procedures)
PANS ATM (Doc 4444)-Air traffic management
Specifies the requirements for the establishment of an Air Traffic Control
Services.

REGIONAL SUPPLEMENTARY PROCEDURES (Doc 7030/4).

Where navigational procedures, necessary for a specific geographical re-
gion differ from the worldwide , such procedures are recorded in the rele-
vant region section of Doc 7030/4, and are known as Regional Supple-
mentary Procedures (SUPPS).
SUPPS are approved by the Council, but only for regional use.
Bilateral Agreements.
It was not found possible to reach a single agreement satisfactory to all 52
States, due to political and national rivalries.
Two supplementary bilateral agreements were set up which gave each
state the opportunity to enter into agreements with other states on a ‘one-
to-one’ basis if considered desirable between those states:
 The International Air Services Transit Agreement permits aircraft of
a signatory State to over fly, or land for technical reasons in, the ter-
ritory of another signatory state.
This established Technical freedoms.

122
  ii)The International Air Transport Agreement allows the carriage of
traffic between the State of Registration and another signatory state.
Traffic: is the carriage of mail, cargo or passengers.

FREEDOMS OF THE AIR

Freedom’ refers to the privilege conferred by virtue of signatory status to
a bilateral agreement.
ICAO has produced the ‘Chicago Standard Form for Bilateral Agreement
for Regular Air Transport’ based on the definitions for the Freedoms of
the Air.
For general aviation and non-scheduled commercial operations, the filing
of an international flight plan is the method by which a flight gives notifi-
cation to exercise the privileges of the appropriate freedoms.
The Technical Freedoms: These comprise the first two freedoms and were
established;
First Freedom: The privilege to fly across the territory of another partici-
pating state without landing.
Second Freedom: The privilege to land in another participating state for
non-traffic purposes (i.e. refuelling or repair. but not for uplift or dis-
charge of traffic passengers, cargo or mail).
The Commercial Freedoms.
These are defined as commercial and whilst still bilateral, are subject to
inter-government negotiation.
 Third Freedom: The privilege to put down in another state (e.g. the
USA) traffic taken on in the state of registration (e.g. the UK). Sim-
ply a freedom permitting movement of traffic from state of registry
to another contracting state.
This is the first commercial freedom of the air.
123
  Fourth Freedom: The privilege to take on in another state (e.g. the
USA), traffic destined for the state of airline registration (e.g. the
UK). Simply a freedom permitting movement of traffic from a con-
tracting state to the state of registry.
 Fifth Freedom: The privilege for an airline registered in one state
(e.g. Kenya) and en-route to or from that state, to take on traffic in a
second state (e.g. UAE) and put them down in a third state (e.g.
Thailand).
An example is traffic carried by air carrier through (through carriers’ hub)
their state of registry and connecting to a destination in another contract-
ing state and vice versa.
Modern Freedoms.
The first five freedoms are officially recognized by international treaty.
Modern freedoms are a result of evolution in air transport but not offi-
cially recognized.
 Sixth Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege for an air carrier
to take on traffic originating from a contracting state to another con-
tracting state via the home State of the registry.
An example is KQ transporting traffic boarded at Lagos destined to Dubai
via Nairobi.
 Seventh Freedom of The Air –
Privilege for an airline to move traffic between two contracting states
without having to route via state of registry, i.e. the service need not con-
nect to or be an extension of any service to/from the home State of the
carrier.
 Eighth Freedom of The Air (cabotage)- the right or privilege, for a
foreign carrier to operate between two points in the territory of the
granting State on a service which originates or terminates in the
home country of the foreign carrier.
124
Example; Qatar airways operating scheduled service from Doha-Mom-
basa-Nairobi-Doha, while offloading and uplifting traffic at each point.
The traffic uplifted at Mombasa and dropped at Nairobi forms cabotage.
 Ninth Freedom of The Air - the right or privilege of transporting
cabotage traffic of the granting State on a service performed entirely
within the territory of the granting State.

TOKYO CONVENTION (1963)

(Convention on Offenses and acts committed on board an aircraft)
Provides state of registry of an aircraft to exercise jurisdiction over such
acts and offenses and perpetrators of such offenses should never go un-
punished.
Certain acts and offenses on board may jeopardize safety of aircraft or
persons and property. Aircraft commander and crew are empowered to
prevent such acts and deliver persons involved to appropriate authorities.
In the case of an anticipated or actual unlawful or forcible seizure of an
aircraft in flight by a person on board, the States party to the Convention
are obliged to take all appropriate measures to restore and preserve con-
trol of the aircraft to its lawful commander.

THE HAGUE CONVENTION (December 1970)

(Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft)
Due to politically motivated terrorist hijackings of aircraft in the 1960’s,
the international community, under ICAO, resolved to work together to
prevent or deter/suppress such acts.
It defines unlawful seizure of an aircraft (hijacking) and demands punish-
ment by severe penalties.

125
This convention came into effect in October 1971
MONTREAL CONVENTION (1971)
(Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of
Civil Aviation)
Mainly concerned with acts other than those pertaining to the unlawful
seizure i.e.:
 Acts of violence on board which endanger people and property and the
safety of the aeroplane
 The destruction of an aircraft in service or causing damage which ren-
ders it incapable of flight or which is likely to endanger its safety in flight
 Placing in an aircraft any device likely to destroy, damage or render un-
fit for flight any aircraft
 Destroying or damaging any air navigation facility or interference with
its correct operation
 The communication of information known to be false which endangers
the safety of an aeroplane in flight.
It makes it an offence to attempt any of the unlawful acts specified or to
be an accomplice to such acts. The contracting states have undertaken to
make these offences punishable by severe penalties.

Protocol Supplementary to the Montreal Convention of 1971

Adopted at a conference held at Montreal in 1988
It extends the definition of offence given in the 1971 Convention to in-
clude specified acts of violence at airports serving international civil avia-
tion,that include:
 The intentional and unlawful use of any device, substance or weapon in
performing an act of violence against a person at an airport serving inter-
national civil aviation, which causes or is likely to cause serious injury or
death

126
 The intentional and unlawful use of any device, substance or weapon
to:
• Destroy or seriously damage the facilities of an airport
(eg fuel tanks)
• Destroy or seriously damage aircraft not in service at
the airport
• Disrupt the services at an airport
Contracting States have undertaken to make these offences punishable by
severe penalties. The protocol also contains provisions on jurisdiction.

WARSAW CONVENTION (1929)-Liability of the carrier

Concerned itself with responsibilities and liabilities of the Carrier and the
Agents of aircraft together with matters of compensation for loss of life or
injury to passengers; delays and loss of baggage.
This limited the liability, except in cases of gross negligence, to roughly
the equivalent of US$10,000.
In 1955 an amendment to the Convention was adopted at the conference
of Hague Protocol which doubled the existing limits of liability and the
present limit is a maximum amount of US$100,000 per person. By agree-
ing to the terms of the Warsaw agreement, an airline agrees to pay com-
pensation without further process of law however, the amounts payable
are nowadays relatively small in litigation circumstances. Some airlines,
state that they will not be bound by the Warsaw agreement and will pay
higher amounts of compensation if awarded by a Court.
Ticket Issuance;
Issuing of a ticket for passenger, luggage or consignment forms a contract
between the carrier and the ticket receiver.
Acceptance of a passenger, luggage or cargo on board an aircraft without
a ticket/note, attracts liability to the carrier for any loss which is occa-
sioned without the protection of the limits set by the Warsaw Convention.
127
The loss, irregularity or absence of a ticket/note does not affect the exis-
tence or the validity of the contract.
Delay. The carrier is liable for damage occasioned by delay in the car-
riage by air of passengers, baggage or cargo.
Nevertheless, the carrier shall not be liable for damage occasioned by de-
lay if it proves that it and its servants and agents took all measures that
could reasonably be required to avoid the damage or that it was impossi-
ble for it or them to take such measures.

ROME CONVENTION (1952)

Deals with damage caused by foreign aircraft to third parties on the
ground.
It permits a claimant to pursue a claim against a foreign operator through
the Court in the state of residence. Any resulting judgement would then be
enforceable in the state of operator.
GENEVA CONVENTION (1947)
(The Convention on International Recognition of Rights in Aircraf)
Specifically the convention:
 Outlawed double registration
 Made it a requirement that the registering authority address ap-
peared on the certificate of registration
 Contained requirements regarding salvage of aircraft
 Stipulated that an aircraft could not be transferred from one regis-
ter to another unless all interested parties had been informed
 Stipulated that the articles of the Convention would not prevent a
State imposing its laws relating to immigration, customs or air navi-
gation.
Security (Annex 17)

128
ICAO has adopted SARPs detailed in Annex 17,whose provisions are ap-
plicable to all contracting states.
The Annex requires all contracting States to:
Establish national civil aviation security programmes
To designate an authority responsible for security
To keep the level of threat under constant review
To co-ordinate activities with other relevant national agencies and
liaise with the corresponding authority in other States

Programmes and plans. In order to make such activities workable and

efficient, States are also required to set up training programmes, establish
airport security committees and to have contingency plans drawn up.
International co-operation. States are required to co-operate with other
States in research and development of security systems and equipment
which will better satisfy civil aviation security objectives.

The Authority of the Commander.

The aircraft commander may order or authorise the assistance of other
crew members and may request and authorise, but not order, the assis-
tance of passengers to restrain any person he is required to restrain.
The aircraft commander may, when he has reasonable ground to believe
that a person has committed, or is about to commit, an act which may or
does jeopardize the safety of the aircraft or persons or property on board
or which jeopardize good order and discipline on board, impose reason-
able measures, which may include restraint, necessary:
To protect the safety of the aircraft, or of persons or property on
board
To maintain good order and discipline on board
To enable him to deliver such a person to competent authorities or
to disembark him in accordance with provision of the Convention.
Note: The PIC may request - but not require - the assistance of passen-
gers in the restraint of an unruly passenger.

EUROPEAN AVIATION SAFETY AUTHORITY (EASA)

129
Is the centrepiece of the European Union’s strategy for aviation safety. Its
mission is to promote the highest common standards of safety and envi-
ronmental protection in civil aviation.
Responsible for;
 Rulemaking: drafting safety legislation and providing technical
advice to the European institutions and the member states
 Inspections, training and standardization programmes to ensure
uniform implementation of European aviation safety legislation in
all member states
 Safety and environmental type-certification of aircraft, engines
and parts
 Approval and oversight of aircraft design organisations world-
wide and of production and maintenance organisations outside the
EU
 Data collection, analysis and research to improve aviation safety.

The International Air Transport Association (IATA)

Established in 1945 at Havana,Cuba.
Aims at fostering inter-airline co-operation in promoting safe,reliable,se-
cure and economical air services.
Today, IATA’s mission is to represent, lead and serve the airline industry.
It fights for the interests of airlines across the globe, challenging unrea-
sonable rules and charges, holding regulators and governments to account,
and striving for sensible regulation, as it seeks to improve understanding
of the industry among decision makers and increase awareness of the ben-
efits that aviation brings to national and global economies.
Its members comprise some 260 airlines - the world’s leading passenger
and cargo airlines among them - representing 94 percent of international
scheduled air traffic.
Eurocontrol
130
History and Role. Eurocontrol was founded in 1960 with the objective of
providing common ATC services in the upper airspace of Member States
and strengthening cooperation between Member States in matters of air
navigation. Eurocontrol was established under the International Conven-
tion Relating to Co-operation for the Safety of Air Navigation
signed at Brussels on 13 December 1960. Initially, six countries signed
the agreement:
Germany (FDR); Belgium; France; United Kingdom; Luxembourg and
the Netherlands.
The Eurocontrol ATCC is at Maastricht, Holland. The role of Eurocontrol
is now much wider than originally envisaged. The limit of operations, to
just the upper airspace, was abandoned in 1986 and Eurocontrol now has
a much wider remit, placed on the Organization by ECAC, most notably
in the area of Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM) which led to the es-
tablishment of the Eurocontrol Central Flow Management Unit (CFMU)
in 1988. Eurocontrol has a training centre in Luxembourg and an experi-
mental research centre at Bretigny, France, with a new ATCC in Vienna
(CEATS)

131
 AIRWORTHINESS
Annex 8
Introduction
Airworthiness

Definitions;
Authority” means the Kenya Civil Aviation Authority
Approved Maintenance Organisation (AMO)” means an organisation ap-
proved to perform specific aircraft maintenance
activities by the Authority.
certificate of release to service” means a document containing a certifica-
tion that inspection and maintenance work has been performed satisfacto-
rily in accordance with the methods prescribed by the Authority;
State of Design” means the State having jurisdiction over the organization
responsible for the type design;

132
“State of Manufacture” means a Contracting State under whose authority
an aircraft was assembled, approved for compliance with the type certifi-
cate and all extant supplemental type certificates, test flown and approved
for operation; the state of manufacture may or may not also be the state of
design.
“State of Registry” means a Contracting State on whose register an air-
craft is entered
inspection” means the examination of an aircraft or aircraft component to
establish conformity with a standard approved by the Authority;
maintenance” means that the performance of tasks required to ensure the
continuing airworthiness of an aircraft, including any one or combination
of overhaul, inspection, replacement, defect rectification, and the embodi-
ment of a modification or repair;
“Maintenance Control Manual” means a manual containing procedures,
instructions and guidance for use by maintenance and
concerned operational personnel in the execution of their duties;
“maintenance programme” means a document which describes the spe-
cific scheduled maintenance tasks and their frequency of
completion and related procedures, such as a reliability programme, nec-
essary for the safe operation of those aircraft to which it applies;
Introduction
ICAO placed great emphasis on safety, and one particular ‘area of inter-
est’ was in the airworthiness of aeroplanes. In order to ensure that an
aeroplane was safe to use it was agreed that all aeroplanes would have a
certificate that stated
that the aircraft was airworthy when manufactured, and that through the
continued validation of that certificate, the continuing airworthiness of the
aircraft would be ensured.

133
Rigorous rules and regulations are applied during aircraft design and
building, and the flight testing process, to ensure that the
aircraft does what it is intended to do.
Upon successful completion of testing procedures, the State of manufac-
turer issues a Type Certificate and this is then applicable to all subsequent
production models.
Airworthiness standards are outlined in Annex 8 to the Chicago conven-
tion, and KCARs 2018 (Airworthiness of Aircraft) in Kenya.

Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A).

C of A is issued by the State of Registry when satisfactory evidence is
provided that the aeroplane complies with
the appropriate airworthiness requirements.
Standard Cof A form specified by ICAO contains;
 the nationality and registration marks,
 manufacturer and designation of the aircraft (e.g. Boeing 747-400),
 aircraft serial number (i.e. the airframe number like a car chassis
number) and
 categories/operation;
(a) commercial air transport (passenger);
(b) commercial air transport (cargo);
(c) general aviation; or
(d) aerial work.
Continuing Airworthiness. The State of Registry is responsible for deter-
mining if an aircraft continues to be airworthy. This can be achieved by
system of recording aircraft defects and faults and a regular inspection
program.
Validity of C of A.
134
Cof A is subject to renewal process upon prove of continued airworthi-
ness of the aircraft.
KCARs 2018 (Airworthiness) 12 states that C of A shall be valid for 12
months from date of issue/re-issue unless;
a) a shorter period is specified by the Authority;
(b) the Authority amends, extends, suspends, revokes or otherwise termi-
nates the certificate; and
(c) the aircraft owner or operator surrenders the certificate to the Author-
ity.

KCARs 2018 (Airworthiness )

The certificates of airworthiness shall be classified as follows—
(a) a certificate of airworthiness;
(b) a restricted certificate of airworthiness in the form of a restricted cer-
tificate;
(c) a special flight permit; and
(d) export certificate of airworthiness

Regulation 8 (1); A person shall not fly an aircraft unless there is in force
in respect of that aircraft, a certificate of airworthiness or restricted certifi-
cate of airworthiness or a special flight permit duly issued or rendered
valid under the law of the State of Registry and any conditions subject to
which the certificate was issued or rendered valid are complied with.
Restricted Certificate of Airworthiness
16 (1) The Authority may issue a restricted certificate of airworthiness to
the aircraft that does not qualify for a certificate of

135
Airworthiness including micro light, experimental amateur and kit built
aircraft, an aircraft used for air races, aircraft flying for exhibition pur-
pose, a kite and any non-type certificated aircraft.
An aircraft holding a restricted certificate of airworthiness shall be subject
to operating limitations within Kenya and shall not
make international flights.
Special Flight permits
17 (1) The Authority may issue a special flight permit for an aircraft that
is capable of safe flight but unable to meet applicable
airworthiness requirements for the purpose of—
(a)flying to a base where weighing, painting, repairs, modifications,
maintenance, or inspections are to
be performed or to a point of storage;
(b) flying for the purpose of experimenting with or testing the aircraft in-
cluding its engines and equipment;
(c) flying for the purpose of qualifying for the issue, renewal or validation
of certificate of airworthiness or restricted
Certificate of airworthiness and the approval of a modification of the air-
craft;
(d) delivering or exporting the aircraft;
(e) evacuating aircraft from areas of impending danger; and

Conditions for special flight permit;

a) the flight is made under the supervision of a person approved by the
Authority for such flight, subject to any
additional conditions which may be specified in the permit;

136
(b) a copy of the permit is carried on board the aircraft at all times when
the aircraft is operating under the conditions of
the permit;
(c) operating under the conditions of the permit;
(d) the aircraft registration markings assigned to the aircraft are displayed;
(e) no persons or property are carried on board for hire or reward;
(f) only persons essential for the safe operation of the aircraft are carried
on the aircraft and the person must be advised of
the contents of the permit;
(g) the aircraft is operated only by flight crew holding appropriate license
with sufficient experience to appreciate
the reasons for the aircraft non-compliance to the prescribed airworthiness
standards;
(h) the flight is conducted in accordance with applicable flight operating
rules and procedures of the states of the intended
routing;
(i) the routing is such that areas of heavy air traffic, areas of heavy human
concentration of a city, town settlement or
any other areas where the flight might create hazardous exposure to per-
sons or property are avoided;
(j) the flight is performed in accordance to the performance limitations
prescribed in the aircraft flight manual and any
other limitation that the Authority may impose on such flight;
(k) all flights are conducted prior to the expiry date of the special flight
permit or at any other time the Authority
declares so in writing; and

137
(l) the aircraft shall not depart for the flight on a special flight permit un-
less the aircraft has on board authorizations from
the State of intended routing.

Surrender of C of A
11. An owner of an aircraft who sells the aircraft shall surrender the cer-
tificate of airworthiness or restricted certificate of airworthiness or special
flight permit as applicable
(a) to the buyer upon sale of the aircraft within Kenya; or
(b) to the Authority in the case of aircraft sold outside Kenya
Certificate of fitness for flight
A person shall not fly an aircraft for the purpose of flight testing after re-
pair, modification or maintenance unless that aircraft has been issued with
a Certificate of Fitness for Flight containing a maintenance endorsement
statement.
A certificate of fitness for flight shall be issued by an appropriate quali-
fied person in accordance with these Regulations and
the Civil Aviation (Personnel Licensing) Regulations.

138
 AIRCRAFT NATIONALITY AND REGISTRATION
MARKS (Annex 7)

139
Introduction
Nationality and Registration Marks
Certification of Registration
Aircraft Markings
Classification of Aircraft
Kcars 2018 citations

INTRODUCTION
The Paris Convention of 1919 requires all aircraft to be registered and to
carry nationality mark and a registration marks.
Annex 7 contains only Standards without any recommendations with re-
gard to Aircraft nationality and registration markings.
The Authority of a state may temporarily exempt an aircraft from registra-
tion (test flying of a prototype)
Nationality and registration markings consist of a group of characters, e.g.
5Y-CBD,A6-FFK,N0185
When the first character of the registration mark is the same type of char-
acter as the last character of the nationality mark, it is be preceded by a
hyphen (-) e.g. 5Y-KKE
Characters preceding the hyphen forms the Nationality mark, and the
characters preceded by hyphen form the registration marks.
Markings

140
The nationality marks are issued to the State of Registry by the Interna-
tional Telecommunications Union, ITU (an agency of the United Na-
tions).
State of registry is to notify ICAO of the nationality marks.
Nationality mark may consist of single letters; multiple letters or a combi-
nation of letters and numbers.
The registration mark may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of
both and is assigned by the State of Registry, or the common mark regis-
tering authority, from a list of available (not previously issued) marks.
Common mark
A common mark replaces a nationality mark where the aircraft is owned
(operated) by an operator registered in more than one country.
A ‘common mark’ is allocated by the ITU, and ICAO specifies a state to
exercise the responsibilities of the State of Registry (known as the com-
mon mark registering authority).
The common mark registering authority also performs the function of the
State of Registry with regard to the continuing airworthiness of the air-
craft.
Exclusions;
Certain combinations of letters are not permitted to be used as registration
letters or parts of a registration mark
As they have been reserved for specific distress traffic.
i. SOS (Distress - morse)
ii. PAN (Urgency)
iii. XXX (Urgency - morse)
iv. TTT (Safety /Securité - morse)
v. ‘Q’ codes (i.e. QNH; QRT; QUG etc….
vi. 5 letter combinations of the international Code of Signals
CERTIFICATION OF REGISTRATION (COR)

141
This is an official document certifying that the State of Registry has regis-
tered an aircraft.
The certificate is to be carried in the aircraft at all times.
The certificate contains:
i. Nationality or Common mark,
ii. Registration mark,
iii. Manufacturer’s designation of the aircraft,
iv. Serial number of the aircraft,
v. Name and address of the owner,
vi. A certificate that it has been entered on the register of the
State,
vii. Dated signature of the registering officer.
AIRCRAFT MARKINGS
Location of Nationality and Registration Marks.
The nationality or common mark and registration mark are to be painted
on the aircraft or shall be affixed by any other means ensuring a similar
degree of permanence.
The marks shall be kept clean and visible at all times.
Heavier than Air Aircraft.
The required markings are to appear on;
i) the lower surface (underside) of the wing, (left wing)
ii) The fuselage between the wings and the tail, or on the upper
half of the vertical tail surface.

The markings on the wings are to be at least 50cm high, and on the fuse-
lage and vertical surfaces, 30cm high.
In the case of rotorcraft—
The marks shall be at least 30 centimeters in height,

Kenya Civil Aviation regulations;

Reference is hereby made to KCARs 2018 (Aircraft Nationality and Reg-
istration markings) for;

142
a) General provisions.
b) Eligibility for registration.
c) Application for registration of aircraft.
d) Registration of aircraft.
e) Certificate of registration.
f) Change of registration or ownership particulars.
g) De-registration.
h) Display of marks.
i) Location of marks.
j) Measurement of marks.
k) Types of characters for nationality and registration marks.
l) Deviations for size and location of marks.
m)Removal of marks.
n) Identification plate required.
o) Replacement of certificate.
p) Certificate suspension and revocations

143
 FLIGHT CREW LICENSING

1. Introductions
2. Definitions
3. General Rules Concerning Licensing
4. Licenses and ratings for Pilots
5. Ratings
6. Certificates
7. Medicals-KCARs requirements

INTRODUCTION
ICAO SARP on PEL is detailed in Annnex 1, and Legal notice 95 of the
Kenya Civil Aviation regulations 2018.
Licenses issued by contracting states in conformity with requirements of
ICAO Annex 1 are known as ICAO licenses. However ICAO does not
issue licenses.
Contracting states may validate licences issued by other Contracting
States on the basis of
bilateral or multilateral agreements or the fulfilment of nationally
legislated requirements.

Definitions;
“pilot-in-command” means the pilot designated by the operator, or in the
case of general aviation, the owner, as being in command and charged
with the safe conduct of a flight;

144
Rating. Means an authorization entered on or associated with a license or
certificate and forming part thereof, stating special conditions, privileges
or limitations pertaining to such license or certificate
Co-pilot. A licensed pilot serving in any capacity other than PIC but
excluding a pilot who is on board for the sole purpose of receiving
instruction.

Flight Time. The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves
under its own power for the purpose of taking off until it comes to rest at
the end of the flight (synonymous with ‘block to block’ or ‘chock to
chock’)
ATO - Approved Training Organization
Pilot in command (PIC) – the pilot designated as being in command and
charged with the safe conduct of the flight.
Pilot in command Under Supervision (PICUS) – a co-pilot performing,
under the supervision
of the pilot in command, the duties and the functions of a pilot in
command.

Proficiency Check – the demonstration of skill to revalidate or renew

ratings, and including
such oral examination as may be required.
Solo Flight Time - means flight time during which a student pilot is the
sole occupant of an
aircraft
“Co -pilot” means a licensed pilot serving in a piloting capacity other than
as PIC, but excluding a pilot who is on board the aircraft for the sole
purpose of receiving flight instruction.

“powered-lift” means a heavier-than-air aircraft capable of vertical

takeoff, vertical landing, and low speed flight that depends principally on
engine driven lift devices or engine thrust for lift during these flight
regimes and on non-rotating airfoil(s) for lift during horizontal flight.

145
“safety-sensitive personnel” means a person who might endanger aviation
safety if they perform their duties and functions improperly including, but
not limited to, crewmembers, aircraft maintenance personnel and air
traffic controllers

Rendering a Licence Valid.

A Contracting State may validate a licence issued by another authority,
with the proviso that the period of validity is not to extend beyond the
original period of validity of the licence.

Validation of foreign license in Kenya

16. (1) A person who holds a current and valid pilot licence issued by
another Contracting State in accordance with International Civil Aviation
Organization Annex 1 may apply for a validation of such licence for use
on an aircraft registered in Kenya.

The Authority shall verify the authenticity of the licence, ratings and the
medical certificate by contacting the State that issued the licence prior to
the issuance of the validation certificate.

(5) The Authority may issue a validation certificate which shall be valid
for one year, provided the foreign licence, ratings and the medical
certificate remain valid.

Reference is hereby made to the KCARs 2018(Personnel Licensing)

The Authority may issue the following licenses and certificates;—

 Pilot Licenses, including—

i. Student Pilot License;

ii. Private Pilot License;

146
 iii. Commercial Pilot License;

iv. Airline Transport Pilot License;

 Flight Engineer license;

 Air Traffic Controller license;

 Aircraft Maintenance Engineer license;

 Flight Operations Officer license;

 Flight Radio Telephony Operator license; and

 Cabin Crewmember Certificate

Category ratings in the following aircraft—

(i) Aeroplane;

(ii) Rotorcraft;

(iii) Glider;

(iv) Free balloon;

(v) powered-lift; and

(vi) airship of a volume of more than 4600 cubic meters;

Ratings;
Instrument Rating (IR)- (A) or (H)
Night Rating
Type rating (TTR)

147
AIR Traffic Controller Ratings—
(a) Aerodrome control;

(b) Approach control;

(c) Approach radar control;

(d) Approach precision radar control;

(e) Area control; and

(f) Area radar control.

The Authority may issue the following authorizations—

(a) Category II operations;

(b) Category III operations;

(c) Flight examiner;

(d) Flight engineer Instructor;

(e) Type rating instructor;

(f) Cabin crewmember instructor;

(g) Medical examiner; and

(h) Aviation repair specialist

English language proficiency

148
Kcars 2018 (Personnel Licensing);
(1) A holder of a pilot licence, air traffic controller licence, flight
engineer licence, flight radiotelephone operator licence shall
demonstrate the ability to speak and understand English language to
the level specified in the language proficiency requirements in the
Second Schedule to these Regulations.

English language proficiency is graded as follows:

Expert – Level 6
Extended – Level 5
Operational – Level 4
All pilots must have attained a language proficiency in English to the
standard of Operational
(level 4) and this must be endorsed in the licence.
Re-evaluation as follows:
4 years - if level 4 (Operational) is held
6 years – if level 5 (Extended) is held
For level 6 re-evaluation is not necessary.

Pilot Licenses;
Pilot license details as per KCARs 2018;

1.Private Pilot Licence PPL

41. An applicant for a Private Pilot Licence, shall—
(a) be at least seventeen years of age for a licence other than the operation
of glider or balloon;
(b) be at least sixteen years of age for a licence in a glider or balloon;
(c) demonstrate the ability to read, speak, write, and understand the Eng-
lish language in accordance with the language proficiency requirements.

(e) be in possession of a valid Class 2 Medical Certificate issued under

these Regulations;
(f) pass the required knowledge test on the aeronautical knowledge areas
listed in regulation
149
Aeronautical experience
PPL (A)
(i) not less than 40 hours of flight time as pilot of aeroplanes, a total of 5
hours may have been completed in a synthetic flight trainer; and

(ii) not less than 10 hours of solo flight time under the supervision of an
authorized flight instructor, including 5 hours of solo cross-country flight
time with at least one cross-country flight totalling not less than 270 kilo-
meters (150 nautical miles) in the course of which full-stop landings at
two different aerodromes shall be made

PPL (H)
(a) not less than 40 hours of flight time or 35 hours if completed during a
course of approved training as pilot of rotorcraft, a total of 5 hours may
have been completed in a synthetic flight trainer; and

(b) not less than 10 hours of solo flight time under the supervision of an
authorized flight instructor, including 5 hours of solo cross-country flight
time with at least one cross-country flight totalling not less than 180 kilo-
meters (100 nautical miles) in the course of which landings at two differ-
ent points shall be made
Priviledges and Limitations of PPL holder

A holder of a Private Pilot Licence shall not act as a crewmember of an

aircraft—
(a) carrying passengers or property for compensation or hire; or

(b) operated for compensation or hire.

A holder of a Private Pilot Licence may exercise the privileges of a holder

of a flight radiotelephone operator licence .
A holder of a Private Pilot Licence may, for compensation or hire, act as a
crewmember of an aircraft in connection with any business or employ-
ment if—
150
(a) the flight is only incidental to that business or employment; and

(b) the aircraft does not carry passengers or property for compensation or
hire.

A holder of a Private Pilot Licence may act as a crewmember of an

aircraft used in a passenger-carrying flight sponsored by a charitable
organisation described in paragraph, and for which the passengers make a
donation to the organisation, upon fulfilment of requirements specified in
KCARs 2018.

2. Comercial Pilot License (CPL)

• be at least eighteen years of age

• be in possession of a Class 1 Medical Certificate issued under these
Regulations
• Aeronautical and practical knowledge as per the regulations.

Aeroplanes CPL (A)

Applicant shall have Not less than;

• 200 hours of flight time, or 150 hours if completed during an

integrated course of approved training provided for in an Approved
Training Organization under the Civil Aviation (Approved Training
Organization) Regulations, 2018 as a pilot of aeroplanes, of which 10
hours may have been completed in a synthetic flight trainer (simulator)
• 100 hours as pilot-in-command or, in the case of a course of
approved training, 70 hours as pilot-in-command;
• 20 hours of cross-country flight time as pilot-in-command including
a cross-country flight totaling not less than 540 kilometers (300 nautical
miles) in the course of which full-stop landings at two different
aerodromes shall be made;

151
• 10 hours of instrument instruction time of which not more than 5
hours may be instrument time in the synthetic flight trainer.
• 5 hours of night flying, including 5 take-offs and 5landings as pilot-
in-command

Helicopters CPL (H)

Not less than;
• 150 hours of flight time, or 100 hours if completed during an
integrated course of approved training provided for in an Approved
Training Organization under the Civil Aviation (Approved Training
Organization) Regulations, as a pilot of helicopters, of which 10 hours
may have been completed in a synthetic flight trainer;

• 35 hours as pilot-in-command;
• 10 hours of cross-country flight time as pilot-in-command including
a cross-country flight in the course of which full-stop landings at two
different points shall be made;
• 10 hours of instrument instruction time of which not more than 5
hours may be instrument ground time; and
• if the privileges of the license are to be exercised at night, 5 hours of
night flight time including 5 take-offs and 5 landing patterns as pilot-in-
command

CPL privileges

A holder of a Commercial Pilot License may—

(a) Exercise all the privileges of the holder of a PPL

(B) act as a pilot-in-command and co-pilot in an aircraft engaged in

operations other than commercial air transportation;
(c) Act as a pilot-in-command in commercial air transportation
(compensation, hire including carriage of persons) in an aircraft
certificated for single pilot operation, eg C206, C208 etc
(d) Act as a co-pilot in commercial air transportation in an aircraft
required to be operated with a co-pilot eg Dash 8 etc
152
(e) Exercise all the privileges of the holder of a flight radiotelephone
operator license
(f) Fly at night; and

(g) For the airship category, to pilot an airship under instrument flight
rules

(3) A holder of a Commercial Pilot license shall not act as a pilot-in-

command of an aircraft certificated take-off mass of over 5,700
kilograms.

Airline Transport Pilot License (ATPL)

• Be at least twenty one years of age;

• Holds a valid class 1 medical certificate.

ATPL Aeroplanes

• Not less than one thousand five hundred hours of flight time as a
pilot of aeroplanes

• Not less than 500 hours as pilot-in-command under supervision or

250 hours, either as pilot-in-command, or made up by not less than 70
hours as pilot-in-command and the necessary additional flight time as
pilot-in-command under supervision;

• Not less than 200 hours of cross-country flight time, of which not
less than 100 hours shall be as PIC or as co-pilot performing, under the
supervision of the PIC, the duties and functions of a PIC, provided that
the method of supervision employed is acceptable to the Authority

• Not less than 75 hours of instrument time, of which not more than
30 hours may be obtained in the synthetic flight trainer
153
• Not less than 100 hours of night flight time as PIC or as co-pilot.

Helicopters ATPL (H)

Not less than 1000 hours of flight

Not less than 250 hours, either as pilot-in-command, or made up of not
less than 70 hours as pilot-in-command and the necessary additional flight
time as pilot-in command under supervision;

Not less than 50 hours of night flight as PIC or as co-pilot.

ATPL Privileges
Holder of an Airline Transport Pilot License may—
(a)exercise all the privileges of a holder of a Private Pilot license and
Commercial Pilot License and Instrument Rating for aeroplane
(b) act as pilot-in-command and co-pilot in commercial air transport; and
(c)exercise all the privileges of the holder of a flight radiotelephone
operator license

Aviation Medical Certifications

Medical certificates
The following medical certificates at least are required for the different pi-
lot licences:

 Class 1
Applies to holders of CPL, ATPL, Multi-Crew Pilot License and Flight
engineers’ license.
Valid for 12 months for holders below 40 years and 6 months for holders
40 years and above.

154
  Class 2
Applicable to SPL, PPL, CPL (lighter than air aircrafts) and Cabin crew
member certificates
Valid for 24 months for holders below 40 years and 12 months for holders
40 years and above.
 Class 3
Applies to ATCOs license holders.
Valid for 24 months for holders below 40 years and 12 months for holders
40 years and above.
All medical examinations are conducted by Authority designated Aviation
medical doctors.

Medical certificates validity

The regulation for validity of medical certificates is as follows for
respective license holders;

 PPL-24 months for holders aged below 40 years and 12 months for
holders aged 40 and above.
 CPL-12 months for holders below 40 years and 6 months for holders
40years and above.
 ATPL- 12 months for holders below 40 years and 6 months for
holders 40 years old and above. Multi-crew Pilot License -12
months;
 Flight engineer licence-12 months
 Air traffic controller licence-24 months for holders aged below 40
years and 12 months for holders aged 40years and above.
 Cabin crew certificate -12 months.

The period of validity of a medical certificate may be extended at the

discretion of the Authority, for up to 45 days.

Duration of licenses, certificates, ratings, and authorizations

155
A license is validated by holders’ medical certificate, and is valid on date
of first issue or license renewal date.

 A Private Pilot License (Aeroplanes or rotorcrafts);

For holders aged below 40 years valid for 24 months and 12 months for
holders aged 40 years and above.

 Commercial Pilot License CPL and Airline Transport Pilot

License ATPL)
Valid for 12 months for holders aged below 40, and 6 months for holder
years and above.
 An instrument rating (IR) is valid for a period of twelve months
from the date of the initial or renewal flight test.
 A night rating is valid for a period of twelve months from the date of
the initial issue or renewal of the rating.

 A Flight Radio Telephony Operator license is valid for a period of

twenty four months.
 A Flight Operation Officer license is valid for a period of twenty
four months.
 A Cabin Crewmember Certificate is valid for twelve months
 A Flight Instructor Rating is valid for a period of twelve months
 An Air Traffic Controller (ATC) license shall, in the case of a
holder who is—

(a) Less than forty years of age, twenty four months

(b) forty years of age or more, twelve months validity of the
holder’s Medical Certificate.

Decrease in Medical fitness-KCARS 2018

A holder of a license shall not exercise the privileges of his license and
related ratings at any time when the holder is aware of any decrease in his

156
medical fitness which might render the holder unable to safely and
properly exercise these privileges.

The Authority shall suspend the medical certificate of a license holder

during any period in which the Authority becomes aware that the license
holder’s medical fitness has, from any cause, decreased to an extent that
would have prevented the issue or renewal of the license holder’s Medical
Certificate.

A license holder shall inform the Authority of confirmed pregnancy or

any decrease in medical fitness of a duration of more than 20 (twenty)
days or which requires continued treatment with prescribed medication or
which requires hospital treatment.

Pilots aged 60 years and more (KCARs 2018)

A person shall not act as a pilot in command of an aircraft engaged in
international commercial air transport operations if that person has
attained his 60th birthday.

A person shall not act as a pilot in command or co-pilot of a multi-crew

aircraft engaged in international commercial air transport operations when
he has attained his 65th birthday and the other pilot has attained his 60th
birthday.

A person shall not act as a pilot in command or co-pilot of an aircraft of

maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5,700 kilograms, engaged in
commercial air transport operations within Kenya if that person has
attained his 65th birthday.

A holder of a pilot license who has attained the age of 65 years shall not
act as a pilot of an aircraft engaged in commercial air transport operations.

A holder of a Commercial Pilot Licenses or ATPL with flight instructor

rating may continue exercising the privileges of the flight instructor rating

157
after attaining the age of 65 years provided that person holds a valid class
one medical certificate.

RULES OF THE AIR

Chapters
I. History
II. Applicability of the Rules of the Air
III. General Rules
IV. Visual Flight Rules
V. Instrument Flight Rules
VI. Semi-circular Flight Level Rules and RVSM
VII. Special VFR
VIII. Distress and Urgency Signals
IX. Restricted, Prohibited or Danger Areas
X. Signals for Aerodrome Traffic
XI. Marshalling Signals
XII. Flight Deck Signals

INTRODUCTION
The ICAO Rules of the Air apply to aircraft bearing the nationality and
registration marks of an ICAO Contracting State, wherever they may be,
providing they do not conflict with the rules published by the State having
jurisdiction of the territory overflown .
For a registered aircraft is flying over a foreign state, the rules of the air of
the two states apply, with state whose airspace the aircraft is taking prior-
ity.
Rules of the air should not be confused with laws.
The ICAO Rules apply without exception over the high seas .
The operation of an aeroplane either in flight or on the movement area of
an aerodrome is to be in accordance with the general rules and, when in
flight, either:
158
The visual flight rules (VFR), if the aircraft is flown in visual meteoro-
logical conditions (VMC) or
The instrument flight rules (IFR ). A pilot must fly IFR when in IMC
conditions.

VISUAL MET CONDITIONS (vmc)

Means meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility distance

from cloud, and ceiling, equal to or better than specified minima.
Specifies;
Altitude/flight level
Visibility required (forward of a/c cockpit); 8km 10000ft and above 5km
if below 10000ft
Distance from clouds (vertical 1000ft and horizontally 1500m)
VFR flight must operate in VMC
(class A,B,C,D and E airspaces)
For class F/G airspace below 10000ft visibility is 5km,and distance from
clouds as above and below 3000ft Visibility 5km, clear of clouds and in
sight of ground and water.

Aircraft Commander Responsibility.

Aircraft commander is responsible for compliance with rules of the air,
and has overriding authority to deviate from them if it’s absolutely neces-
sary for interest of safety.
This applies whether or not he/she is at the controls.
Flight planning, weather analysis and fuel determination rests with the
commander.
159
The commander has final authority on the a/c desposition while in com-
mand.
Use of narcotics,drugs or intoxicating
liquor (kcars 2018 reg 62 operation of aircraft)
1) A person shall not act or attempt to act as a crew member of an aircraft
if—
(a) within eight hours after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage;
(b) while under the influence of alcohol;
(c) while using any drug that affects the person’s faculties in any way
contrary to safety; or
(d) while having 0.04 percent by weight or more alcohol in the blood.
(2) A crew member shall, up to eight hours before or immediately after
acting or attempting to act as a crew member, on the request of the Au-
thority, submit to a test to indicate the presence of alcohol or narcotic
drugs in the blood.

GENERAL RULES
1.Minimum altitudes.
Except when necessary for take off or landing, flying for purpose of
checking navigation aids, saving life or except by permission of the ap-
propriate authority, aircraft shall not be flown
over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements or over an open-
air gathering of persons. Minimum heights in such places shall not be less
than 1000ft above highest obstacle within 2000ft radius from the a/c
Elsewhere than specified above, a height not less than 500ft above
ground/water
This does not apply to helicopters.

160
Flights over terrain or mountaneous areas shall be at least2000ft above the
highest obstacle within 8km of the estimated a/c position
Flights over game parks shall not be operated lower than 1500feet.
2.Proximity and right of way
The aircraft that has the right of way shall maintain its heading and speed,
but the PIC is still responsible for avoiding collisions (including ACAS
alerts).
Aircraft which are obliged to give way are to do so and avoid passing
over, under or in front of the other unless it is well clear, and to take into
account the effect of wake turbulence .
An aircraft shall not be operated in close proximity to the a/c as to create a
collision hazard

3.Overtaking
An overtaking aircraft is an aircraft that approaches another from the rear
on a line forming an angle of less than 70°
At night, the approaching aircraft would see the white tail light of the air-
craft in front
Aircraft being overtaken has right of way.
Overtaking a/c shall alter heading to the right and maintain this position
till well clear of the other a/c.
4.Approaching head on
For two aircraft are approaching head on, each a/c shall alter course to
the right.
5. Converging.
Two aircraft of the same type are converging at approximately the same
level, the aircraft that has the other on its right shall give way.
161
In order not to fly over, under or pass in front of the other aircraft, the air-
craft that is obliged to give way should pass behind the other aircraft. The
aircraft giving way should turn right.
Aircrafts not of same type, priority is;
Power driven heavier than air aircraft (aeroplanes) shall give way to air-
ships, gliders and balloons.
Power driven lighter than air aircraft (airships) shall give way to gliders
and Balloons.
Gliders shall give way to balloons.
Power-driven aircraft shall give way to aircraft which are seen to be tow-
ing other aircraft or objects.
.Taking Off.
An aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area shall give way to aircraft tak-
ing off or about to take off

Landing
An aircraft in flight, or operating on the ground shall give way to aircraft
landing or on approach to land When two or more heavier than air aircraft
are approaching an aerodrome to land, the aircraft at the higher level shall
give way to the aircraft at the lower level, but the latter must not take ad-
vantage of this rule to ‘cut in’ in front of another aircraft.
6.Emergency Landing
An aircraft aware of another aircraft in an emergency and is compelled to
land, shall give way to that aircraft.
7.Towing Objects
No object shall be towed by an aircraft except in accordance with require-
ments Prescribed by appropriate authority.
162
8.Dropping Objects
Nothing shall be dropped from an a/c in flight that might create a hazard
to persons/property on ground.
9.Aerobatic flights
No a/c shal be flown aerobatically so as to constitute a hazard to air traffic
Unless authorized by appropriate authority, no a/c shall be flown aeobati-
cally over conjested areas,cities,towns or settlements or open air assembly
of people.
Aerobatic flights in controlled airspace can be carried with permission
from appropriate ATC Authority

10.Simulated Instrument flights (IMC)

An a/c shall not be flown under simulated instrument flights unless;
 Fully functional dual controls are installed in the aircraft
 A competent pilot occupies a control seat to act as safety pilot for
the person flying under simulated instrument conditions.
Safety pilot shall have adequate vision forward and to each side of a/c or a
competent observer in communication with safety pilot shall occupy a po-
sition from which his vision is adequate to supplement that of safety pilot.
11.Flight in the Vicinity of an Aerodrome
An aeroplane operated on or in the vicinity of an aerodrome, whether or
not an Aerodrome tower is operational, Pilots shall:
 Observe other aerodrome traffic for the purpose of avoiding colli-
sions;
 Conform with, or avoid, the pattern of traffic formed by other air-
craft in operation;
163
  Make all turns to the left when approaching for landing and after
taking off, unless otherwise instructed (a right hand circuit!);
 Land and take off into wind unless safety, the runway configuration,
or air traffic considerations determine that a different direction is
preferable.
 If aerodrome tower is operational,pilots shall;
 Maintaina continuous listening watch on the appropriate radio fre-
quency unless under approach control or keep watch for instructions
given by visual signals.
 Obtain by radio or visual signals prior authorization for any maneu-
ver associated with taxing,;anding or take-off .

13.Airspace restrictions
Aircrafts shall not be flown over areas where there are flight restrictions
the particulars of which have been duly published except in accordance
with conditions of the rstrictions or permission of appropriate authority of
state imposing restrictions.
AIP has particulars of such airspaces, and temporary notified by notams.

164
14.Lights displayed by aircraft
Lights illuminated from sunset to sunrise or during any other period speci-
fied by the appropriate authority:
Navigation lights (steady or flashing); intended to indicate the relative
path of the aircraft to an observer. No other lights shall be displayed if
they are likely to be mistaken for these lights ;
Red unobstructed light projecting through 110° from pert(left) wing tip
Green light starboard (right) wing tip projecting at 110°
White light at the rear projecting through 140°
NB; Failure of navigation lights in flight at night must be notified to ATC
and land as soon as possible.
Anti-collision lights
Displayed to attract attention to the aircraft and displayed by day and
night.
Red anti collision lights shall be displayed to indicate engines running.
Aircrafts on the maneuvering areas shall display navigation light to indi-
cate relative movement of the aircraft.
All aircraft on the movement area of an aerodrome are to display lights
that indicate the extremities, unless stationary and otherwise adequately
illuminated. (Aircraft parked on the Apron will be adequately illuminated
because an Apron is required to be lit if it is to be used at night.

165
For safety reasons, pilots are permitted to switch off or reduce the inten-
sity of any flashing lights if they are likely to adversely affect the satisfac-
tory performance of duties, or subject an outside observer to harmful daz-
zle
e.g. strobe lights.

FLIGHT PLANS
A flight plan is the means by which ATC is notified of your intention to
fly and where necessary, to request a clearance to fly as a controlled
flight.
Flight plan is filled prior to operating;
• Any flight or portion thereof to be provided with an air traffic service or
• Any IFR flight within advisory airspace
• Any flight within or into designated areas, or along designated routes,
• Any flight across international borders (not just FIR boundaries
Flight plan contents
166
• Aircraft identification;
• Flight rules and type of flight;
• Number and type of aircraft and wake category;
• Equipment;
• Departure aerodrome;
• Estimated off blocks time (EOBT);
• Cruising speed(s) (TAS or Mach No);
• Cruising level(s);
• Route to be followed;
• Destination aerodrome and estimated elapsed time (EET);
• Alternate aerodrome;
• Fuel endurance;
• Total number of persons on board (POB) including dead bodies;
 Emergency and survival equipment;
• Other information
Information regarding fuel endurance or total number of people on
board, if incorrect at time of departure constitutes a significant change
and must be reported.
Flight plan shall be filled with time in Co-ordinated Universal Cordinated
Time zone (UTC) used internationally.
Repetitive Flight Plan (RPL).
A flight plan related to a series of frequently recurring, regularly operated
flights with identical basic feature which are submitted by the Operator
for retention and repetitive use by ATCU. These flights must be operated
on the same day(s) of consecutive weeks and on at least 10 occasions, or
every day over a period of at least 10 consecutive days.
167
Closing a Flight Plan/Arrival Report.
Unless local procedures apply, a report of arrival is to be made in person,
by radio or via data link, as soon as possible after landing to the appropri-
ate ATSU at the arrival aerodrome for any flight, or portion of flight, for
which a flight plan has been submitted.
The ATSU shall close the flight plan once arrival report is received.
Where communication facilities are inadequate and alternative message
handling facilities do not exist, a the concerned transmits a message com-
parable to arrival report to ATSU.
Failure to provide arrival report when required may cause disruptions in
air traffic and unnecessary SAR operations which are costly.
Contents of arrival report;
• Aircraft identification;
• Departure aerodrome;
• Destination aerodrome;
• Arrival aerodrome;
• Time of arrival

Delays of Flight Plans.

A delay in excess of of 30 minutes of the estimated off-block time
(EOBT) for a controlled flight or a delay of 1 hour for an uncontrolled
flight for which a flight plan has been submitted, the flight plan should
be :
• amended or
• cancelled and a new flight plan submitted
ATC Clearances

168
Clearance; Is Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under conditions
specified by an air traffic control unit.
Clearance is obtained before operating a controlled flight, or a portion of a
flight as a controlled flight.
Submisson of a flight plan forms basis of clearance request.
Pilot may request amended clearance if issued one is unsatisfactory in
which case an amended clearance will be issued if practicable.
ATC will issue clearances as necessary for prevention of collisions be-
tween aircrafts and between aircrafts and obstructions.
The clearance will be read to you slowly so that you have the opportunity
to write it down, and will be terminated with “read back “
If you think something is wrong query it.

Clearance contents
Clearance limit
Levels of flight for enire route or part and changes of levels reuired if any
Route pf flight
Any necessary instructions or information eg approach or departure ma-
noeuvres, communication.

Adherence to Flight Plan.

Flight plans are to be adhered to unless an emergency situation arises
which necessitates immediate action by the aircraft. In such a case the
ATCU is to be informed as soon as possible.
Avaerage cruise TAS between reporting points varying by +/- 5% of the
TAS given in field 7 of the flight plan, ATCU is to be informed.

169
If an estimate for the next applicable reporting point, FIR boundary or
destination aerodrome changes by more than 3 minutes from that already
notified, the revised time is to be communicated to the appropriate ATCU.
If a controlled flight inadvertently deviates from its current flight plan, ac-
tion is to be taken immediately to regain the track as soon as practicable.
Weather Deterioration below VMC.
If a VFR flight is unable to maintain VMC in accordance with the current
flight plan clearance:
• An amended clearance may be requested enabling the aircraft to con-
tinue in VMC (on another route) to destination or to an alternate aero-
drome, or to leave the airspace in which ATC clearance is required.
If such an amended clearance cannot be obtained to continue to operate in
VMC, the pilot must notify the ATCU of the action being taken to either
leave the airspace concerned, or to land at the nearest suitable aerodrome.
• If the flight is being operated in a control zone, request special VFR
clearance.
• If the above measures are inappropriate, request an IFR clearance to
continue

Position Reports.
Unless advised to cease position reporting (usually when under radar con-
trol), a controlled flight is to make reports at specified positions as soon as
possible after reaching the position.
Position report contains;
• The aircraft RTF identification call sign
• The position for the report

170
• The time the aircraft was over the position (usually the minutes will suf-
fice unless there is a possibility of confusion)
• The level of the aircraft when passing the point
• The next en route reporting position
• ETA for the next specified point
• (According to ICAO) the name of the next ensuing point
Example of a full ICAO position report:
“London Airways this is GABCD, Pole Hill at 35, FL170, Dean Cross at
46, Glasgow next”
An IFR flight outside CAS and required to either submit a flight plan or
maintain a listening watch with the unit providing an FIS, is to make posi-
tion reports.
For flights operating off ATS routes (airways) or in a defined operating
area, position reports are to be made at intervals of 1 hour after an initial
report has been made 30 minutes after leaving CAS or after commencing
the controlled flight.
Where a position report is meaningless (prolonged controlled flight opera-
tions in a confined area) an ‘operations normal’ call is to be made at
hourly intervals to prevent unnecessary activation of the alerting service.

Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) Reporting.

ADS, which consists of two different services, “ADS Out” and “ADS In”,
could replace radar as the primary surveillance method for controlling air-
craft worldwide.
ADS enhances safety by making an aircraft visible, real time, to air traffic
control (ATC) and to other appropriately equipped ADS aircraft with po-
sition and speed data transmitted every second.

171
ADS data can be recorded and downloaded for post-flight analysis.
ADS also provides the data infrastructure for inexpensive flight tracking,
planning, and dispatch.
As a result, during periods of intense activity in controlled airspace, ADS
provides the ability for controllers to accurately track aircraft positions
without RT position reports.
ADS has the ability to be programmed to make position reports at speci-
fied locations, time intervals or when specifically requested by the con-
troller.
There are 2 ADS variants, ADS-B and ADS-C.
“ADS-B Out” periodically broadcasts information about each aircraft,
through an onboard transmitter;
 identification,
 current position,
 altitude, and
 velocity.
ADS-B Out provides air traffic controllers with real-time position infor-
mation that is, in most cases, more accurate than the information available
with current radar-based systems.
With more accurate information, ATC will be able to position and sepa-
rate aircraft with improved precision and timing.
Termination of Control.
A controlled flight is to advise the appropriate ATCU as soon as it ceases
to be subject to air traffic control services. This will be done automatically
if the aircraft lands at a controlled aerodrome (one with a control tower).
Pilots may be requested to advise ATC when the aircraft leaves con-
trolled airspace.
Confirmation of Communication Failure.
172
ATC will confirm that an aircraft is subject to a communications failure
by requesting it to execute a specific manoeuvre which can be observed
by radar or transmit a signal in order to indicate acknowledgement. In any
case ATC will transmit blind instructions to the aircraft on frequencies on
which the aircraft is believed to be listening.
At a Controlled Aerodrome.
If the communications system of the aeroplane (receiver or transmitter)
fails when the aeroplane is flying in the traffic pattern at a controlled aero-
drome, a watch shall be kept for instructions issued by visual (light and
ground) signals from the control tower, and such signals complied with.
Once ATC confirms that an aircraft has a communication failure,
separation shall be maintained between the aircraft and other traffic based
on the presumption
that the aircraft will be carrying out the procedures specified below de-
pending on whether the
conditions are either VMC or IMC.
VMC.
If a failure occurs whilst the aircraft is flying in VMC (regardless of flight
rules - VFR or IFR), the aircraft is to continue to be flown in VMC,
landed at the nearest suitable aerodrome and arrival reported by the most
expeditious means to the appropriate ATCU.
In IMC. If a failure occurs in IMC:
• When being radar vectored proceed in the most direct manner to rejoin
the current flight plan route and no later than the next significant point
squawking A7600 and taking into consideration the applicable minimum
flight altitude.
• If the aircraft is en route and in an area where radar control is provided,
the pilot is to squawk A7600 and maintain the current flight plan for a pe-

173
riod of 7 minutes and thereafter adjust speed and level in accordance with
the filed flight plan.
• If the aircraft is en route outside of an area where radar control is pro-
vided, the pilot is to maintain the current flight plan for a period of 20
minutes following the aircraft’s failure to report over a compulsory re-
porting point (at that point the ATCO will know that there is a communi-
cation problem), and thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with
the filed flight plan.
The 20 minutes is to allow the ATCO time to resolve any potential con-
flictions that may arise during the transition to the filed flight plan profile.
Subsequent Actions. After compliance with the above the pilot is to pro-
ceed as follows:
• Continue according to the filed flight plan route to the appropriate desig-
nated navigation aid serving the destination aerodrome and, when re-
quired to ensure compliance with procedure below, hold over this aid un-
til commencement of descent. Then:
• Commence descent from the radio navigation aid as above at, or as close
as possible to, the expected approach time (EAT) last received and ac-
knowledged.
If no EAT has been received and acknowledged, descend at, or as close as
possible to, the ETA resulting from the current flight plan.
• Complete a normal instrument approach procedure as specified for the
designated aid; and land, if possible, within 30 minutes after the ETA as
above or the last acknowledged EAT, whichever is the later.
• Report to ATC as soon as possible after landing.

Unlawful Interference.

174
Where an aircraft is the subject of unlawful interference (hijacking etc.),
communication with the appropriate ATC authority is to be attempted to
notify the authority of this fact together with any significant circum-
stances and of any intended deviation from the current flight plan, to en-
able the ATSU to give priority to the aircraft and to minimize conflict
with other aircraft. In such situation;
• Unless conditions on the aircraft dictate otherwise, the PIC is to attempt
to continue flying on the assigned track and at the assigned level at least
until able to notify an ATCU or until within coverage of a radar unit.
• If forced to depart from assigned track/level, without being able to notify
ATC, the PIC should, if possible:
 Attempt to broadcast warnings on the VHF emergency frequency
(121.500MHz), and use other on-board systems (i.e. SSR - squawk
A/7500, data links etc...) if circumstances permit, and then:
 Proceed in accordance with applicable special procedures for in-
flight contingencies established for the region.
• If no regional procedures have been established, proceed at a level dif-
ferent from IFR levels by 1000 ft above FL290, or 500 ft below FL290.
INTERCEPTION OF CIVIL AIRCRAFT
Interception of civil aircraft should be avoided and should be undertaken
only as a last resort.
If undertaken, the interception should be limited to determining the iden-
tity of the aircraft, unless it is necessary to return the aircraft to its planned
track, direct it beyond the boundaries of national airspace, guide it away
from a prohibited, restricted or danger area or instruct it to effect a land-
ing at a designated aerodrome. Practice interception of civil aircraft is not
to be undertaken.
To eliminate or reduce the need for interception of civil aircraft, it is im-
portant that:

175
a) all possible efforts be made by intercept control units to secure identifi-
cation of any aircraft which may be a civil aircraft, and to issue any neces-
sary instructions or advice to such aircraft, through the appropriate air
traffic services units. To this end, it is essential that means of rapid and re-
liable communications between intercept control units and air traffic ser-
vices units be established and that agreements be formulated concerning
exchanges of information between such units on the movements of civil
aircraft, in accordance with the provisions of Annex 11;
b) areas prohibited to all civil flights and areas in which civil flight is not
permitted without special authorization by the State be clearly promul-
gated in Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP)
c) the establishment of additional navigation aids be considered where
necessary to ensure that civil aircraft are able safely to circumnavigate
prohibited or, as required, restricted areas.
To eliminate or reduce the hazards inherent in interceptions undertaken as
a last resort, all possible efforts should be made to ensure coordinated ac-
tions by the pilots and ground units concerned. To this end, it is essential
that Contracting States take steps to ensure that:
Action by ATS in the Event of Interception.
As soon as air traffic services learns that an aircraft is being intercepted in
its area of responsibility it shall take the following steps:
a. Attempt to establish communications with the intercepted aircraft via
any means available including 121.5 MHz
b. Inform the pilot of the intercepted aircraft of the interception (if it does
not already know!)
c. Establish communications with the ATSU maintaining communication
with the intercepting aircraft and provide it with details of the intercepted
aircraft

176
d. Relay messages as required between the ATSU of the intercepting air-
craft and the intercepted aircraft
e. In co-ordination with the above ATSU take all necessary steps to en-
sure the safety of the incepted aircraft
f. Inform ATS units serving adjacent FIRs if it appears that either aircraft
has strayed into any one of them.
If interception has taken place outside its area of responsibility, ATS
must :
a. Inform the ATS unit serving the airspace in which the interception has
taken place of the circumstances and any information that will assist in
identifying the intercepted aircraft and request it to take the actions
itemised in the previous paragraph.
b. Relay messages as required between the intercepted aircraft and the ap-
propriate ATS unit or the intercepting aircraft.
Carriage of Interception Tables. It is a requirement of national law that
aircraft engaged on international flights must carry the interception tables.
Clearly, the intent is that in the event of an interception you refer to the ta-
bles. You are not expected to learn the content of the tables but you
should know what the tables contain.
Contact with Interceptor.
If radio contact with the intercepting aircraft is established but communi-
cation in a common language is not possible, attempts shall be made to
convey essential information and acknowledgement of instructions by us-
ing the phrases and pronunciations as described in interception tables.
If any instructions received from any sources conflict with those given by
the intercepting aircraft, the intercepted aircraft shall request immediate
clarification while continuing to comply with the instructions given by the
intercepting aircraft.

177
Interception table referenced to Oxford ATPL Airlaw manual page 120-
123.

In the exceptional case where an intercepted civil aircraft is required to

land in the territory overflown, care must also be taken that:
a) the designated aerodrome is suitable for the safe landing of the aircraft
type concerned, especially if the aerodrome is not normally used for civil
air transport operations;
b) the surrounding terrain is suitable for circling, approach and missed ap-
proach manoeuvres;
c) the intercepted aircraft has sufficient fuel remaining to reach the aero-
drome;
d) if the intercepted aircraft is a civil transport aircraft, the designated
aerodrome has a runway with a length equivalent to at least 2 500 m at
mean sea level and a bearing strength sufficient to support the aircraft;
and
e) whenever possible, the designated aerodrome is one that is described in
detail in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication.
Action by intercepted aircraft
An aircraft which is intercepted by another aircraft shall immediately:
a) follow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft, interpreting
and responding to visual signals
b) notify, if possible, the appropriate air traffic services unit;
c) attempt to establish radio communication with the intercepting air-
craft or with the appropriate intercept control unit, by making a general
call on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz, giving the identity of the in-
tercepted aircraft and the nature of the flight; and if no contact has been
178
established and if practicable, repeating this call on the emergency fre-
quency 243 MHz;
d) if equipped with SSR transponder, select Mode A, Code 7700, un-
less otherwise instructed by the appropriate air traffic services unit.

Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

Only permitted in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) with the ex-
ception of special VFR (SVFR).
If a flight is operated under VFR and the meteorological conditions deteri-
orate such that it becomes impossible to continue in VMC the pilot must
either:
• Land whilst able to maintain flight in VMC; or
• Change the route of the flight to maintain flight in VMC; or
• File an IFR flight plan and continue under IFR; or
• If within a CTR, request a SVFR clearance.
Unless authorized by ATC, VFR flights are not to take off or land at an
aerodrome in a CTR, or enter the ATZ or traffic pattern when;
• cloud ceiling is less than 450 m (1500 ft) or
• ground visibility is less than 5 km
VFR Flight Plan.
A VFR flight plan is to be filed before operating a VFR flight as a con-
trolled flight.
The letter “V” is placed in item 8 of the flight plan form indicates that the
flight will be operated under VFR.

179
If a flight is to commence under VFR and at some point en route change
to IFR, the letter “Z” is placed in field 8 (V → I = Z). Where the PIC of a
VFR flightwishes to change to IFR:
• If a VFR flight plan was submitted, the PIC is to communicate the nec-
essary changes to be effected to the current flight plan, or
• He/she is to submit an IFR flight plan and obtain a clearance prior to
proceeding under IFR when in controlled airspace.
EET. The time put in field 16 of a VFR flight plan is the time from take-
off until overhead the destination aerodrome.
Communications. Controlled VFR flights and VFR flights into airspace
where the ATS authority considers it advisable are to maintain 2-way
RTF communication with a controlling or monitoring ATSU and make
position reports as necessary.
Two way RT communication is not require in class E,F and G airspaces
(non-radio).
In Kenya maximum flight level for VFR traffic is FL150

Instrument Flight Rules

For aircraft to be operated in IMC, (IMC exists when VMC does not!), the
following
rules are applicable. The rules are collectively known as the Instrument
Flight rules (IFR).
Annex 1 (Personnel Licensing and KCARs 2018-personnel licensing)
states that where a licence is issued by a contracting state, it shall not per-
mit the holder to act as PIC or co-pilot of an aeroplane under IFR unless
the holder also holds a valid instrument rating (IR) appropriate to the air-
craft category.
Aircraft Equipment.
180
Aircraft are to be equipped with suitable instruments and with navigation
equipment appropriate to the route to be flown.
The necessary equipment is detailed in KCARs 2018 (instruments and
equipments) is covered in Operational Procedures lectures.
IFR Flight Plans. An IFR flight plan is to include the letter I in item 8 of
the flight plan form.
If the intention is to change from IFR to VFR at some point during the
flight the letter Y is to be inserted in item 8 (I → V = Y)
When a pilot elects to change from IFR to VFR and the flight plan was
not annotated Y in field 8, the pilot is to notify the ATS authority that
flight under IFR is cancelled using the phrase “cancelling my IFR flight”
ATC will respond, “IFR cancelled at …. (time)”.
However when an IFR flight encounters VMC it shall not cancel IFR un-
less it is anticipated and intended that the flight will be continued for ‘a
reasonable period’ of time in uninterrupted VMC.
In any event, a change of flight rules must only be at the request of the pi-
lot.
Estimated elapsed time (EET)
Indicated in field 16 of an IFR flight plan to denote the time from take-
off until over the initial approach fix (IAF) for the instrument procedure at
the destination aerodrome.
IFR within Controlled Airspace (CAS).
IFR flight within CAS are to comply with instructions issued by the ap-
propriate ATC unit.
IFR flights in cruising flight shall be flown at a cruising level, or when au-
thorized to employ cruise climb techniques, between two levels or above
a level.

181
IFR outside Controlled Airspace (CAS).
• IFR flights outside CAS are to be flown at cruising level appropriate to
the magnetic track of the (East or Westbound)
• Communications. IFR flights operating outside CAS but within or into
areas or along routes designated by the authority as those where the filing
of a flight plan is required, are to establish communication and maintain a
continuous listening watch with the ATS unit providing a flight informa-
tion service (FIS).
Semi-circular Flight Level Rules and RVSM
The choice of safe Flight Level is selected in accordance with the air-
craft’s planned Magnetic track upto FL290, permitting minimum vertical
separation of 1000ft between traffic.
Aircraft are allocated VFR or IFR levels according to semi circular rule
table.
VFR Flight Levels for a track between 0°M and 179°M (east bound ) are
odd levels plus 500ft;
for tracks between 180°M - 359°M (west bound) flight levels are even
levels plus 500ft.
East bound IFR flight levels are ODD e.eg. 21000 ft (FL210) whereas
west bound are EVEN flight levels eg 24000 ft (FL240)
Above FL290 , minimum vertical separation is increased to 2000ft due to
reduced reliability and increased errors in height reporting equipments.
Modern aircrafts carrying reliable equipments permit a reduction in verti-
cal separation to 1000ft, hence a special airspace known as Reduced Ver-
tical Separation Minimum exist at FL290-FL410 all inclusive.
This creates more Flight levels to accommodate increased traffic for tur-
bojet traffic operating at these levels.
182
At RVSM airspace, all westbound traffic are assigned even Flight levels
and Eastbound operate in Odd flight levels.
A minimum vertical separation of 2000ft shall be applied between non-
RVSM approved state aircraft and any other aircraft operating within
Nairobi RVSM airspace.
A minimum vertical separation of 2000ft shall be applied between aircraft
operating at or above FL410.
Only RVSM approved aircraft shall be issued an air traffic control clear-
ance to join and operate within the Nairobi RVSM airspace. Non-RVSM
approved state aircraft shall, subject to ATM capacity, be issued a clear-
ance to operate within the Nairobi RVSM airspace.
Special VFR (SVFR)
A special VFR Flight is a controlled flight carried out in Instrument Mete-
orological Conditions or at night within a Control Zone subject to prior
authorisation by an Air Traffic Unit, but not subject to Instrument Flight
Rules
It is only applicable to flights into, out of, or within a CTR.
Special VFR Flights will not normally be given a specific level to fly;
they will merely be required to remain clear of cloud and in sight of
ground or water.
If it should be necessary to provide vertical separation from aircraft
above, the Special VFR Flight may be told not to fly above a certain level.
The level specified will give at least the minimum terrain clearance.
Special VFR flights will not be authorised when the ground visibility is
less than 1.5 kilometers and/or the ceiling is less than 500 Fee com-
menced as per ICAO.
DISTRESS AND URGENCY SIGNALS
Distress signals

183
The following signals, used either together or separately, mean that grave
and imminent danger threatens, and immediate assistance is requested:
a) a signal made by radiotelegraphy or by any other signaling method
consisting of the group SOS (. . . ——— . . . in the Morse Code);
b) a radiotelephony distress signal consisting of the spoken word MAY-
DAY;
c) a distress message sent via data link which transmits the intent of the
word MAYDAY;
d) rockets or shells throwing red lights, fired one at a time at short inter-
vals;
e) a parachute flare showing a red light
Urgency signals
a) the repeated switching on and off of the landing lights; or
b) the repeated switching on and off of the navigation lights in such man-
ner as to be distinct from flashing navigation light
The following signals, used either together or separately, mean that an air-
craft has a very urgent message to transmit concerning the safety of a
ship, aircraft or other vehicle, or of some person on board or within sight;
a) a signal made by radiotelegraphy or by any other signalling method
consisting of the group XXX;
b) a radiotelephony urgency signal consisting of the spoken words PAN,
PAN;
c) an urgency message sent via data link which transmits the intent of the
words PAN, PAN

Non-emergency Situation.

184
Repeated switching on and off of landing lights (or any other light) indi-
cates the aircraft requires to land but no other assistance is required e.g.
in case of a communications failure or a malfunction
Secondary Surveillance Radar special codes;
• Mode A code 7700. This is the civil emergency code and is used unless
a specific identification
code has been allocated by a radar controller and the aircraft has been
identified.
• Mode A code 7600. indicates radio failure (RCF) and should be used at
al ltimes when a failure occurs regardless of the ATC service being pro-
vided.
• Mode A code 7500. Indicates unlawful interference. Discretion and
confidentiality will be preserved by
the ATC authority until the pilot mentions the fact by RTF. A pilot may
prefer to use the 7700
squawk to indicate the severity of the situation.
• Mode A code 7000. This code indicates that the aircraft is operating in
an area where a radar service is available from an ATCU but the aircraft
is not in receipt of the service. It implies that the aircraft is operating un-
der VFR.
• Mode A code 2000. This code is used to indicate that an aircraft is enter-
ing an area where a radar service is available and will be requesting that
service.
• Mode A code 0000. This code is reserved to indicate that the aircraft
transponder is unserviceable or inaccurate.

Danger, restricted and prohibited areas

185
• RESTRICTED AREA - Airspace of defined dimensions within which
the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain specified con-
ditions.
Example;\
HKR14 (Embu airstrip) where;
H-ICAO regional code
K-Country code
R-designator for restricted
14-specific area airspace code (Embu airstrip)
• DANGER AREA - Airspace which has been notified as such within
which activities dangerous to the flight of aircraft may take place or exist
at such times as may be notified.
Example HKD13
• PROHIBITED AREA - An airspace of defined dimensions within
which the flight of aircraft is prohibited.
Example HKP24
All these areas have been designated with regard to lateral and vertical ex-
tents, and may be permanently active or activated by a Notam issue.
By day and night; a series of projectiles discharged from the ground at in-
tervals of 10 secs, each showing on bursting red and green lights or
stars, are used to warn aircraft that they are flying in or about to enter re-
stricted, prohibited or danger areas.
Signals for Aerodrome Traffic
Non-radio Traffic. Non-radio traffic on or in the vicinity of an aerodrome
is to keep a good look out for visual signals from ATC.
Aeroplanes with radios are also to comply with visually instructions is-
sued by tower.
The lamp used by ATC (Aldis lamp) is directional with a narrow beam.
Pilots who see a signal light from the tower, must assume that it is meant
for them.
Ground to air signals:
186
Acknowledgement by Aircraft. an aircraft may make the following:
When in flight:
• During the hours of daylight, by rocking the aircraft’s wings
• During the hours of darkness, by flashing on and off twice the aircraft’s
landing lights or, if not so equipped, by switching on and off the naviga-
tion lights twice.
When on the ground:
• During the hours of daylight by moving the aircraft’s rudder or ailerons;

187
• During the hours of darkness by flashing on and off twice the aircraft’s
landing lights or, if not so equipped, by switching on and off the naviga-
tion lights twice.

188
Wind Sleeve. A wind sleeve (windsock) indicates the wind direction and
speed. (Large
= 40 kt; medium = 30 kt; small = 20 kt) Max wind speed (i.e. 40 kt) Half
wind speed (i.e. 20 kt)Calm

189
 Two or more white crosses indicate that the section of the
runway or taxiway (where they would be yellow crosses) is unfit for air-
craft movement. Orange and white boundary markers will delineate the
limit of the unusable ground or runway.

190
191
Flight Deck to ground Signals

Brakes engaged.
Raise arm and hand with fingers extended horizontally in front of face,
then clench fist

Brakes released.
Raise arm with fist clenched horizontally in front of face, then extend fin-
gers

192
 Insert chocks.
Arms extended palms facing outwards, move hands inwards to cross in
front of face

Ready to start engine indicated.

Raise the number of fingers on one hand indicating the number of the en-
gine to be started. For this purpose the aircraft engines shall be numbered
as follows, No. 1
engine shall be the port outer engine, No. 2, the port inner engine, No. 3,
the starboard inner engine and No. 4, the starboard outer engine.

193
 Remove chocks.
Hands crossed in front of face, palms facing outwards move arms out-
wards.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES-DEPARTURES
i. Instrument Procedures
ii. PANS Ops
iii. Instrument Departure Procedures

194
Abbreviations
C/L Centre line
MSA Minimum Sector Altitude
DA/H Decision Altitude/Height
NOZ Normal Operating Zone
DER Departure End of Runway
NTZ No Transgression Zone
MOC minimum obstacle clearance areas
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
OIS Obstacle Identification Surface
DR Dead Reckoning
PDG Procedure Design Gradient
FAF Final Approach Fix
RTR Radar Termination Range
FAP Final Approach Point
SDF Step Down Fix
FAT Final Approach Track
SID Standard Instrument Departure
IAF Initial Approach Fix
STAR Standard Arrival Route
IF Intermediate Fix
TAA Terminal Approach Altitude
LHA Lowest Holding Altitude
TP Turning point
195
MAPt Missed Approach Point
VM(C) Visual Manoeuvring Circling
MDA/H Minimum Descent Altitude/Height
VM(C)A Visual Manoeuvring Circling Area

INTRODUCTION
All weather operations; Low visibility take offs and landing.
Track guidance and terrain avoidance procedures are established for de-
parting aircrafts.
Low Visibility Operations (LVO); (ICAO) defines LVO as take-off and
landing operations with RVR less than 800m.
The minima for take-off from an aerodrome in a CTR is ground visibility
not less than 5 km and cloud ceiling not less than 1500 ft
Instrument arrivals and departures from controlled aerodromes will be
flown under IFR and hence subject to ATC. Therefore ATC clearance
must be obtained.
Procedures for departure and arrival are published and pilots are required
to have the necessary plates (printed representations of the procedures)
available on the flight deck.

Obstacle Clearance
obstacle clearance is a primary safety consideration in instrument depar-
ture procedures.
Obstacle clearance could be provided by assessing the highest obstacle to
be flown over and by applying a safety margin to the obstacle height.
An obstacle clearance altitude or height (OCA/H) can thus be obtained.

196
Generally MOC established based on the highest obstacle within 5nm of
the track is 300m (1000ft) and increased to 600m (2000ft) in mountainous
areas.
Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA) is also depicted and gives the lowest
safe altitude for a defined sector (based on a navigational facility) to a
range of 25 NM from the aerodrome (or facility).
From an operational point of view, the obstacle clearance applied in the
development of each instrument approach procedure is considered to be
the minimum required for an acceptable level of safety in operations. Op-
erators apply higher criteria resulting in aerodrome operating minima for
commercial air transport.
PANS OPS
The ICAO document that specifies the recommendations for instrument
procedures is PANS OPS. The term ‘PANS-OPS’ refers to the content of
ICAO Doc 8168.
PANs OPS considers both departure and arrival procedures and to a lesser
extent, en route procedures where obstacle clearance criteria should be
taken into consideration.
Factors considered in instrument departure procedure;
Instrument departure procedures assumes all engines are operating.
 The terrain surrounding the aerodrome
 ATC requirements (adjacent ATS routes, restricted, prohibited or
danger areas and the proximity of other aerodromes).
 Noise abatement procedures will need to be taken into account as
well.

Wherever possible a straight departure will be specified, which is aligned

with the runway.
Turning departures;
197
Constructed where a departure route requires a turn of more than 15° to
avoid an obstacle.
A departure procedure will be established for each runway to be used and
defines a procedure design guidance (PDG) of 3.3% or higher required to
achieve minimum obstacle clearance.
Minimum obstacle clearance equals zero at the departure end of the run-
way (DER).
When flying departure routes pilots are required to make good the tracks
(compensate or make allowance for wind effects)
If radar vectoring is applied, pilots are required to fly the vector headings
and not make allowance for the wind.
Straight flight is assumed until reaching an altitude not less than 120 m
(394 ft) above the elevation of the DER. No turns are permitted below this
altitude.
The departure procedure also known as SIDs start at DER and end at a
significant point of joining the ATS en route system.
In the turn initiation area for a turning departure a minimum obstacle
clearance of 90 m (295 ft) is provided. Increased obstacle clearance will
be provided in mountainous terrain.
Aircraft category.
Aircraft speed flown in the instrument departure is factored in the turning
departure design.
Rate 1 turns are those performed at 3° per second, and turns completely
through 180° in 1 minute turning time.
At rate 1 turns, turning radius varies (increases) with speed;
120kts in 1 minute radius 2nm
180kts; 1 minute time radius 3nm

198
 240kts radius 4nm

Departure routes are based on track guidance acquired within 20 km

(10.8NM) from the end of the runway (DER).
Straight departures
A straight departure is one in which the initial departure track is within
15° of the alignment of the runway. Track guidance may be provided by
VOR, NDB or RNAV.
Omni-directional Departures.
Where no track guidance is provided in the design of a departure proce-
dure, the omni-directional method is used which basically provides for
initial departure tracks to be undefined.
This means once off the DER and at a safe height, the aircraft can be nav-
igated in any direction required to achieve the initial en route point. How-
ever turns are made only after attaining 120m (294ft).
Where some sectors of the departure area may contain obstacles which
preclude departures in that direction, the published procedures will be an-
notated to show the restricted sectors.
Published Information

199
Departure routes and SID charts are published in accordance with stan-
dards contained in Annex 11 and Annex 4 .
Departure routes are labelled as RNAV (area navigation based on VOR/
DME or GPS) only when that is the
primary means of navigation utilized.
In the ATC clearance for IFR flights, departure instructions will include a
SID to the first airways point. The Air traffic controller will refer to the
SID by its designator.
Examples of SIDs for departures at JKIA include; NAKAT 1Z,KAMAS
1U,KAMAS 1W etc.
At any time during the procedure, the pilot may be ordered to comply
with radar vectoring requiring abandonment of the SID or abbreviation of
the procedure. In such cases the pilot will be told that the aircraft is under
radar control.

Area Navigation (RNAV) and RNP Based Departure Procedures.

The general principles relating to RNAV approach procedures also apply
to RNAV departures based on a VOR/DME, DME/DME, basic GNSS
and RNP criteria.
Most FMS equipped aircraft are capable of following RNAV procedures
but procedures may contain constraints on the system used.
To use an RNP based procedure, the aircraft RNAV system must be ap-
proved for the published RNP and it
must be confirmed before flight that the related VOR/DME stations are in
fact working!
Before flight, the pilot must also verify that the aircraft will be able to
meet the RNP requirements for
200
the segments to be flown as well as continue to monitor the system accu-
racy.
Turns.
There are four kinds of turn that may be specified for an RNAV proce-
dure:
• Turn at a fly-by waypoint;
• Turn at a fly-over waypoint;
• Turn at an altitude/height; and
• Fixed radius turn (generally for RNP based procedures)
Where FMS is available, it may be used when flying the conventional de-
parture procedures defined, provided.

201
 APPROACH PROCEDURES
TOPICS
i. Procedures Basics
ii. Approach Procedures design
iii. Obstacle Clearance Height/Altitude
iv. Operating Minima
v. Descend Gradients
vi. Track Reversal and Racetracks
vii. Published Information
Viii. RNAV Approach procedures Based on VOR/DME

Introduction
Approach procedures are designed for terrain clearance in the approach
path, till the pilot is able to attain visual contact with the runway for land-
ing.
Factors considered;
 Terrain in the vicinity of the aerodrome
 Type of operation (VFR/IFR)
 Type of aircraft /speeds
 Airspace restrictions (Danger,restricted and prohibited airspaces)

Responsibility of ATC.
Should a pilot report, or it is clear to ATC that the pilot is unfamiliar with
an instrument approach procedure, the ATCU is responsible for describ-
202
ing the procedure to the pilot unless the aircraft is cleared for a straight-in
approach.

Aircraft categories and speeds

Aircrafts have been classified based on approach speed at overhead run-
way threshold (Vat),calculated on maximum landing mass as per the ta-
ble below.
Vat affects aircraft sequencing on approach path.
Category Vat
A <91kts
B 91-120kts
C 121-140kts
D 141-165kts
E 166-210kts

Minimum Sector Altitude/Terminal Arrival Altitude (MSA/TAA)

MSA is established for each Aerodrome to provide obstacle clearance of
1000ft (300m) within 25nm radius of ARP.
Arriving aircrafts may be allowed below MSA only when:
 The aerodrome and underlying terrain are visible and will remain so;
 The aircraft is under radar control being radar vectored, or the air-
craft is flying a published approach procedure.
ICAO Approach procedures are categorized into;
 Precision approaches (Cat I/II/III)
 Non precision approaches
203
Precision approach procedures
Gives accurate track guidance (azimuth) during the final approach seg-
ment and information concerning height above the threshold of the run-
way (elevation).
The procedure when flown within the required accuracy ensures aircraft is
clear of all obstacles (OCA/H)
Utilizes external equipment such as ILS, MLS and PAR.
Precision approaches terminate at touch down or missed approach Point
(MAP) hence referred as Runway approaches.
Decision Height/Altitudes (DA/H) AND Runway Visual range (RVR) are
specified for precision approaches, and specified in operators’ Operations
manuals based on operators declared aerodrome minima.
DA/H is defined as the specific altitude (or height) in a precision ap-
proach at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required vis-
ual reference to continue the approach has not been established.
On reaching DA/H in precision approached and visual reference suffi-
ciently established, aircraft is flown visually to the runway except with
onboard and ground systems permitting ‘blind landing’
ICAO has categorized Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) into three;
Cat I System Minima 60m (200ft); DH => 60m (than 200ft), and RVR
not less than 550m or ground visibility not less than 800m
Cat II System Minima 30m (100ft); DH < 60m (200ft) but => 30m
(100ft), and RVR not less than 350m
Cat IIIA No system minima; DH < 30m (100ft) or no DH, and RVR not
less than 200m
Cat IIIB No system minima; DH < 15m (50ft) or no DH, and RVR less
than 200m but more than 50m
Cat IIIC No system minima; no DH and no RVR requirements
204
NB;
 CAT I is flown with pressure altimeter
 CAT II is flown with radio altimeter and flight director
 Missed approach climb gradient is 2.5%
 Glide path angle is 2.5° minimum and 3.5° maximum. CAT II/III re-
quires 3°
Limitation
Unless reported RVR/Visibility is above minimum, no precision ap-
proached shall be made beyond Outer marker (OM) fix or equivalent po-
sition.
If visibility/RVR falls below minimum after passing outer marker, aircraft
is flown to DA/H and landing is done if required visual reference is estab-
lished.

Non precision approaches

Aircraft is given track/azimuth guidance only and no height data is pro-
vided.
Ground equipment required are VORs and NDBs and Non precision
radar, ILS localizer.
Terminates at above touch down zone therefore referred to as aerodrome
approaches.
Some non-precision approach procedures provide guidance to the aero-
drome, where landing is achieved by Visual maneuver (circling).
Visual Approach.
In all cases, once established on final approach, the pilot has the option to
continue the approach visually providing, of course, that he/she has the
necessary visual criteria specified by the operator.
205
This is not VFR! It is completing the IFR procedure visually.
Unless Cat IIIC applies, the pilot will need some form of visual criteria
anyway, so if the criterion is obtained at 7 miles from touchdown, what is
the difference!
However, separation is the responsibility of ATC because there may be
aircraft behind and in front of you undertaking instrument approaches.
Completing the procedure
Instrument approach procedures must be completed and complied with
once commenced unless otherwise instructed by ATC.
The procedure terminates at touch down or completion of missed ap-
proach procedure.
Limitations
For Non-precision approaches, unless required Visibility/RVR is reported
no approached shall be done below 1000ft above the aerodrome.
If RVR/visibility deteriorates after descending below 1000ft above the
aerodrome, approach is continued till MDA/H. If required visual rever-
ence is achieved at MDA/H, approach and landing may be done
Approach procedure design;
Five segments;
 The Arrival Segments or Route
 The Initial Segment
 The Intermediate Segment
 The Final Segment
 The Missed Approach Procedure

206
Fixes are based on On top a navaid beacon or a DME range waypoint on
the approach track.
Ground aids accuracy is prone to errors, and as such the following bearing
errors are applicable;
 VOR ± 4.5°
 ILS Localiser ± 1.4°
 NDB ± 10.3°

Track errors are as follows;

 VOR ± 5.2°
 ILS Localiser ± 2.4°
 NDB ± 6.9°

Arrival Segment
Commences at the point aircraft departs from the airway to join instru-
ment approach procedure.
STARs plate will be specified if this point is 25nm or more from the aero-
drome.
If within 25nm,aircraft routes directly from the airway to IAF.
Initial Segment
Starts at IAF and ends at Intermediate Fix (IF)
Track guidance is provided to Intercept the IF at maximum 90° for preci-
sion approach and 120° for non precision approach.
Minimum Obstacle Clearance is 300m (1000ft)
Intermediate segment
207
Starts at IF and ends at FAF.
Aircraft speed and configuration adjusted for final approach and descend
kept to a minimum.
MOC reduces from 300m at IF to 150m at end of the segment (FAF)
Final Segment
the aircraft is finally configured, alignment with the runway takes place
and descent for landing is commenced
For a non-precision procedure with a FAF, the final segment starts at the
FAF and ends at the MAPt
The optimum distance of the FAF from the threshold is 5nm and the max-
imum is 10nm.
The required descent gradient should be 300ft/nm (approx 3°).
For precision approaches with ILS/MLS, segment begins at FAP at a
height of 300m-900m and distance of 3nm-10nm from threshold on a 3°
glide slope.

Missed Approach.
In the event that the necessary visual criteria is not obtained at DA/ H or
MDA/H the final part of an instrument procedure permits a return to the
IAF for another attempt or to establish the aircraft on a departure profile
to go to another (alternate) aerodrome.
208
Published information includes a climb to at least MSA.
Climb gradient of 2.5% is required.
Missed Approach procedure consists of three stages;
 Initial missed approach
2.5% gradient ensuring 30m obstacle clearance
 No turns permitted,
 aircraft configuration for climb out.
 Intermediate missed approach
2.5% gradient ensuring 30m MOC
Turns not more than 15° permitted.

 Final Missed approach

It extends to the point where a new approach, holding or a return to en-
route flight is initiated.
Obstacle clearance is 50m
All turns permitted

209
Obstacle Clearance Altitude/Height (OCA/H).
OCA/H is determined by the authority through a survey during the devel-
opment stage of the design of a procedure.
This is the altitude/height at or above which an aircraft must be flown to
avoid the dominant obstacle.
It will consist of the height of the obstacle plus the minimum obstacle
clearance (MOC) allowance. This information will be published on the in-
strument procedure plate and is aircraft category dependent. OCA/H is the
lowest that MDA/H can be.
DA/H for Precision Approach Procedure.
This is defined as the lowest altitude or height at which a missed approach
must be initiated to ensure compliance with the appropriate obstacle clear-
ance criteria.
The reference datum for a precision approach is always the threshold of
the landing runway.
OCA/H for Non-precision Approach.
Is the lowest altitude or height below which the aircraft cannot descend
without infringing the appropriate obstacle clearance criteria.
For non-precision procedures the reference datum is the aerodrome eleva-
tion.
210
Elevation of the relevant runway threshold (if the threshold is more than 2
m (7 ft) below the aerodrome elevation) is used as the reference.
OCA/H for Visual Manoeuvre (Circling) (VM(C)).
Defined as the lowest altitude or height above the aerodrome elevation,
below which the aircraft cannot descend without infringing the appropri-
ate obstacle clearance criteria.
It’s based on the highest obstacle in the VM(C) area with respect to the
aerodrome elevation
Operating Minima
Operators are required to specify in Operation Manuals the applicable
minima for all aerodromes of intended operation, which includes DA/H
and MDA/H.
Takes into account data that is variable in nature i.e. the crew qualifica-
tion, the OAT, anomalies in the
configuration of the instrument system, the type, performance and han-
dling characteristics of the aeroplane, the dimensions and characteristics
of the runway, the visual and non-visual aids,
the obstacles on the approach,missed approach areas and climb-out areas,
aircraft equipment
and the means used to measure and report the meteorological conditions.
 ILS/MLS requirements
 DA/H must be specified.
 Wingspan and vertical distance between Glide path and wheel.

System minimum
ILS applicable DH;

211
CAT I 60 m (200 ft)
CAT II 30 m (100 ft)
CAT III Not applicable (can be zero)
Descend gradient
Final approach optimum descend gradient 5.2% equivalent to 300ft/nm
or 3° on the GP
Steeper gradient ;Maximum permissible 6.5%, 400ft/nm or 3.8° glide
path.
Gradient of 3° is mandatory for CAT II/III Approaches
An ILS GP in excess of 3° is used only where an alternative means of sat-
isfying obstacle clearance requirements is impractical.
High Rate Descents.
Gradients over 6.5% may result in descent rates exceeding the recom-
mended maximum rate of descent for some aircraft.
Pilots flying such approaches should be aware of this before starting the
approach. High rate descents are not permitted as a means of avoiding
noise abatement procedures.
For steep gradients exceeding 6.5% e.g. London city airport, state author-
ity is to give specific approval for the procedure with regard to the opera-
tor, aircraft used, and pilot training.
Racetracks and Track reversal
Procedures designed when straight in approaches are not possible at an
aerodrome.
Involves turn maneuvers froma Navaid facility,outbound turns then in-
bound to the the facility.
Includes:

212
Procedure Turn
Procedure turns are those which aircraft turns from outbound into recipro-
cal inbound tracks to a facility.

Two types;
45°/180° procedure turns
Tracks designed with outbound track limit being a DME range or timed (1
minute for Cat A/B aircrafts and 1minute 15 seconds for Cat C/D/E)
80°/260° procedure turns
Turn maneuver of 80° initially then 260° at rate one turns,timed or DME
to be completed in 2 minutes.
Base Turns
A turn where outbound track is a VOR or NDB track followed by inbound
track which is not a reciprocal of the outbound.
The outbound track limit is a navaid facility where a turn for the inbound
commences.
Racetracks
Involves a turn from the inbound track through 180° at the facility or a fix
followed by outbound sector, to a limit timed or fix where another turn
through 180° is made to bring the aircraft back on to the inbound track.

213
Published information.
Terminal Approach plates concerns aerodrome instrument approach pro-
cedures.
Commercial plates are published by Jeppesen, Aerads and some operators
publish own plates.
These plates contain aerodrome operating minima. However Operators
are required to specify own minima which could be more stringent.
State minima are published
When flying Instrument procedures, pilots must fly heading to make good
their tracks to allow for wind.

RNAV Approach procedures

Are non-precision procedures based on VOR/DME which are ground
based.

214
Aircrafts must be equipped with RNAV capable equipment approved by
the authority and prior to flight it’s ensured that;
 The RNAV equipment is serviceable;
 The pilot has current knowledge how to operate the equipment so as to
achieve the optimum level of accuracy; and
 The published VOR/DME facility upon which the procedure is based is
serviceable.
RNAV procedure require use computer programmed data, containing cur-
rent published data.
Data is inserted into aircraft computer by operator or crew and updated
whenever new data is released.
CIRCLING APPROACH

Circling Approach
Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) (VM(C)) describes the visual phase of
flight, after completing an instrument approach, to bring the aircraft into
position forlanding on a runway not suitably located for a straight-in ap-
proach. A
ny instrument procedure (precision or non-precision) may be used but the
descent in the final segment will be to MDA/H for VM(C).
The procedure is defined as non-precision only, despite the type of ap-
proach.

Visual Flight Manoeuvre.

A circling approach is a visual flight manoeuvre keeping the runway in
sight.

215
After initial visual contact, the basic assumption is that the runway envi-
ronment (the runway markings, lights or approach lighting etc…) will be
kept in sight while at MDA/H for circling.
Each circling situation is different because of variables such as runway
layout, final approach track, wind and meteorological conditions. There-
fore there can be no single procedure that will cater for every situation.
The Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) Area.
VM(C) is only permitted in the VM(C) area.
This is determined for each category of aircraft by drawing arcs related to
aircraft manoeuvring
speed centred on each runway threshold and joining those arcs with tan-
gential lines.
The radius of the arcs is related to:
• Aircraft category
• Speed (for each category)
• Wind speed (assumed as 25 kt throughout the turn)
• Bank angle (20° or rate 1 whichever requires less bank)
Prohibited Sector.
The area may be sectored and VM(C) may be precluded from a particular
sector where unrealistic MDA/H for VM(C) would otherwise exist. In this
case, the published information will specify the sector and the restriction.
Missed Approach While Circling.
Missed approach specified for the instrument approach runway must be
followed if visual reference is lost while circling to land from an instru-
ment procedure.

216
It is expected that the pilot will make a climbing turn towards the landing
runway and when overhead the aerodrome, the pilot will establish the air-
craft climbing on the specified missed approach track.

HOLDING PROCEDURES
I. Entry Sectors
II. ATC Considerations
III. Obstacle Clearance

Introduction.
Holding is the equivalent to temporary parking areas for aeroplanes.
Aircrafts other than rotorcraft cannot stop in the air , but you can remain
(hold) in the vicinity of a radio navigation facility for as long as is re-
quired (fuel permitting!).
Providing you can fly the aeroplane accurately and navigate with refer-
ence to a radio navigation aid (VOR,
NDB) or a fix position, holding is a feasible option for losing time. In-
deed, in bad weather or at times of peak traffic flow, you will be lucky to
get a ‘straight-in’ approach.
All instrument arrivals start from a holding pattern established at the IAF.
In a holding pattern, aircraft are ‘stacked’ up, one on top of another with
the necessary vertical separation applied (1000 ft).
As the bottom aircraft departs the holding pattern to fly the approach pro-
cedure, the others above are ‘shuttled’ (descended in the stack) to a lower
level one at a time.
Shape and Terminology
217
A standard holding pattern has starboard (right) turns.
If port (left) turns are required, the approach plate will be annotated to in-
dicate the fact.
A left hand pattern is a mirror image of the standard pattern.
Flying the Pattern.
Ina hold hold pattern, all turns are to be made at an angle of bank of 25°
or at a rate of 3° per second (rate 1), whichever requires the lesser bank.
The Pilot should attempt to maintain the track by making allowance for
known wind by applying corrections both to heading and timing during
entry and while flying the holding pattern.
If, for any reason, a pilot is unable to conform to procedures for normal
conditions, ATC should be informed as soon as possible.
Holding patterns are to be flown at speeds given in the table below;

Levels 1 Normal Condi- Turbulence

tions Conditions
up to 4250m (14 000 425 km/h (230 520 km/h (280
ft) inclusive kt)2 kt)3
315 km/h 315 km/h (170
(170kt)4 kt)4
above 4250 m (14 000 445 km/h (240 520 km/h (280
ft) to kt)5 kt)

218
 6100 m (20 000 ft) in- or
clusive
above 6100 m (20 000 490 km/h (265 0.8 Mach,
ft) to kt)5 whichever is less
3
10,350 m (34 000 ft) in-
clusive
above 10,350 m (34 0.83 Mach 0.83 Mach
000ft)

Entry Sectors
Entry into a hold pattern is based on the heading of the aircraft as it ap-
proaches the holding fix.
There are three entry sectors with a 5°flexibility on either side, or based
on standard right hand pattern.
Sector 1 (Parallel Entry) Procedure;
On reaching the fix, aircraft is flown outbound on the reciprocal of the in-
bound track, for some time before a left hand turn is made towards the fix,
where the aircraft is now turned to join the right hand pattern.
Sector 2 (Offset Entry) Procedure
Upon reaching the holding fix aircraft is flown on a track diverging 30°
left of the inbound track. This heading is maintained for a period of time
appropriate to flight level, then turned right to the holding fix and on
reaching ,the aircraft is turned to join the right hand holding pattern.
Sector 3 (Direct Entry) Procedure. Having reached the fix, the aircraft
is turned right to follow the holding pattern.

219
ATC Considerations
Clearance to Join.
Holding pattern will be in controlled airspace and used for controlled
flights, ATC,usually approach controller will pass an ATC clearance in-
structing the pilot to join a holding pattern.
The clearance will specify the location of the hold to be used, details of
the holding pattern (unless routinely published), the holding level and any
special requirements.
ATC; “5Y-KFE hold at TV FL50 expected approach time 1020”
Pilot; “Hold TV FL50 1020 5Y-KFE”
Followed by: (Clearance acknowledgment and no further communication
till established on the hold)
Pilot “Nairobi Approach 5Y-KFE is established in the hold at FL50”
The pilot is required to ensure that the aircraft is level at the holding level
at least 5 NM before
reaching the holding fix.
Descending in the Hold. When the level below is vacant, ATC will re-
clear the pilot to the lower level.
Pilot acknowledges descend clearance and immediately commence de-
scent.
NB; Shuttle is a climbing or descending manoeuvre in a holding pattern.
ATC; “5Y-KFE shuttle in the hold to FL40”
Pilot; “Leaving FL50 descending to FL40 5Y-KFE”
O reaching recleared level, pilot reports to ATC as follows;
Pilot “5Y-KFE level FL40”
Departing the Hold.
220
At the appropriate time, the ATC will instruct the pilot to commence the
instrument procedure.
Aircrafts leave holding pattern at the holding fix, except where radar is
applicable to vectors aircraft from any position in the holding pattern.
Typically a clearance would be as follows:
ATC; “5Y-KFE advise when ready to commence the procedure”
Pilot “Ready to commence the procedure 5Y-KFE”
ATC; “5Y-KFE set the Nairobi QNH 1020, clear ILS approach runway
06, report turning inbound at 2000 ft”
Pilot; “1020 set clear ILS runway 061 wilco 5Y-KFR”
ATC may under certain circumstances clear the aircraft to depart holding
pattern at a specific time to commence the procedure timed approaches).
In such cases the pilot should adjust the holding pattern leg lengths to de-
part the pattern from overhead the holding fix as close as possible to the
stated clearance time.
Obstacle Clearance
The instrument procedure designer will ensure that the MOC (300 m or
600 m in mountainous terrain), is applied throughout the holding area.
This includes the holding pattern and any necessary adjacent airspace that
would be used during a joining
procedure.
The size of the holding area will depend on;
 Nature of the pattern,
 Type of aircraft using the hold,
 Adjacent airspace /ATC requirements and
 Maximum holding altitude.

221
5 NM wide buffer zone surrounding the holding area is established which
MOC is applicable.

222
 ALTIMETER SETTING PROCEDURES
Topics
i. Basic Concepts
ii. Altimeter Setting Objectives
iii. Transition
iv. Phases of Flight

Introduction
Altimeter is an equipment that measures aircraft altitude referenced to the
set pressure datum.
Correct Altimeter setting is essential in ensuring the aircraft safety heights
e.g. above obstacles and in relation to other aircrafts observing ATC sepa-
ration procedures.
It’s the PIC responsibility to ensure safe operation of the aircraft.
Altimeter setting Objectives;
 Provide adequate terrain clearance during all phases of flight espe-
cially departure and arrival.
 Provide adequate vertical separation between aircraft
Obstacle clearance heights (OCH)

223
Aerodrome approach and departure plates are established for Instrument
departure and approaches and referenced to Mean Sea Level (MSL),
hence all obstacle heights are above MSL.
Altimeter setting must therefore be set to MSL pressure to establish the
height of the aircraft above MSL and determine clearance of all obstacles.
Altimeter sub scales;
QNH. This is the observed barometric pressure at an aerodrome adjusted
in accordance with the ISA pressure lapse rate to indicate the pressure that
would be observed if the observation was carried out at sea level.
QNH varies geoghraphically.
International Standard Atmosphere MSL pressure setting (QNH) is
1013.25mb.
With QNH set on the altimeter sub-scale, the altimeter would read aero-
drome elevation at touchdown.
Example; QNH is set at Wilson Airport, Altimeter will indicate 5500feet
which is the Aerodrome elevation AMSL.

QFE. This is the observed barometric pressure at an aerodrome which if

set on the altimeter sub-scale, the altimeter would read zero at touchdown.
With QFE set, altimeter reads height Above Aerodrome level (AAL)
QNE. A situation can occur where the QNH is below the lowest altimeter
sub-scale setting. For instance, if the altimeter sub-scale will not read be-
low 940 hPa and the QNH is 935 hPa it would appear that the altimeter is
useless.

Therefore QNE is what the altimeter will read at touchdown with SPS set.

224
Flight Level. A surface of constant atmospheric pressure which is related
to a specific pressure datum, 1013.2 hPa, and is separated from other such
surfaces by specific pressure intervals.

Flight levels are and are abbreviated as; FL250 for 25000 ft AMSL,
FL330 etc

Transition Altitude
Aerodrome pressure setting ( QNH ) is set so that Altimeter indicates alti-
tude above the Aerodrome elevation.
On departure and on reaching transition altitude, altimeter is reset to stan-
dard pressure setting (SPS) of 1013 mb and aircraft height is reported in
Flight levels (FL)- for cruise portion of the flight.
NB; At and below Transition altitude, aircraft altimeter indicates Altitude
and above transition altitude it indicates Flight levels.
Transition Altitude is specified by the Authority for each aerodrome, indi-
cated in the AIP and aerodrome charts and shall be not less than 3000ft.

Transition Level
Is the first available Flight level above transition altitude.
On descend to landing, Altimeter is reset to Aerodrome QNH on reaching
the Transition level
Transition Layer
Is the airspace between the transition altitude and transition level.
Aircrafts climbing through transition layer have altimeter set to SPS and
indicates Flight levels.

225
Descending aircraft shave altimeter set to QNH hence indicate altitude.
Multiple Altimeters;
If the aircraft has more than one altimeter the law requires that one altime-
ter must be set to QNH.
Altimeter Accuracy
Serviceability and accuracy must be confirmed prior to flight for correct
operation within accuracy of;
 Plus or minus 60 ft (20 m) for a test range between 0 - 30 000 ft
or
 Plus or minus 80 ft (28 m) for a test range between 0 - 50 000 ft

Pilot/Operator Procedures.
Pilots and operators are required to plan the route and, complying with the
rules of a state and the general flight rules, are to select an appropriate
226
IFR or VFR flight level for the flight. In selecting flight levels for a flight,
those selected:
 Should ensure adequate terrain clearance at all points
along the route;
 Should satisfy ATC requirements and ;
 Should be compatible with the table of cruising levels
(semi-circular rules)

Minimum Flight Altitudes. Minimum flight altitudes are determined and

promulgated by the State for each ATS route and Control Area (CTA)
over its territory.
They are published in the national Aeronautical Information Publication
(AIP).

The Semi-Circular Rule

The choice of safe Flight Level is determined by the aircraft’s planned
Magnetic track.
Semi-Circular rule governs assignment of Altitudes/flight levels based on
East or west bound tracks.
Semi-circular rule ensures minimum separation of 1000ft between air-
crafts.
VFR
VFR Flight Levels for a track between 0°M and 179°M (east bound ) are
odd levels plus 500ft; eg. 9500ft, 11500ft etc
Westbound tracks (180°M and 359°M) observe even levels plus 500ft. eg
8500ft, 10500ft etc

227
In Kenya maximum flight level for VFR traffic is FL150 (operationally
FL145)

IFR
East bound IFR flight levels are ODD e.eg. 21000 ft (FL210) while West
bound are EVEN flight levels eg 24000 ft (FL240)
Reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM) airspace
Due to Altimeter errors at higher levels, traffic above FL290 traditionally
observe vertical separation of 2000ft.
However due to advanced height indicating systems e.g. Radio Altime-
ters, Vertical separation has been reduced to 1000ft between capable air-
crafts.
“RVSM (Reduced Vertical Separation Minima) Airspace” means any
airspace or route between flight level 290 and flight level 410 inclusive
where the aircraft are separated vertically by 1000ft (300m);
Semi- circular rule is applicable in RVSM airspace.
VFR traffic is prohibited in RVSM airspace in order to make available
VFR levels for use by IFR traffic.
Vertical separation has been reduced from 2000ft to 1000ft, and aircrafts
must carry serviceable TCAS/ACAS.

KCARS 2018 (Operation of Commercial Aircraft)

(6) A person shall not operate an aircraft in defined portions of airspace
where, based on Regional Air Navigation Agreement, a reduced vertical
separation minimum (RVSM) of 300 m (1 000 ft) is applied between
Flight Level 290 and Flight Level 410 inclusive, unless—
(a) authorized by the Authority in the airspace concerned and
228
(b) the aircraft is provided with equipment which is capable of—
(i) indicating to the flight crew the flight level being flown;
(ii) automatically maintaining a selected flight level;
(iii) providing an alert to the flight crew when a deviation occurs from the
selected flight level and the threshold for the alert shall not exceed ± 90 m
(300 ft); and
(iv) automatically reporting pressure-altitude;
(c) shall be authorized by the Authority for operation in the airspace con-
cerned; and
(d) shall demonstrate a vertical navigation performance in accordance
with First Schedule
Above FL410, vertical separation is reverted to 2000ft due great altimeter
errors. However light traffic operate at these levels.

PARALLEL OR NEAR PARALLEL RUNWAYS OPER-

ATIONS

TOPICS
I. Simultaneous Operation on Parallel or Near-parallel Runways
II. Modes of Operation
III. Safety
IV. Runway Spacing

Introduction

229
Increase in traffic density can put pressure at aerodromes making it neces-
sary to develop additional runway (s) to ease congestion for departing and
arriving traffic.
Parallel runways can be two, three or even four and all operating together.
Operation on parallel runways are radar monitored fully and for safety
reasons, parallel operations are stopped whenever radar is unavailable.
Minimum vertical and horizontal separation is specified till the aircrafts
intercept localizer centerlines.

Mode of operation
Simultaneous Parallel Instrument Approach runways
i) Independent parallel approaches (Mode 1)
Two adjacent parallel runways with ILS/MLS and what happens on one
runway is totally independent of what is happening on the other.
Minimum radar separation between aircrafts on the two runways are not
applicable.
There is a higher side and low side to ensure vertical separation of 1000ft
(300m)
Once aircrafts are established on ILS/MLS for final approach, the vertical
separation can be reduced from 1000ft and radar controller will issue in-
structions if an aircraft deviates significantly from localiser course.
Minimum spacing distance 1035m.

ii) Dependent parallel approaches (Mode 2)

What happens on one runway affects operations on the other runway.

230
5nm radar separation minima is applicable, with reduced radar separation
minima of 3nm on the same localizer and 2nm on adjacent localisers.
Approaches are monitored by a dedicated radar controller with discrete
RTF frequency for radar.
Maximum radar vectors are 30° to localizer interception and minimum
1nm straight and level flight is required before localizer interception.
One localizer is intercepted, the course is flown for 2nm before glide path
interception (descent point).
Minimum distance between adjacent localisers is 915m.
Missed Approach paths diverge by at least 30°.
Simultaneous Instrument departures
i) Simultaneous parallel departures(Mode 3)
Aircrafts departing in the same direction from adjacent runways.
Aircrafts departing traffic tracks must diverge by a minimum of 15° after
take-off, and aircraft must be identified on radar at 1nm after DER.
Minimum spacing of runways should not be less than 760m
ii) Staggered Arrival/departures (Mode 4)
One runway is exclusively used for arrival and the other exclusively for
departures.
Arriving traffic are radar sequenced and separation of at least 3nm.
Localiser interception at 45° after which a straight and level flight is
flown for 2nm before GP/ descent point is intercepted.
Separation distance not less than 760m. However when staggered ,spacing
distance can be reduced by 30m for every 150m stagger distance, but to
not less than 300m absolute minimum.
Semi-mixed operation

231
This is a situation where for parallel runways, One of the runway is desig-
nated for either departing or arriving traffic only while the other runway is
used for both arrival and departures.
A situation could also arise where departing traffic from both parallel run-
ways is sequenced.
Safety
Aircraft equipment. All aircraft carrying out parallel runway operations
must be equipped with full ILS/MLS
Wake turbulence factor
Wake turbulence consideration is effected when parallel runway spacing
is less than 760m or when arriving/departing tracks cross at same level.
Normal Operating Zone (NOZ)
Is a protected airspace of defined dimension extending left and right of
the ILS/MLS localizer where an aircraft on localizer would be positioned.
No Transgression Zone (NTZ).
An airspace of defined dimensions existing between the two extended
runway centerlines.
Starts at threshold and ends at the point where aircrafts are established on
localizer.
Must be at least 610m.
NTZ must be protected, and any intrusion into this airspace by any of the
aircrafts require radar intervention to maneuver the aircraft away and keep
the threatened aircraft safe.

232
 SSR AND ACAS

TOPICS
I. SSR and ACAS
II. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
III. Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS)

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

Primary (PSR)and secondary surveillance radar (SSR) are used to track
progress of a flight.
Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) transmits electromagnetic signal en-
ergy towards the target i.e. aircraft. The aircraft acts as passive element
and reflects the EM energy back towards the primary radar antenna.
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transmits EM signal energy towards
the target i.e. aircraft.
SSR requires aircraft to be fitted with a Transponder.
The secondary radar transmits pulses and receives digital data coming
from the aircraft transponder.
The transponder responds to interrogation by transmitting coded reply sig-
nal back. The response contains information such as altitude, identifica-
tion code etc.
SSR screen displays aircraft information; callsigns, pressure altitudes,
ground speed and destination

233
A serviceable transponder carried will be in use at all times, unless other-
wise instructed by ATC.
In either case, the operation of the equipment will be regardless of the
provision of an ATC service
SSR MODES
ATC issues SSR modes and codes (squawk codes) which when correctly
set, transponder will transmit response to SSR interrogation.
Pilots are required to read back SSR mode and codes given by ATC.
Mode A; Interrogates aircraft identification
Mode C; For altitude read out. Indicated height is within +/- 300ft of the
allocated level.
Aircraft is vacating a level if more than 300 ft from the level, and passing
a level if within 300ft of the level in climb/descend.
Mode S (selective addressing); Supplements mode A/C and datalink ca-
pability helps reduce R/T voice communication, enhances surveillance on
radar and enables improved situational awareness.
Special codes;
 Mode A/7700; Emergency
 Mode A/7600; radio failure (RCF)
 Mode A/7500; Unlawful interference
 Mode A/0000; Unserviceable transponder. Set as directed by ATC.
Transponder failure
Failure in flight, aircraft may be given restricted ATC clearances to pro-
ceed to destination as per filed flight plan.
Failure on ground;

234
  Inform ATS as soon as possible, preferably before the submission of
the FP.
 Put 'N' in item 10 for the FP form.
 Comply with the published procedures for seeking exemption from
the requirements for the mandatory carriage of a transponder.
 If required by the ATS authority, proceed directly to the nearest suit-
able aerodrome where the transponder can be repaired

Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS/TCAS)

ACAS works on principle of see and be seen and works on basis of SSR
transponder.
ACAS enables aircraft with serviceable transponders “see” each other
therefore enhancing margins of safety.
An aircraft must have minimum of SSR mode A to be visible to other
equipped aircrafts.
TCAS gives two warning;

 Traffic Advisory (TAs)

 Resolution Advisory (RA)

TAs warns pilots if there exists a threat of collision and traffic is within
35-45 seconds of collision.
TA is aural warning “Traffic Traffic” ,usually a lady’s voice.
Resolution Advisory (RAs)
TCAS gives RA when traffic is on a collision course within 25-35 sec-
onds of collision.
235
TCAS instructs the pilot to take action of either climb or descend to avert
the collision.
TCAS will issue RA instructions to both aircrafts on collision course op-
posite instructions if equipped with SSR mode C.

TCAS I
Warns Pilots on other traffic in the vicinity, giving aircrafts identification,
relative bearing and distance.
Gives two dimensional view of other traffic since mode A is does not give
height information.
TCAS I gives Traffic Advisory (TAs) only since Mode A does not give
height information.
TCAS also displays visually on screens to the pilot, and is a round
amber/yellow

TCAS II
Detects other traffic and on assessment of collision risk, issues warning in
form of TA then RAs in the vertical plane.
If both aircrafts are mode S datalink capable, TCAS RA issues coordi-
nated maneuvers instructions for collision avoidance.

236
 AIRSPACES

I. Introduction
II. Control Areas and Zones
III. Classes of Airspace
IV. Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
V. Airways and ATS Routes

DEFINITION;
Flight Information region (FIR); An airspace of defined dimensions
within which flight information service (FIS) and alerting services are
provided.
It’s a controlled airspace whose lateral limits may coincide with borders
of a country and as agreed within contagious zones. Vertical limits may
be limited by upper Information Region (UIR) if it exist or unlimited.
Kenyan airspace is known as Nairobi FIR.
FIR is divided into control zones, control areas, Danger areas, prohibited
areas and restricted areas.

237
Upper Information region (UIR); Upper portion of a country’s airspace
where vertical divisions are applicable and commences at the upper limits
of the FIR extending to unlimited vertically.
Rules applicable at UIR vary with those at FIR since basic assumption is
that traffic using the UIR will be essentially in transit en-route, whereas
lower traffic will be arriving or departing and therefore manoeuvring.
Upper Information Regions (UIRs). Where a state applies a division of
airspace vertically, the upper portion of the airspace is defined as an Up-
per Information Region UIR.
Such a division facilitates the application of different rules and separation
standards to those of the underlying airspace. The basic assumption is that
traffic using the UIR will be essentially in transit en route, whereas lower
traffic will be arriving or departing and therefore manoeuvring.
In Europe the division between the FIR and UIR is at FL195 whereas in
the USA it is at FL180.
The lower boundary of a UIR will always be a VFR FL.
Open FIR. Airspace within an FIR that is not defined as a CTA, CTR or
other ‘restricted airspace is known as the open FIR. Within the open FIR
the only air traffic services offered are a Flight Information Service and
the Alerting Service.
Oceanic Control Areas (OCAs). Over large areas of the world’s Oceans
i.e. the North Atlantic, traffic control has special problems due to rela-
tively poor navigation and of necessity HF communications requiring the
use of radio operators. To solve the problems, or at least to make them
manageable, the airspace above FL55 over the Oceans is designated as
OCAs where strict rules are enforced and special navigation procedures
are applied.

238
Prohibited, restricted and Danger areas;
Danger Area; An airspace of defined dimensions within which activities
dangerous to the flight of aircraft may exist at specified times.
HKD followed by a number eg HKD30
A prohibited area is an airspace of defined dimensions, above the
land area or territorial waters of a state, within which the flight of aircraft
is prohibited.
In Kenya It’s designated by HKP followed by identifier number eg
HKP24
Restricted areas contain airspace identified by an area on the surface of
the earth within which the flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited,
is subject to specified restrictions.
HKR followed by a number eg HKR14

239
Notification of activities within Danger and Restricted areas is by NO-

TAM.

Control Zone (CTR);A controlled airspace extending from the earth sur-
face to a specified upper limit.
Are established in the vicinity of aerodromes to provide ATC to arriving
and departing controlled traffic, may serve more than one aerodrome and
extends at least 5nm from the ARP in the direction from which ap-
proaches are made.
240
Approach controllers provide Air traffic service with a CTR and is
mandatory.
CONTROL ZONES WITHIN NAIROBI FIR
 Malindi control zone: The control zone lies within the lateral limits
of Mombasa TMA. It extends from ground to 5000ft MSL its Lat-
eral dimensions lies within a circle of 15 NM radius centered at
point 0315S 04005E the whole zone is designated as controlled
airspace class D.
 Mombasa. Control Zone: This is a circular airspace of 15NM ra-
dius centerd at point 0402S 03935E and has its vertical limits as
ground water to 3500ft MSL. The whole zone is designated as con-
trolled air space class D.
 Kisumu Control Zone: This is an airspace of 15NM radius cen-
tered on `KI' NDB(0005S 03444E), but to the South it touches
A609. It extends from around level to 9000ft MSL. The airspace is
designated as controlled airspace Class D.
 Wajir and Nanyuki Control Zones: These are military control
zones
 Eldoret Control Zone: This is a circular airspace of 15 NM radius
centered at 0024N 03513E (ELD VOR/DME) and has its vertical
limits as ground to 10,000FT MSL. The airspace is designated as
controlled airspace Class D
 Nairobi control Zone: This airspace lies within the lateral limits of
Nairobi TMA and encompasses three aerodromes, HKNA,HKNW
and HKRE. It's lateral limit 'lies within a circle of 15NM centered at
point 0117S 03657E the vertical limit extends from ground to 9000ft
MSL

241
Within Nairobi FIR VFR flights are prohibited above FL145, on airways
and at night at all levels except within the control zones.

Figure 1 Nairobi CTR

Figure 2 Nairobi CTR airspace classification

242
Control Area; A controlled airspace extending upwards from a speci-
fied height above the ground to a specified upper limit.
Includes airways and Terminal control areas (TMAs) within the vicinity
of major aerodromes and at confluence of airways (e.g. Nairobi TMA, ex-
tending laterally to 50nm and upper limit FL195)
Area control service is provided at CTA. In Kenya TMAs are controlled
by respective Approach controllers.
Lower limit shall be a height above ground/water of not less than 700ft
(200m) and is usually the upper limit of a CTR.
The airspace within a CTA may be sub-divided to allow different types of
operation to exist
(Nairobi TMA has area I, ii and iii)
Controlled Airspace (CAS).
Classes A - E are classified as controlled airspace within which air traffic
control is provided to controlled flights.
In these classes, IFR flights are always controlled flights. In classes A and
B all permitted flights are controlled whereas in classes C and D, ATC is
provided to VFR traffic only when conflicting with IFR traffic. CAS is
defined as
CTAs (including airways) and CTRs. ICAO states that class E airspace
cannot be used as a CTR.

Advisory Airspace.
Class F airspace is defined as advisory airspace in which advisory
ATC is provided to IFR traffic which requests the service (participating
traffic). All IFR traffic

243
flying in class F airspace is required to file a FP but no ATC clearance
will be issued
CLASSIFICATION OF ATS AIRSPACE
ATS airspace shall be classified and designated in accordance with the
following:
Class A.
IFR flights only are permitted, all flights are subject to air traffic control
service and are separated from each other.
Class B.
IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all flights are subject to air traffic con-
trol service and are separated from ea( other.
Class C.
IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all flights are subject to air traffic con-
trol service and IFR flights are separated from other IFR flights and from
VFR flights. VFR flights are separated from IFR flights and receive traf-
fic information in respect of other VFR flights.
Class D.
IFR and VFR flights are permitted; all flights are subject to air traffic con-
trol service. IFR flights are separated from other IFR flights and receive
traffic information in respect of VFR flights, VFR flights receive traffic
information in respect all other flights.
Class E.
IFR and VFR flights are, permitted IFR flights are subject to air traffic
control service and are separated from other IFR flights. All flights re-
ceive traffic information as far as is practical.
Class F.

244
IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all participating IFR flights are sub-
ject to traffic control service and all flights receive an air traffic advisory
service if requested
Class G
IFR and VFR flights are permitted and receive flight information service
if requested.
States shall select those airspace classes appropriate to their needs

Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

Definition.
RNP is a numerical representation of the navigational accuracy required
within ATS airspace of a State, and is prescribed on the basis of regional
air navigation agreements (RANs).
It is based on a 95% containment factor, implying that an aeroplane will
be within the required RNP for a period of not less than 95% of the time
the aircraft is within the airspace concerned. Alternatively, it can be im-
plied that not less than 95% of the aircraft flying in a given airspace will
be navigated within the stated RNP factor.
The state is responsible for specifying the RNP value for its airspace.
Theory. The RNP factor relates to navigational accuracy relating to the
aircraft plotted position in nautical miles. For instance, RNP4 implies that
the aircraft will be within 4 NM of the plotted position for 95% of the
time the aircraft is within the airspace concerned.
The applicable RNP factors are: RNP1; RNP4; RNP10; RNP12.6;
RNP20.
All ATS airspace is classified for RNP.
RNP5 is specified where VOR/DME is used for airways or RNAV navi-
gation .Hhowever, RNP5 does not exist in RNP classification because it
245
was envisaged that VOR/DME would cease to be used for RNAV and be
replaced by more accurate systems offering at least RNP4.
This has proved not to be the case and VOR/DME at RNP5 will continue
for the foreseeable future. The use of radar permits RNP1 whereas GPS
theoretically offers a relative value of RNP0.3. The value of RNP12.6 is
derived from the historical accuracy of multiple IRS used for transatlantic
navigation.

Application.
The NAT tracks in the MNPSA of the North Atlantic Oceanic regions is a
good example of RNP airspace, and is classified as RNP20.
This means aircraft flying routes will be within 20 NM of the plotted posi-
tion for not less than 95% of the flight time. Therefore NAT track must be
20NM either side of the specified route. The additional safety ‘buffer’
will be equal to the RNP so the track spacing will be 20 + 20 + 20 = 60
NM.

AIR ROUTES
Any route specified and designed for channeling the flow of traffic as
necessary for the provision of air traffic services is called an ATS route.
ATS routes--are classified in accordance - wi th._-the type - of - air -traf-
fic service(s) provided along them. The classification is similar-to that of
ATS airspaces. The main categories of ATS routes are:-
Designators for ATS routes
The purpose of a system of designators for ATS routes is to allow both, pi-
lots and ATS, taking into account the requirements resulting from auto-
mation.

246
a) To make an unambiguous reference to any ATS routes without the
need to resort to the use of graphical coordinates or other means in order
to describe it;
b) To release an ATS route to a specific vertical structure of the airspace
as applicable
c) To indicate a specific airborne navigation capability required e.g Area
Navigation, when operating along ATS routes so designated; and
d) To indicate that a route is used primarily or exclusively by certain types
of aircrafts
In order to meet this purpose , the designation system should:
a) permit the identification of any ATS route in a simple and unique man-
ner
b) avoid redundancy;
c) be useful by both ground and airborne automation system;
d) permit utmost brevity in operational use and;
e) provide sufficient possibility to cater for any future requirements with-
out the need for fundamental changes.
Controlled, advisory and uncontrolled ATS routes, with the exception of
standard arrival and departure routes, should therefore be identified as
specified hereafter.
ATS routes classification;
 Regional non RNAV routes
 Regional RNAV routes
 Non-regional non RNAV routes
 Non-regional RNAV routes
Other ATS Routes. Other ATS routes also include SIDs, STARs and low
level helicopter routes. All these are given specific designators which can
be referred to in ATC communications and in FPs.
247
Composition of designator
The ATS route designator should consist of a basic designator supple-
mented, if necessary by:
a) one prefix
b) one additional letter
The number of characters required to compose the designator should,
whenever possible be kept tows maximum, of five and should, in no case,
exceed six characters.
The basic designator should consist of one, letter of the alphabet, followed
by a number 1 to 999.
Selection of the letter should be made from those listed below;
a) K (Kopter) to indicate a low level route established for use primarily
by helicopters;
b) U (Upper) to indicate that the-route or portion thereof is established in
the upper airspace;
c) S (Supersonic) to indicate a route established exclusively for use by
supersonic aircraft during acceleration, deceleration and while supersonic
flight.
Additionally suffixes may be applied from the list:
 F = Advisory route (Class F airspace)
 G = FIS route (Class G airspace)
 Y = RNP1 route at and above FL200 where turns between 30° and
90° are to be made within the allowable RNP tolerance of a tangen-
tial arc defined by a radius of 22.5 NM.
 Z = RNP1 route at and below FL190 where turns between 30° and
90° are to be made within the allowable RNP tolerance of a tangen-
tial arc defined by a radius of 15 NM
248
Assignment of Basic Designators
Basic ATS route designators should be assigned in accordance with the
following principles.
The same basic designator should be assigned to main trunk routes
throughout its entire length, irrespective of terminal control areas, states
or regions traversed.
Note - This is of particular importance where automated ATS data pro-
cessing and computerized airborne navigation equipment is used
Where 2 or more trunk routes have common segments the segments in
question should be assigned each of the designators of the route con-
cerned, except where this would present difficulties in the provision of
traffic service, in which case, by common agreement, one designator only
should be assigned.
A basic designator assigned to one route should not be assigned to any
other route.
States' requirements for designators should be notified to the Regional Of-
fices of ICAO for co-ordination.

249
 AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES

I. Introduction
II. Air Traffic Control
III. ATC Clearances
IV. Control of Persons and Vehicles at Aerodromes
V. The Flight Information Service .
VI. The Alerting Service
VII. Procedures .

Air traffic management (ATM). The dynamic, integrated management

of air traffic and airspace including air traffic services, airspace manage-
ment and air traffic flow management - safely, economically and effi-
250
ciently – through the provision of facilities and seamless services in col-
laboration with all parties and involving airborne and ground-based func-
tions.
Air traffic service (ATS). A generic term meaning variously, flight infor-
mation service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traffic con-
trol service (area control service, approach control service or aerodrome
control service).
Air traffic control service. A service provided for the purpose of:
a) preventing collisions:
i. between aircraft, and
ii. on the manoeuvring area between aircraft and obstructions; and
b) expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of air traffic.

Air traffic advisory service. A service provided within advisory airspace

to ensure separation, in so far as practical, between aircraft which are op-
erating on IFR flight plans.
Flight information service. A service provided for the purpose of giving
advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights.
Alerting service. A service provided to notify appropriate organizations
regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue aid, and assist such organi-
zations as required.
Air traffic management system. A system that provides ATM through
the collaborative integration of humans, information, technology, facili-
ties and services, supported by air and ground- and/or space-based com-
munications, navigation and surveillance.
Air traffic flow management (ATFM). A service established with the
objective of contributing to a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of air
traffic by ensuring that ATC capacity is utilized to the maximum extent
251
possible, and that the traffic volume is compatible with the capacities de-
clared by the appropriate ATS authority.
Objectives of the Air Traffic Services
(1) To prevent collisions between aircraft.
(2) To prevent collisions between aircraft on the maneuvering areas and
obstructions on that area.
(3) To expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic.
(4) To provide advice and information useful for the safe and efficient
conduct of flights.
(5) To notify appropriate authorities/organizations regarding aircraft in
need of search and rescue aid and to assist such organizations as required.

Divisions of the air Traffic Services

The Air traffic services shall comprise of the following:-
(1) Area Control Service;
To provide air traffic control service for controlled flights operating in
control areas except for those parts of controlled flights where the air ser-
vice is provided by an approach control office, in order to accomplish the
objectives 1, and 3.
(2) Approach Control Service;
To provide air traffic control service for controlled flights departing and
arriving at one or more aerodromes situated within a control zone and to
accomplish objects 1 and 3 above.
(3) Aerodrome Control Service;
To provide air traffic control service for aerodrome traffic, except for
those parts of controlled flights where air traffic control service is pro-

252
vided by an approach control office, and to accomplish the objectives 1, 2
and 3 above
(4) Flight Information Service;
To accomplish objective 4 above.
(5) Alerting Service;
To accomplish objective 5 above

Determination of the Need for Air Traffic Services

The need for the provision of Air Traffic Services shall be determined by
consideration of the following:-
(1) The types of air traffic involved
(2) The density of air traffic

(3) The Meteorological conditions

(4) Such other factors as may be relevant,
A mixture of different types of air traffic with varying speeds (conven-
tional, jet, e.t.c.) might necessitate the provision of air traffic services,
whereas a relatively greater density of air traffic, where only one type of
operation is involved, would not.
Meteorological conditions might have considerable effect in areas where
there is a constant flow of air traffic (e.g. scheduled traffic), whereas simi-
lar or worse conditions might be relatively unimportant in an area where
air traffic would be discontinued in such conditions (e.g. local VFR
flights)
Open stretches of water, mountains, uninhabited or desert areas might ne-
cessitate the provision of air traffic services even though the amount or
frequency of operations is extremely light.
253
Air Traffic Service Units
Flight Information Centre: A Flight Information Centre (FIC) serving
an FIR provides:
-Flight Information Service
-Alerting Service to aircraft in the FIR.
Area Control Centre: An Area Control Centre (ACC) serving a Control
Area provides air traffic control service (including flight information and
alerting
services) to aircraft flying en route under IFR in the Control Area.
Approach Control Unit: An Approach Control Unit provides Approach
control services to aircraft taking off or landing under IFR.
Aerodrome Control Unit (Tower); An Aerodrome Control Unit provides
aerodrome control service at an aerodrome (i.e. controls all aerodrome
traffic that does not come under the Approach Control Unit - taxiing air-
craft, vehicular traffic, local flying under VFR).
Ground Control.
The ground movement of aircraft and vehicles is the responsibility of the
aerodrome controller
Tower may delegate this service to a ground movement controller usually
to limit the aerodrome RTF to only those concerning take-off and landing
of aircraft.
Apron control management may be delegated role of controlling all vehic-
ular traffic and aircrafts taxing except those on the runway and taxiways
which remain under control of tower at large and busy aerodromes.
Time in ATC

254
International time used in all aviation communications are referenced to
Universal coordinated time (UTC), also known as ZULU time or GMT.
Clocks and timings must be checked to be within +/- 30 seconds of UTC
at all times.

ATC Clearances
Definition. An ATC clearance is authorization for an aircraft to proceed
under conditions specified by an ATCU.
Purpose
An air traffic control clearance shall be obtained prior to operating a con-
trolled flight or a portion of controlled flight.
Submission of a flight plan to appropriate air traffic control unit forms the
basis of clearance issuance, and constitutes authority for an aircraft to pro-
ceed under specified conditions based on known traffic.
ATC clearances are based solely on expediting and separating air traffic
do not constitute authority for a pilot to violate any regulations which
have been established by the appropriate authority.
Clearances are based on known traffic conditions which affect the safety
in aircraft operation. Such traffic conditions include not only aircraft in
flight and on the manouevring area over which control is being exercised,
but any vehicular traffic or other obstruction not permanently installed on
the manoeuvring area in use.
If an air traffic control clearance is not suitable to the pilot of an aircraft,
fie may request and, if practicable, obtain an amended clearance.
Air traffic control will issue clearances as are necessary for the prevention
of collisions between aircraft and between aircraft and obstruction under
their jurisdiction.

255
Contents of a Clearance; in the order listed:
a. Aircraft identification, radio identification or flight identification as
shown in the flight plan;
b. Clearance limit;
c. Route of flight;
d. Level(s) of flight for the entire route or part thereof and changes of lev-
els if required;
e. Any necessary instructions or information on other matters such as ap-
proach or departure manoeuvres, communications and time of expiry of
the clearance.
A clearance limit will be specified by the name of an aerodrome, appro-
priate reporting point or controlled airspace boundary
Clearance Read-back.
Pilots are required to ‘read back’ to the ATC safety related parts of ATC
clearances and instructions which are communicated by voice.
Below items must always be read back:
 ATC route clearances
 Clearance relating to the use of runways (i.e. land, take off, cross,
enter and back-track, hold short of)
 Runway in use; altimeter settings; SSR codes; level instructions;
heading and speed instructions; transition levels
Clearance Co-ordination.
It’s the responsibility of the ACC of the FIR in which the flight originates
to issue flight clearance.
ATCU would ideally co-ordinate (agree) a clearance with all the other
ACCs en route. In practice
this is not feasible especially for long intercontinental flights.
256
In this case, the ACC would issue a clearance limited to the initial FIR or
where the flight time in the originating FIR is short (e.g. flights originat-
ing from Kilimanjaro entering the Nairobi FIR), it would be essential to
coordinate with at least the next FIR to be entered.
Whenever possible to co-ordinate the clearance for the entire route, the
aeroplane would be given clearances on a rolling (downstream) basis
from FIR to FIR.
However it may not be possible for the current ACC to obtain a down-
stream clearance from the subsequent FIR in which case, the aircraft may
be requested to originate communications with the downstream FIR and
obtain a clearance prior to entering the airspace of that FIR.
Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM).
Utilization of modern data processing tools and systems as well as prior
flight planning, especially using repetitive flight plans (RPLs) makes it
possible to predict traffic loading in each sector of the route structure of
the airspace within an FIR.
Where expected traffic exceeds that which can normally be accommo-
dated, the ATFM unit in the ACC will advise flight crews and operators
that delays are likely or that restrictions may be applied.
In practice, predictable delays are handled by delaying the take-off of an
aeroplane such that the
delay is absorbed on the ground rather than in the terminal phase of a
flight. This has
economic, environmental and safety advantages and is the most obvious
practical advantage
of ATFM.

Control of Persons and Vehicles at Aerodromes

257
Low Visibility Procedures. When Low Visibility Operations are in force
(ground
visibility below 800 m) persons and vehicles operating on the manoeu-
vring area will be kept to a minimum.
When ground visibility is lessthan 550 m and CAT II and CAT III preci-
sion instrument operations are in progress,special procedures will be im-
plemented to safeguard the ILS/MLS sensitive areas.
Emergency Vehicles. Emergency vehicles proceeding to the scene of an
accident or incident will have priority over all other surface movement
traffic.
Vehicles on the Manoeuvring Area. To operate as per the following
rules;
 Vehicles and vehicles towing aircraft are to give way to aircraft that
are landing, taxiing or taking off.
 Vehicles are to give way to vehicles towing aircraft.
 Vehicles will give way to other vehicles in accordance with ATS
unit instructions.
 Notwithstanding the above, vehicles and vehicles towing aircraft are
to comply with instructions issued by the aerodrome control tower.

FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE (FIS)

Flight information service shall be provided to all aircraft which are likely
to be affected by the information and which are:-
(a) provided with air traffic control service or
(b) Otherwise known to the relevant air traffic service unit.

258
Flight Information Service does not relieve the pilot of an aircraft of any
of his responsibilities, and he has to make final decision regarding any
suggested alteration of the flight plan.
Scope
Flight Information Service shall include the provision of pertinent:
a) SIGMET information;
b) Information on changes in the serviceability of navigation aids;
c) Information concerning the release of radio-active materials or
toxic chemical clouds.
d) Information concerning volcanic activity
e) Information concerning changes in condition of aerodromes and
associated facilities; including information on the state of aerodrome
movement areas when they are affected by significant depth of water.
f) Weather conditions which make flight under VFR impracticable.
g) Information on heavy or medium unmanned free balloons
h) any other information likely to affect safety
Flight Information Service provided to IFR flights shall include, in addi-
tion to the above, the provision of information concerning:
(a) weather conditions reported or forecast at departure, arrival or al-
ternate aerodromes;
(b) collision hazards to aircraft operating outside of controlled
airspaces;
(c) for flights over water areas, in so far as is practicable and when
requested by a pilot available information such as radio callsign, position,
true track, speed etc of surface vessel/s in the area
Flight Information Service provided for VFR flights shall include in addi-
tion to the general information, the provision of available information
259
concerning weather conditions along the route of flight that are likely to
make operation under the visual rules impracticable.
SIGMET; defined as:
‘Information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning the oc-
currence or expected occurrence of specified en route weather phenomena
which may affect the safety of aircraft operations.’

Automatic Terminal Information Service broadcasts (ATIS)

Consist of two types of broadcast: Voice ATIS and Data ATIS. The
preparation and dissemination of ATIS is the responsibility of ATS.
Voice ATIS.
Is provided at aerodromes where there is a requirement to reduce voice
channel communications. ATIS broadcasts comprise:
• One broadcast serving arriving aircraft; or
• One broadcast serving departing aircraft; or
• One broadcast serving both arriving and departing aircraft; or
• Two broadcasts serving arriving or departing aircraft where one broad-
cast would be exceptionally long.

Transmission.
Voice ATIS is usually transmitted on a discrete VHF frequency (dis-
played on all aerodrome plates). It may be transmitted on the voice chan-
nel of a relevant VOR.
Voice ATIS is continuous and repetitive and is never transmitted on the
voice channel of ILS.

260
ATIS broadcast lasts not longer than 30 seconds, and is updated immedi-
ately any significant change occurs.
ATS is responsible for making sure that the service is available and up to
date.
ATIS broadcasts and sequence with each sequence allocated a specific se-
quential broadcast designator letter. Pilots are required to acknowledge re-
ceipt of the relevant ATIS with reference to the current information desig-
nator on initial contact with ATC.
Should an aircraft acknowledge an ATIS that is no longer current, any el-
ement of information that needs up-dating shall be transmitted to the air-
craft by the ATCU without delay.
Cloud Information.
ATIS broadcast will only include cloud cover when the cloud base is be-
low 5000 ft or the highest MSA (whichever is higher), or when cumu-
lonimbus (CB) cloud is present.

ALERTING SERVICE
Application
Alerting service shall be provided:
(a) For all aircraft provided with air traffic control service;
(b) In so far as practicable, to all other aircraft having filed a flight plan or
otherwise known to the air traffic services; and
(c) To any aircraft known or believed to be the subject of unlawful inter-
ference.
FICs or ACCs shall serve as the central point for collecting all informa-
tion relevant to a state of emergency of an aircraft operating within the
flight information region or control area concerned and for forwarding
such information to the appropriate rescue co-ordination center.
261
In the event of a state of emergency arising to an aircraft while it is under
the control of an aerodrome control tower or approach control office, such
unit shall notify immediately the flight information region or area control
center responsible which shall in turn notify the rescue co-ordination cen-
ter, except that notification of the area control center, flight information
center, or rescue co-ordination center shall not be required when the na-
ture of the emergency is such that the notification would be superfluous.
Nevertheless, whenever the urgency of the situation so requires,the aero-
drome control tower or approach control office responsible shall first alert
and take other necessary steps to set in motion all appropriate local rescue
and emergency organizations which can give the immediate assistance re-
quired.
Stages of emergency
a) Uncertainty Phase (INCERFA) exists when;
i. no communication has been received from an aircraft within a
period of 30 minutes after the time a communication should be
received, or from the time an unsuccessful attempt to establish
communication with such aircraft was first made, whichever is
the earlier, or when,
ii. an aircraft fails to arrive within thirty minutes of the estimated
time of arrival last notified to or estimated by air traffic ser-
vices units, whichever is the later.
Except when no doubt exists as to the safety of the aircraft and its occu-
pants.
b) Alert Phase (ALERFA) when:
i. following the uncertainty phase, subsequent attempts to estab-
lish communication with the aircraft or inquiries to other rele-
vant sources have failed to reveal any news of the aircraft, or
when

262
 ii. an aircraft has been cleared to land and fails to land within five
minutes of the estimated time of landing and communication
has not been re-established with the aircraft, or when
iii. information has been received which indicates that the operat-
ing efficiency of the aircraft has been impaired, but not to the
extent that a forced landing is likely.
Except when evidence exists that would allay apprehension as to the
safety of the aircraft and its occupants, or when
iv. an aircraft is known or believed to be the subject of unlawful
interference

c) Distress phase (DISTRESFA)when:

i. following the alert phase further unsuccessful attempts to es-
tablish communication with the aircraft and more widespread
unsuccessful inquiries point to the probability that the aircraft
is in distress, or when
ii. the fuel on board is considered to.the· exhausted, or to be in-
sufficient to enable the aircraft to reach safely, or when
iii. information is received which indicates that the operating effi-
ciency of the aircraft has been impaired to the extent that a
forced landing is likely, or when
iv. information received or it is reasonably certain that the aircraft
is about to make or has made a forced landing.
Except when there is reasonable certainty that the aircraft and its occu-
pants are not threatened by grave and imminent danger and do not require
immediate assistance.
Information to the operator

263
When an area control or a flight information center decides that an aircraft
is in the uncertainty or the alert phase, it shall, when practicable, advise
the operator-prior to notifying the rescue coordination center.
All information notified to the rescue co-ordination center by an area con-
trol or flight information center shall, whenever practicable, also be com-
municated without delay to the operator.
Information to aircraft operating in the vicinity of an aircraft in a
state of emergency.
When it has been established by an air traffic services unit that an aircraft
is in a state of emergency, other aircraft known to be in the vicinity of the
aircraft involved shall, (except on unlawful interference), be informed of
the nature of the emergency as soon as practicable.
When an air traffic services unit knows or believes that an aircraft is being
subjected to unlawful interference, no reference shall be made in ATS
air-ground communications to the nature of the emergency unless it has
first been referred to in communications from the aircraft involved and it
is certain that such reference will not aggravate the situation.
AIR REPORTS (AIREPS)
AIREPs consist of routine and special reports.
A routine report has three sections:
Section 1 - Position report
Section 2 - Operational information (ETA and endurance)
Section 3 - Meteorological information
Section 1 is mandatory and section 2 is transmitted when requested by the
operator or considered necessary by the pilot.
Section 3 is transmitted when the aircraft has been requested to make rou-
tine met reports at specific en route points.

264
Special air-reports (AIREP SPECIAL); are reported by all aircraft
which encounter any of the following hazards:
• Severe turbulence;
• Severe icing;
• Severe mountain wave;
• Thunderstorms without hail that are obscured, embedded, wide-
spread or in line-squalls;
• Heavy dust or sand storms;
• Volcanic ash cloud.

Air Traffic Incident Reports (ATIRS) ;

Established for reporting ,investigation and feedback of incidence occur-
ring while aircraft is under ATC
Relates to;
• Aircraft proximity reports (AIRPROX)
• ATC procedure reports
• ATC equipment reports
AIRPROX (P); originated by either the pilot
AIRPROX(C); originated by controller.
From a pilot, the initial report is filed by RTF and the report completed on
the ground.
Priority An aircraft known or believed to be in a state of emergency, in-
cluding being subject to unlawful interference, shall be given priority over
other aircraft.

265
Change of Callsign ATC may require an aircraft to temporarily change
its callsign should there be a chance of confusion with another aircraft of
a similiar callsign on the same frequency.

SEPARATION
Topics
I. Concept of Separation

266
 II. Vertical Separation
III. Horizontal Separation
IV. Radar Separation
V. Procedural Wake Turbulence Separation
VI. Radar Wake Turbulence Separation
VII. Visual Separation in the Vicinity of Aerodromes
VIII. Stacking

PROVISIONS FOR THE SEPARATION OF CONTROLLED

TRAFFIC
Aircrafts operating within CAS are separted by ATC to make sure that all
controlled flights (flights provided with ATC) are separated from each
other to comply with the first requirement of the service - to prevent colli-
sions between aircraft.
Separation can be either:
• Vertical or
• Horizontal or
• Composite (a mixture of both)
Vertical or horizontal separation shall be provided:
a) between all flights in Class A and B airspaces;
b) between IFR flights in Class C, D and E airspaces;
c) between IFR flights and VFR flights in Class C airspace;
d) between IFR flights and special VFR flights; and
e) between special VFR flights, when so prescribed by the appropriate
ATS authority; except, for the cases under b) above in airspace Classes D
and E, during the hours of daylight when flights have been cleared to
climb or descend subject to maintaining own separation and remaining in
visual meteorological conditions.
267
No clearance shall be given to execute any manoeuvre that would reduce
the spacing between two aircraft to less than the separation minimum ap-
plicable in the circumstances.
Larger separations than the specified minima should be applied whenever
exceptional circumstances such as unlawful interference or navigational
difficulties call for extra precautions. This should be done with due regard
to all relevant factors so as to avoid impeding the flow of air traffic by the
application of excessive separations.
Note.— Unlawful interference with an aircraft constitutes a case of excep-
tional circumstances which might require the application of separations
larger than the specified minima, between the aircraft being subjected to
unlawful interference and other aircraft

VERTICAL SEPARATION
Vertical separation application
Vertical separation is obtained by requiring aircraft using prescribed al-
timeter setting procedures to operate at different levels expressed in terms
of flight levels or altitudes.
Vertical separation minimum
The vertical separation minimum (VSM) shall be:
a) a nominal 300 m (1 000 ft) below FL 290 and a nominal 600 m (2 000
ft) at or above this level, except as provided for in b) below; and
b) within designated airspace (RVSM airspace) subject to a regional air
navigation agreement: a nominal 300 m (1 000 ft) below FL 410 or a
higher level where so prescribed for use under specified conditions, and a
nominal 600 m (2 000 ft) at or above this level.

268
Aircraft authorized to employ cruise climb techniques shall be cleared to
operate between two levels or above a level.
When an aircraft has been cleared into a control area at a cruising level
which is below the established minimum cruising level for a subsequent
portion of the route, the ATC unit responsible for the area should issue a
revised clearance to the aircraft even though the pilot has not requested
the necessary cruising level change.
An aircraft may be cleared to change cruising level at a specified time,
place or rate.
In so far as practicable, cruising levels of aircraft flying to the same desti-
nation shall be assigned in a
manner that will be correct for an approach sequence at destination
Priority;
An aircraft at a cruising level shall normally have priority over other air-
craft requesting that cruising level. When two or more aircraft are at the
same cruising level, the preceding aircraft shall normally have priority.
The cruising levels, or, in the case of cruise climb, the range of levels, to
be assigned to controlled flights shall be selected from those allocated to
IFR flights in:
a) the tables of cruising levels in accordance with semi-circular rule or
b) a modified table of cruising levels for flights above FL 410;
ICAO LEVEL OCCUPANCY STANDARD = +/- 300 ft
An aircraft may be cleared to a level previously occupied by another air-
craft after the latter has reported vacating it, except when:
a) severe turbulence is known to exist;
b) the higher aircraft is effecting a cruise climb; or

269
c) the difference in aircraft performance is such that less than the applica-
ble separation minimum may result; in which case such clearance shall be
withheld until the aircraft vacating the level has reported at or passing an-
other level separated by the required minimum.

Clearance to Maintain Own Separation in VMC. If requested by the

pilot of an aircraft and it is agreed by the pilot of the other aircraft and au-
thorized by ATC, a flight operating in classes D and E airspace in VMC
during daylight, may be cleared to climb or descend maintaining own sep-
aration from one other aircraft providing:
 The clearance is specifically for the portion of flight below 10 000
ft;
 Alternative instructions are passed to the pilot to cover loss of
VMC;
 If conditions deteriorate to the limits of VMC, the pilot is to inform
ATC that he/she is complying with the alternative instructions

HORIZONTAL SEPARATION
Horizontal separation relates to the distance between aircraft in the hori-
zontal plane.
Can be ;
Lateral separation
Longitudinal separation
LATERAL SEPARATION APPLICATION
Lateral separation shall be applied so that the distance between those por-
tions of the intended routes for which the aircraft are to be laterally sepa-
rated is never less than an established distance to account for navigational
inaccuracies plus a specified buffer. This buffer shall be determined by

270
the appropriate authority and included in the lateral separation minima as
an integral part thereof.
Lateral separation of aircraft is obtained by;
Requiring operation on different routes or in
Different geographical locations as determined by visual observa-
tion
Use of navigation aids or by the use of area navigation (RNAV)
equipment.
When information is received indicating navigation equipment failure or
deterioration below the navigation performance requirements, ATC shall
then, as required, apply alternative separation methods or minima.
Means by which lateral separation may be applied include the following:
a) By reference to the same or different geographic locations.
By position reports which positively indicate the aircraft are over different
geographic locations as determined visually or by reference to a naviga-
tion aid

b) By use of the same navigation aid or method.

By requiring aircraft to fly on specified tracks which are separated by a
minimum amount appropriate to the navigation aid or method employed.
For the three cases specified the distance required is 15 NM (28km) for at
least one aircraft from the common position with track divergence as fol-
lows:
• VOR: Track divergence 15°

271
 • NDB: Track divergence 30°
• DR Fix: Track divergence 45
RNAV operations where RNP is specified on parallel tracks or ATS
routes.
Within designated airspace or on designated routes, where RNP is speci-
fied, lateral separation between RNAV-equipped aircraft may be obtained
by requiring aircraft to be established on the centre lines of parallel tracks
or ATS routes spaced at a distance which ensures that the protected
airspace of the tracks or ATS routes does not overlap.
Longitudinal separation (Aircraft following the same route)
Separation standard is based on time (or distance) along track between
aircraft.
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION APPLICATION
Longitudinal separation shall be applied so that the spacing between the
estimated positions of the aircraft being separated is never less than a pre-
scribed minimum.
Longitudinal separation between aircraft following the same or diverging
tracks may be maintained by application of speed control, including the
Mach number technique. When applicable, use of the Mach number tech-
nique shall be prescribed on the basis of a regional air navigation agree-
ment.
Longitudinal separation may be established by requiring aircraft to depart
at a specified time, to arrive over a geographical location at a specified
time, or to hold over a geographical location until a specified time.
For the purpose of application of longitudinal separation, the terms same
track, reciprocal tracks and
crossing tracks shall have the following meanings:
a) Same track
272
Same direction tracks and intersecting tracks or portions thereof, the an-
gular difference of which is less than 45 degrees or more than 315 de-
grees, and whose protected airspaces overlap.
b) Reciprocal tracks
Opposite tracks and intersecting tracks or portions thereof, the angular
difference of which is more than 135 degrees but less than 225 degrees,
and whose protected airspaces overlap.
Crossing tracks. When there is an angular difference between tracks of
45° or more but not exceeding 315° (ie : 045 to 135 degrees or 225 to 315
degrees.

LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION MINIMA BASED ON TIME

aircraft maintaining the same level
Aircraft flying on the same track:
a) 15 minutes as a standard or
b) 10 minutes, if navigation aids permit frequent determination of position
and speed or
c) 5 minutes in the following cases, provided that in each case the preced-
ing aircraft is maintaining a true airspeed of 37 km/h (20 kt) or more
faster than the succeeding aircraft
i. between aircraft that have departed from the same aerodrome;
ii. between en-route aircraft that have reported over the same exact
significant point;
d) 3 minutes if preceding aircraft maintains a speed of 40kts(74km/hr) or
more faster than succeeding aircraft.
Aircraft flying on crossing tracks:
273
a) 15 minutes at the point of intersection of the tracks or
b) 10 minutes if navigation aids permit frequent determination of position
and speed

AIRCRAFT CLIMBING OR DESCENDING

Aircraft on the same track.
When an aircraft will pass through the level of another aircraft on the
same track, the following minimum longitudinal separation shall be pro-
vided:
a) 15 minutes while vertical separation does not exist; or
b) 10 minutes while vertical separation does not exist, provided that such
separation is authorized only where navigation aids permit frequent deter-
mination of position and speed; or
c) minutes while vertical separation does not exist, provided that the level
change is commenced within 10 minutes of the time the second aircraft
has reported over an exact reporting point

Aircraft on crossing tracks:

274
a) 15 minutes while vertical separation does not exist or
b) 10 minutes while vertical separation does not exist if navigation aids
permit frequent determination of position and speed.
Aircraft on reciprocal tracks.
Where lateral separation is not provided, vertical separation shall be pro-
vided for at least 10 minutes prior to and after the time the aircraft are es-
timated to pass, or are estimated to have passed. Provided it has been de-
termined that the aircraft have passed each other, this minimum need not
apply.

Longitudinal Separation Based on DME.

Aircraft at the Same Level.
a)Same track. The normal standard is 20 NM provided each aircraft uses
on-track DME stations
and separation is checked by obtaining simultaneous DME readings from
the aircraft at frequent intervals.
The standard may be reduced to 10 NM provided the leading aircraft
maintains a TAS 20 kt or more, faster than the succeeding aircraft.
b)Crossing tracks. The same track standards apply to crossing traffic
providing that each aircraft reports distance from the station located at the
crossing point and that the relative angle of the tracks is less than 90°.
c)Climbing or descending. The standard separation is 10 NM whilst ver-
tical separation does not exist, providing each aircraft uses ‘on-track’
DME stations; one aircraft maintains a level whilst vertical separation
does not exist, and separation is established by simultaneous DME read-
ings from the aircraft.
d) Reciprocal tracks. Aircraft using on-track DME may be cleared to
climb or descend to or through levels occupied by other aircraft using on-
275
track DME, provided it has been positively established that the aircraft
have passed each other and are at least 10 NM apart (or such other value
as the authority specifies).
Longitudinal Separation with Mach Number Technique Based on
Time.
The Mach number technique requires turbojet aircraft to fly at the Mach
number approved by ATC, and
to request approval before making any speed changes. If it is essential to
make immediate temporary changes to speed (e.g. due to turbulence),
ATC is to be informed as soon as possible.
If it is not feasible due to aircraft performance to maintain the last as-
signed Mach number during en route climbs and descents, pilots are to ad-
vise ATC at the time clearance to climb or descent is requested. Separa-
tion will be deemed to exist when the required time interval exists provid-
ing:
 The aircraft concerned have reported over the same reporting point
and follow the same track or continuously diverging tracks until
some other form of separation is provided, or
 It is possible to ensure, by radar or other means, that the appropriate
time interval will exist at the common point from which they will ei-
ther follow the same track or continuously diverge, if the aircraft
have not already reported over the same point.

Time Intervals.
a)10 minutes providing the preceding aircraft maintains a Mach speed
equal to or greater than that maintained by the following aircraft, or
b) Between 9 and 5 minutes inclusive, providing the preceding aircraft is
maintaining a Mach number greater than the following aircraft in accor-
dance with the following:

276
RNAV based longitudinal separation
Applicable to RNAV capable aircraft operating along RNAV routes or
ATS routes defined by VOR. Separation is established by maintaining
the specified distance between aircraft positions reported by reference to
the RNAV equipment. It is a requirement that direct controller/pilot com-
munications are
maintained.
RNAV positions are defined as standard way points common to both air-
craft subject to separation. The minimum is 150 km (80 NM) distance
based separation instead of the normally required 10 minutes. It is also es-
sential that the Mach number technique is applied. In the event of equip-
ment failure reducing the navigation capability to less than the RNAV re-
quirement, the normal longitudinal separation will be applied. The spe-
cific separation requirements are:
a)Same cruising level. 150 km (80 NM) providing each aircraft reports
position from same
point and separation is checked by obtaining simultaneous RNAV dis-
tance readings from the aircraft at frequent intervals.
b)Climbing or descending on same track.
150 km (80 NM) whilst vertical separation does not exist, provided each
aircraft reports distance from same way point, one aircraft maintains level
flight whilst vertical separation does not exist, and separation is estab-
277
lished by obtaining simultaneous RNAV distance readings from the air-
craft.

c)Reciprocal tracks.
Aircraft may be permitted to climb or descend through levels occupied
by other aircraft providing it has been positively established by simultane-
ous RNAV distancereadings to or from the same on-track way point that
the aircraft have passed each other by at least 150 km (80 NM)

RNAV separation where RNP is Specified.

For aircraft cruising, climbing or descending on the same track in an RNP
RNAV environment, the separation standards detailed in the table below
may be used.
During the application of the 50 NM minimum, if an aircraft fails to re-
port its position, the controller is to take action within 3 minutes to estab-
lish communications.
If communication has not been established within 8 minutes, alternative
separation is to be applied. An aircraft may climb or descend through
anoccupied level once it has been established that the aircraft concerned
have passed.

278
Radar Separation
Separation Minima.
Radar provides the ATCO with fairly accurate position information for an
aircraft under his/her control. Problems associated with radar include:
slant range display, target discrimination and loss of contact close to the
radar overhead.
Radar separation standard is 5 NM. This means that where two aircraft
identified on radar are at the same level, they are not permitted to ap-
proach closer than 5 NM to each other on the radar display.
Reduced Radar Separation. When approved by the authority and in spe-
cific circumstances, the radar separation standard (5 NM) may be re-
duced. The following describe these specific occasions:
• Radar capabilities. When radar capabilities so permit at a given loca-
tion, the radar separation
standard may be reduced to 3 NM.
• ILS Localizer. Where two (or more) aircraft are established on the same
ILS localizer course and within 10 NM of the threshold of the landing
runway, the separation standard may be reduced to 2.5 NM between con-
tacts on the radar display.
• Simultaneous Parallel Approaches (Mode 2 - Dependent). During
Mode 2 parallel runway operations radar separation is applied. Between
aircraft on adjacent localizer courses the separation standard may be re-
duced to 2 NM between contacts on the radar display.
Procedural Wake Turbulence Separation
When the wings are creating lift (from ‘rotate’ to ‘touchdown’), wake
vortices are created behind the aircraft.
This is apparent in the form of turbulence, the severity of which is a func-
tion of aircraft mass, the worst case being a heavy aircraft at low speed.

279
Where an aircraft is following another aircraft, allowance must be made
for the ‘wake turbulence effect’ which under certain circumstance can be
so severe as to cause structural damage (even catastrophic damage) to an
airframe. The nature of the wake vortex is that it emanates from the wing
tip in the form of spiralling air from the high pressure area below the wing
to the low pressure area above the wing. It spirals ‘in board’ towards the
fuselage. The vortex exists at the level of the generating aircraft and to an
altitude not exceeding 1000 ft below the generating
aircraft. Where the following aircraft is within this airspace, wake turbu-
lence separation must be applied.

Wake Turbulence Categories.

Based on MTOM of the aircraft as follows;
 Super Heavy; MTOM greater than 500 000 kgs
 Heavy - all aircraft types with MTOM equal to 136 000 kg or more
 Medium - aircraft types with MTOM less than 136 000 kg but more
than 7000 kg
 Light - aircraft types with MTOM of 7000 kg or less
Indication of Heavy Category. Because of the inherent problems caused
by heavy wake turbulence category aircraft requiring additional separa-
tion, pilots of heavy category aircraft are to indicate the aircraft’s heavy
category in the initial RTF contact with an ATCU by the inclusion of the
suffix “heavy” to the identifying call sign of the aircraft. e.g. “Nairobi
Tower Emirates 722 heavy on 118.7”

TIME-BASED WAKE TURBULENCE LONGITUDINAL SEPARA-

TION MINIMA.
Arriving aircraft
The following minima shall be applied to aircraft landing behind a
HEAVY or a MEDIUM aircraft:

280
a) MEDIUM aircraft behind HEAVY aircraft — 2 minutes;
b) LIGHT aircraft behind a HEAVY or MEDIUM aircraft — 3 minutes.
Departing aircraft
A minimum separation of 2 minutes shall be applied between a LIGHT or
MEDIUM aircraft taking off
behind a HEAVY aircraft or a LIGHT aircraft taking off behind a
MEDIUM aircraft when the aircraft are using:
a) the same runway;
b) parallel runways separated by less than 760 m (2 500 ft);
c) crossing runways if the projected flight path of the second aircraft will
cross the projected flight path of the first aircraft at the same altitude or
less than 300 m (1 000 ft) below;
d) parallel runways separated by 760 m (2 500 ft) or more, if the projected
flight path of the second aircraft will cross the projected flight path of the
first aircraft at the same altitude or less than 300 m
(1 000 ft) below.
A separation minimum of 3 minutes shall be applied between a LIGHT or
MEDIUM aircraft when taking off behind a HEAVY aircraft or a LIGHT
aircraft when taking off behind a MEDIUM aircraft from:
a) an intermediate part of the same runway; or
b) an intermediate part of a parallel runway separated by less than 760 m
(2 500 ft).

281
Radar Wake Turbulence Separation;

Visual Separation in the Vicinity of Aerodromes

Except in conditions where ‘Low Visibility’ operations are in progress at
an aerodrome, traffic flying in the vicinity of the aerodrome including ar-
riving, departing and
local area traffic, will be flying in conditions which will either permit
VFR or pilots of aircraft to
maintain separation from other aircraft visually.
would reduce dramatically.
Essential Local Traffic. Any aircraft, vehicle or personnel on or near the
runway, or traffic in the take-off and climb out areas or the final approach
area, which may constitute a collision hazard to a departing or arriving
aircraft is defined as essential local traffic.
Where essential local traffic is known to the controller the information is
to be transmitted to flight
crews without delay.

282
Departing Aircraft. Under IFR, departing aircraft will normally be sepa-
rated from each other by requiring the aircraft to follow a SID. ATCUs
will co-ordinate the issuing of clearances, and where possible, standard
clearances will be used. Such clearances will normally be specified by the
approach controller and passed to the aircraft by the aerodrome control
tower.
For departures in VMC, the aerodrome controller will clear an aircraft for
take-off once the preceding aircraft has either:
• Passed the upwind end of the runway, or
• Has made a turn away from the runway.
Where wake turbulence separation is applied, departures will be se-
quenced to minimize delays and maximize runway utilization.
For IFR traffic, the standard separation between departures is 5 minutes
(12 movements per hour).
Separation can be reduced to 2 minutes between aircraft following the
same departure track providing the preceding aircraft has filed a FP speed
40 kt greater than the succeeding aircraft.
This may further be reduced to 1 minute (60 movements per hour) provid-
ing the track of the succeeding aircraft diverges from that of the preceding
aircraft by 45° or more.
Departure Sequence. At busy aerodromes, the ground movement of air-
craft will be planned to ensure that the stated Off Blocks Time can be
translated into the necessary slot time for the aircraft. This is the job of the
Ground Movements Planner working for the aerodrome controller. If cor-
rectly sequenced, the aircraft will arrive at the holding point (or holding
area) in the correct order for take-off. Consideration will also be given to
the route of the aircraft immediately after take-off to minimize wake tur-
bulence separation. Departure may be expedited by suggesting a take-off
direction that is not into wind.

283
In this case, the PIC is to make the decision if this is acceptable.
Delays. ATCUs should inform operators when anticipated delays exceed
30 minutes.
Arriving Aircraft. Arriving IFR aircraft may be cleared to make a visual
approach provided that:
• The pilot can maintain visual reference to terrain; and
• The reported ceiling is at or above the approved initial approach level; or
• The pilot reports that at any time during an instrument approach the me-
teorological conditions are such that there is a reasonable assurance that
an approach and landing will be made visually.

Complete Approach.
If an aircraft is making a complete instrument approach, a departing air-
craft may take off in any direction until an arriving aircraft has started its
procedure turn
or base turn leading to final approach OR in a direction which is different
by at least 45
degrees from the reciprocal of the direction of approach after the arriving
aircraft has started
a procedure turn or base turn leading to final approach, provided that the
take-off will be
made at least 3 minutes before the arriving aircraft is estimated to be over
the beginning of the
instrument runway.

284
• Straight-in Approach.
A departing aircraft may take off ;
i) In any direction until 5 minutes before the arriving aircraft is esti-
mated to be over the instrument runway OR
iii) In a direction which is different by at least 45 degrees from the
reciprocal of the direction of approach of the arriving aircraft un-
til 3 minutes before the arriving aircraft is estimated to be over
the beginning of the instrument runway OR
iv) Before the arriving aircraft crosses a designated fix on the ap-
proach track as determined by the ATS authority.
Information to Arriving Aircraft.
If a pilot requests it, or it is apparent to ATC that the pilot of an aircraft is
not familiar with the procedures for an instrument approach, information
will be passed to enable the approach to be flown. If the aircraft has been
cleared for a straight-in approach, only details of the final approach track
need be passed.

Stacking
Where more than one aircraft is arriving it is normal for the aircraft at the
lowest altitude to land first. Where necessary, a holding pattern will be es-
tablished for ‘stacking’ of aircraft waiting to start the approach. Under
certain circumstances, a later arrivalwill be given priority over earlier ar-
rivals. Such circumstances are:
• An aircraft in distress. The PIC of the aircraft involved will be expected
to
declare an emergency using either “MAYDAY” or “PAN PAN” proce-
dures;
• Hospital aircraft or aircraft carrying sick or seriously injured people. In-
ternational hospital
flights will prefix initial RTF with “PAN PAN MEDICAL”;
285
• Aircraft engaged in SAR operations;
• Other aircraft as may be determined by the authority.

Procedure.
It is normal for ‘stacks’ to be established on the radio navigation beacons
serving as the IAF for the instrument procedures to be used. The vertical
size of the stack may be limited by airspace considerations and when full,
‘overspill’ stacks would be established on remote beacons.
Arriving aircraft will be cleared into the stack at the lowest available
level.
Normal holding pattern joining procedures are used. Aircraft will be
cleared to commence the instrument procedure from the lowest holding
altitude (the bottom of the stack) using timed arrival procedures.
If a pilot states his/her intention to continue holding awaiting a weather
improvement when other pilots wish to make an instrument approach, the
holding pilot will be instructed to take up another holding pattern or di-
rected to rejoin the hold at the top.
If a pilot elects to attempt an instrument approach when others remain in
the hold, an unsuccessful
approach would result in the aircraft being directed back into the stack at
the top.

Expected Approach Time (EAT).

When an aircraft enters a stack the controlling ATCO will pass an EAT
which must be acknowledged by the pilot. This will be the time that the
286
pilot can expect to commence the instrument approach. Initially the EAT
will not be less than 30 minutes after the time of entry. If it is expected
that the aircraft will not be held for more than 20 minutes, the pilot will be
informed “no delay expected”. As the approach sequence progresses, if
necessary the EAT will be revised by 5 minute intervals, passed to the pi-
lot and acknowledged.
En Route Holding. It is often preferred to hold an aircraft en route at
cruising altitude,
rather than to progress the flight to the terminal stage and hold at low
level with high fuel burn rates.
Where delays are known to exist and aircraft are held en route, credit will
be given for time spent holding en route by inserting the aircraft into the
approach sequence ahead of other aircraft so that the aircraft that has held
en route is not penalized.
Should an en route aircraft be instructed by ATC to take up a hold while
en route, this may necessitate basing the hold over a non-standard holding
point (a town, a point of latitude and longitude, a significant point along
the route) – i.e. not over an authorized navigational aid over which a rec-
ognized hold is based. In this case, unless otherwise instructed, the air-
craft should take up a right-hand hold.

CONTROL OF AIRCRAFT
Chapters
287
 i. Procedural ATC
ii. Radar Control
iii. Radar Identification
iv. Radar
v. Aerodrome Control
vi. Approach Control Service
vii. Air Traffic Advisory Service
viii. Aircraft Emergencies
Application
Aircraft loses during WW2 lead due to mid air collisions, collision with
terrain and inadvertent flight into terrain lead to concept of Air Traffic
Control.
Procedural ATC applies lateral separation on aircrafts. Position reports
passed by pilots enabled ATCOs monitor aircraft progress and detect any
collision risks.
Flight strips
ATCOs utilize paper flight strips in monitoring progress of a flight, and
strips are theoretically handed over from one ATC unit to the next con-
trolling unit. (A new strip is generated for the flight by subsequent ATC
unit and usually done by phone call coordination)
Radio communication between aircraft and ATC units is basically by use
of VHF radios and HF radios on remote and oceanic areas. Pilots are re-
quired to monitor radio frequency for the ATC in control.
However SELCAL relieves Pilots from this task, as ATCOs can alert the
pilot whenever they need to contact them. Pilots would then call back.
Modern aircrafts use datalink communication (CPDLC)

RADAR CONTROL

288
Radar system gives precise position of an aircraft and enables ATCOs es-
tablish required separation more accurately and enhances situational
awareness.
Radar information provides information to update the flight strips and
augments procedural control.
The types of radar service are:
 Radar Control for controlled en-route aircraft
 Approach Radar Control for arriving and departing controlled traffic
 Radar vectoring: the provision of navigation instructions to an air-
craft to achieve a specific aim i.e. positioning to intercept the ILS lo-
caliser.
 PAR and SRA as instrument approach systems
Surface movement radar at an aerodrome to provide the aerodrome con-
troller with information in poor visibility or at night.
Radar service is provided within Control airspace as well as non-con-
trolled airspace for provision of FIS.
Radar Separation.
Standard separation of aircrafts within radar environment is 5nm.
However this separation may be reduced under specific conditions and
based on PSR aircraft position.
Radar Identification.
Radar identification is required before radar service is provided to an air-
craft.
This is achieved by squawking a specific SSR code assigned to the air-
craft.
The controller will use the phrase ‘radar contact’ to indicate that aircraft
has been identified and that until further advised, a service will be pro-
vided.
289
e.g.”5Y-OOC radar contact 4nm west of GG”
Pilot must inform the controller if his position significantly varies from
the radar contact, in case the aircraft was mis-identified.
Upon radar identification, Radar controller will inform the pilot the ser-
vice provided eg vectors to an ILS for a runway.
Radar service will be terminated once the aircraft is reached the limit of
radar coverage or when the aim of the radar service has been achieved.
Pilot will then be advised on termination and instruction/ advise on how
to continue.

Radar Vectoring.
Service provided in the Radar Vectoring Area (RVA) and only provided
after radar contact has been achieved with an aircraft.
Provision of navigational information to enable a pilot fly a required
track, to avoid bad weather or avoid other traffic in the RVA.
Terrain and elevation is depicted in the RVA screen and the controller
will give vectors appropriately ensuring safe heights.
Resume own navigation indicates that radar vectoring has ended and the
aim has been achieved.
Radar Controlled Approach
Provided by;
 Precision Approach Radar (PAR)
 Non-precision approach radar (SRA)
PAR
Is a continuous talk-down to an aircraft on the approach and terminated
once the aircraft reached Decision Height (DH).

290
Controller obtains landing clearance from tower and passes to the pilot at
4nm or at least 2nm to Threshold. If no clearance is received at 2nm to the
runway, pilot conducts missed approach.

SRA
Non-precision approaches have Minimum Descend Height/Altitude
(MDH/A)
Similar to PAR except in SRA advisory on distance and height informa-
tion is passed to the pilot.
Radar service is terminated at Radar termination range (RTR), e.g. RTR2
means height information is provided at every 1nm.T
The controller obtains landing clearance and passing to the pilot.
Aerodrome Control
Provided by Aerodrome tower to aerodrome traffic.
To avoid collision involving aircrafts, vehicles, person and obstacles on
the maneuvering area or in the air in the vicinity of the aerodrome.
Controllers sit on the Visual Control Room (VCR) and are able to see all
parts of the aerodrome.
However at night or in poor visibility, surface movement radar can be
used.
Access to the runway by vehicles or aircraft is a control responsibility of
the aerodrome controller.
Aircrafts taking off will report airborne so that the controller can clear an-
other aircraft to enter the runway. One aircraft is normally allowed on the
runway at a time.
Controller decides what runway to use at a time factoring factors such as
winds, noise abatement procedures or airspace restrictions.
291
Departing aircrafts.
Take-off immediate is a clearance to enter the runway and apply take off
power immediately without stopping at the runway.
Succeeding aircraft is not given take off clearance till the airborne aircraft
commences turn away from runway direction or reaches upwind thresh-
old, also considering wake turbulence categories.
Arriving aircrafts.
Landing clearance normally given at 4nm to the Threshold. If no clear-
ance is received a missed approach is initiated at 2nm from threshold.
On landing and clear of the runway (beyond holding point), a pilot gives a
“ Runway vacated” report to the controller.
Land after clearance
At busy aerodromes or busy periods, a “land after preceding aircraft”
clearance is issued to a pilot, to enhance runway utilization by landing air-
crafts 1minute apart, considering wake turbulence.
The pilot of succeeding aircraft must obtain visual contact with the pre-
ceding aircraft and is responsible for separation. He/She can land once the
preceding aircraft has vacated the runway and used with the following
provisions;
 Only permitted during daylight
 The pilot of the second aircraft must be able to see the preceding air-
craft throughout the manoeuvre;
 The runway must be dry (braking action good);
 The pilot and operator of the aircraft concerned must be aware that
the runway occupancy time is limited to 50 seconds;
 The ATCO must be able to see the entire length of the landing run-
way

292
Raid exit taxiways; Enables aircrafts exit the runway at higher speeds
and enhances runway utilization during peak periods.
Information to departing aircrafts;
Prior to Taxi.
• Runway in use
• Surface wind direction and speed;
• The aerodrome QNH;
• The air temperature for the runway to be used (for turbine engine aircraft
only);
• The visibility in the direction of take-off or the RVR;
• The correct time.
Prior to Take Off.
• Any significant changes in wind conditions, air temperature, visibility or
RVR
• Significant meteorological conditions in the take off and climb out areas
(unless the pilot has already been informed)
Arriving aircrafts;
Prior to Entering the Traffic Pattern. Before entering the traffic pattern
or commencing an approach to land, a pilot is to be provided with the fol-
lowing information:
• The runway to be used;
• The surface wind direction and speed;
• The aerodrome QNH;

Alerting Service

293
AD control tower activates crash rescue and firefighting at the aerodrome
if required.
All aerodrome circuits are suspended when ACC instructs tower of likeli-
hood of an aircraft in emergency landing at the aerodrome.
If an aircraft fails to land within 5 mins or makes no report to aerodrome
tower, ACC and FIS are informed immediately for activation of alert
phase.
Approach Control Service
ATC service provided to traffic arriving/departing at an aerodrome (s) in a
CTR.
Radar is commonly used for Approach control.
When met conditions are IMC or in LVO, approach controller is responsi-
ble for obtaining TOF and Landing clearances rom the aerodrome tower.
Delays.
In order to avoid excessive holding at the destination, aircraft may be
held at the departure aerodrome prior to take off. ATC is required to ad-
vise operators (or their nominated representative) of substantial delays
and in any case where the delay is expected to exceed 30 minutes.

Information to departing aircrafts;

 Meteorological information; Significant information concerning TS,
Windshear, sandstorms etc will be passed by the approach con-
troller.
 Visual/non-visual aids
 Essential traffic information;

294
Essential traffic information. Information regarding essential local traf-
fic known to the controller shall be transmitted to departing aircraft with-
out delay

Instrument Approaches
Speed control;
Spped is used to sequence aircrfats on Instrument approach to attain re-
quired separation.
Instruction for speed adjustments of not more than 20kts in multiples of
10kts are given, and no change in speed is done at 4nm to the runway.
Visual reference to terrain. If visual reference to terrain is established
before completion of the approach procedure, the entire procedure must
nevertheless be executed unless the aircraft requests and is cleared for a
visual approach.
Choice of procedure. A particular approach procedure may be specified
to expedite traffic. The omission of a specified approach procedure will
indicate that any authorised approach may be used at the discretion of the
pilot.

Holding procedures
Holding and holding pattern entry shall be accomplished in accordance
with procedures established by the appropriate ATS authority and pub-
lished in Aeronautical Information Publications.
Control of holding is by radar controller, and where procedures are not
published or PIC is unfamiliar, controller will describe the procedure.
Holding Point
Holding is done at designated holding points and min vertical ,horizontal
or longitudinal separation is observed.
295
Holding levels
Aircrafts are stacked based on priority for landing;
Aircrafts arriving first are put on lower levels and succeeding aircrafts at
higher levels successively,
Medical aircraft/sick pax on board are given priority for landing.
Aircrafts sensitive to fuel consumption at lower levels are held at higher
levels despite their arrival time at the hold, and can be cleared to descend
through levels occupied by other aircrafts discretely by the radar con-
troller.
Aircrafts are cleared to leave the stack when the preceding aircraft;
 Has reported that it is able to complete its approach without encoun-
tering IMC; or
 Is in communication with and has been sighted by the aerodrome
controller, and reasonable assurance exists that a normal landing can
be made
Alternate procedure for holding can be approved if so requested by PIC
due to inability to comply with standard holding procedures.
Where an aircraft has been authorised to absorb delay time whilst en-route
(by reduced cruising speed or en-route holding), the time delayed should
be credited in any stacking.
Aircrafts en route and sensitive in fuel consumption are advised as early
as possible on expected time of approach preferably before commence-
ment of descent, to enable PIC decide on alternative procedure to absorb
the delay en route.
Information to arriving aircrafts;
Aircrafts will be advised on;
On initial contact with approach control

296
  Runway-in-use;
 Meteorological information
 Current runway surface conditions, in case of precipitants or other
temporary hazards;
 Changes in the operational status of visual and non-visual aids es-
sential for approach and landing.

Start of final approach.

• Significant changes in the mean surface wind direction and speed;
Mean head-wind component 10 kt
Mean tail-wind component 2 kt
Mean cross-wind component 5 kt
• The latest information, if any, on wind shear and/or turbulence in the fi-
nal approach area;
• The current visibility representative of the direction of approach and
landing
Final approach.
• The sudden occurrence of hazards (e.g. runway Obstruction)
• Significant variations in the current surface wind,
• Significant changes in runway surface conditions e.g. wet, dump and
braking action eg. Poor, medium
• Changes in the operational status of required visual or non-visual aids;

Advisory Service
297
Service provided to ensure separation of IFR traffic operating within class
F airspace or on advisory route to ensure separation in so far as practica-
ble.
This is not a full ATC service and only suggestions or advise is given to
pilots for collision avoidance.
No clearances are given and Flight Plans are required.
SSR codes in Aircraft emergencies;
 Mode A code 7700 Emergency
 Mode A code 7600 Radio failure
 Mode A code 7500 Unlawful Interference
NB; aircraft already identified on radar are not required to select reserved
emergency codes.
 Mode A code 7000 Conspicuity code for an aircraft operating in an
area where a radar service is available but the aircraft is not in receipt of
the service (commonly referred to as VFR conspicuity)
 Mode A code 2000 An aircraft is operating in an area where a radar
service is not available but will be entering an area where a radar service
is available and will be requesting that service.

ATC Contact in an Emergency. In an emergency pilots can expect to be

contacted by ATC on 121.5 MHz or, as a back-up, on the inter-pilot air-
to-air frequency 123.45 MHz.
Emergency Descent.
Aircraft suffering pressurization failure are required by law to descend to
an altitude where oxygen in the air supports life, usually 10000ft AMSL.
In this event, ATC will broadcast a warning to aircraft in the vicinity of a
descending aircraft. The pilot of the descending aircraft should attempt to
298
broadcast the aircraft altitude at intervals to assist other aircraft to avoid a
collision.
Fuel Jettison.
In certain circumstances, it may be necessary to reduce the mass of the
aircraft to maximum landing mass as soon as possible by dumping as
much fuel as is required.
All aircraft which have a maximum take-off mass greater than the maxi-
mum landing mass are required to have fuel jettison system. If the aircraft
is flying in CAS, before commencing fuel jettison, the controlling ATC is
to be informed.
The route over which the fuel is to be jettisoned should be clear of towns,
preferably over water and clear of areas where thunderstorm activity has
been reported or is expected.
The level at which the jettison takes place is to be not lower than 6000ft.
This will allow the fuel in aerosol form to evaporate before reaching the
ground.
ATC is to be advised of the duration of the procedure.
Strayed and Unidentified Aircraft.
Strayed aircraft is one that has deviated significantly from its intended
track or reports that it is lost.
Unidentified aircraft is one of which the ATCU is aware but the identity
is not known.

299
 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (AIS)
Introduction
i. General
ii. The Integrated Aeronautical Information Package
iii. The Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)
iv. Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
v. SNOWTAM
vi. ASHTAM
vii. Aeronautical Information Circulars (AICs)
viii. Pre-flight and Post-flight Information
Definitions;
“aeronautical information” means information resulting from the assem-
bly, analysis and formatting of aeronautical data;
300
 “aeronautical information management” means the dynamic, integrated
management of aeronautical information through the provision and ex-
change of quality-assured digital aeronautical data in
collaboration with all parties;
“aeronautical information service” means a service established within the
defined area of coverage responsible for the provision of aeronautical data
and aeronautical information necessary for the safety,
regularity and efficiency of air navigation
“pre-flight information bulletin” means a presentation of current Notice
To Air Men information of operational significance, prepared prior to
flight.
Objectives of AIS;
The ICAO Annex 15 contains Standards and Recommended Practices for
the provision of the AIS
(a) provide an aeronautical information service;
(b) ensure that the provision of aeronautical data and aeronautical infor-
mation covers the entire territory of Kenya for which it is responsible for
the provision of air traffic services;
(c) note that the Authority shall remain responsible for the aeronautical
data and aeronautical information provided;
(d) ensure that aeronautical data and aeronautical information provided
for and on behalf of the Authority shall clearly indicate that they are pro-
vided under the authorisation of the Authority;
(e) ensure that the aeronautical data and aeronautical information pro-
vided is complete, timely and of required quality in accordance with these
regulation; and
(f) ensure that formal arrangements are established between originators of
aeronautical data and aeronautical information and the aeronautical infor-
301
mation service in relation to the timely and complete provision of aero-
nautical data and aeronautical information.
An aeronautical information service provider shall ensure that
the –
• Aeronautical data and aeronautical information obtained from other
States , when distributed, is clearly identified as having the authority of
the State of Origin;
• Aeronautical data and aeronautical information obtained from other
sources other than other States, be verified before distribution and if not
verified, when distributed, be clearly
ASECNA provides joint Aeronautical information concerning all French
spreaking states.
AIS shall be made available on a 24 hour basis, and where not available
as such, It’s made available for the whole time an aircraft is in flight
within the AIS jurisdiction, and at least 2 hours before first flight and after
last flight of the day.
AIS provides pre-flight (PIB) and inflight information from AIS of other
states and any other prescribed source.
The AIS is to make available any information necessary for the safety,
regularity or efficiency of air navigation to any other State that requires
the information. Information is to be verified by states attributed as source
of the information, and when not verified should be indicated as such.
Information shall be presented in an operationally suitable from for ease
of use by flight crew and concerned operational personnel.
Integrated Publication.
The AIS is to receive and/or originate, collate or assemble, edit,
format,publish/store and distribute aeronautical information/data concern-

302
ing the entire territory of the State as well as areas in which the State is re-
sponsible for ATS outside its territory.
Aeronautical information is published in the form of an Integrated Aero-
nautical Information Package (IAIP).
The Integrated Aeronautical Information Package(IAIP)
The Integrated Aeronautical Information Package is a system of dissemi-
nation of information essential to aviation operations and safety. It con-
sists of the following elements:
• Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP - including amendment ser-
vice)
• Supplements to the AIP
• NOTAM and pre-flight information bulletins (PIBs)
• Aeronautical Information Circulars (AICs)
• Checklists and Summaries
The Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)
Is a publication issued with the Authority of a state containing Aeronauti-
cal information that are permanent in nature.
It’s a reference publication for permanent information and for information
concerning long duration temporary changes, and is relied upon by flight
crew and operators for upto date information.

Contents of AIP
The AIP consists of three parts (Volumes)
• Part 1 - General (GEN)
• Part 2 - En route (ENR)
• Part 3 - Aerodrome Data (AD)
303
Part 1 - GEN. Part 1 contains information of a regulatory and administra-
tive nature.
It consists of five sections;
GEN 1; National regulations and requirements –
Designated authorities;
Entry, transit and departure of aircraft;
Entry, transit and departure of passengers, crew and cargo;
Aircraft instruments, equipment and flight documents;
Summary of national regulations and international agreements/conven-
tions;
Differences from ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices.
• GEN 2 Tables and Codes –
Measuring system,
aircraft markings,
holidays;
Abbreviations used in AIS publications;
Chart symbols;
ICAO 4 letter Location indicators;
List of Radio Navigation Aids;
Conversion tables;
Sunrise/Sunset tables;
Rate of Climb Table.
• GEN 3 Services –

304
Aeronautical Information Services;
Aeronautical Charts;
Air Traffic Services;
Communications Services;
Meteorological Services;
Search and Rescue.
GEN 4 Charges for aerodrome/heliport and air navigation services
Part 2 - En Route (ENR).
This part contains information for planning flights.
It also contains information of a procedural administrative nature to allow
notification of flights
(submission of a Flight Plan) and compliance with ATC requirements.
Has seven sections;
• ENR 0 Preface: List of hand amendments to Part 2; Table of Contents of
Part 2.
• ENR 1 General rules and procedures
- General rules; Visual flight rules; Instrument flight rules;
ATS airspace classification;
Holding, Approach and Departure procedures;
Radar services and procedures;
Altimeter setting procedures;
Regional Supplementary procedures;
Air Traffic flow management;
Flight Planning;

305
Addressing of flight plan messages;
Interception of civil aircraft;
Unlawful interference;
Air traffic incidents;
Offshore operations.

• ENR 2 Air traffic services airspace –

Flight Information Region(FIR);
Upper Flight Information Regions (UIR);
Terminal Control Areas (TMA); other regulated airspace.
• ENR 3 ATS routes -; Minimum flight Altitude.
• ENR 4 Radio Navigation aids
• ENR 5 Navigation warnings –
Prohibited, restricted and danger areas; Military exercise and training ar-
eas;
Other activities of a dangerous nature; Air navigation obstacles
- en route; Aerial sporting and recreational activities; Bird migration
• ENR 6 En route charts - En route Chart ICAO and index charts
Part 3 - Aerodromes.
• AD 1 Aerodrome/Heliports - Introduction - Aeronautical/helicopter
availability;
RFF servicesn; Index to aerodromes and heliports;
Grouping of aerodromes/heliports (category A-E)

306
AD 2 Aerodromes –
Contains information concerning: Aprons, taxiways and check locations;
surface movement guidance
and control systems and markings; radio navigation and landing aids;
charts relating to an aerodrome; refuelling facilities.
• AD 3 Heliports - Detailed information about heliports (not located at
aerodromes),
AIP Amendments.
Permanent changes to the AIP are published as AIP amendments
The AIP is amended or reissued at regular intervals as are necessary to
keep the data up to date.
The normal method of amendment is reprint and replacement of con-
cerned pages.
Each AIP amendment is allocated a consecutive serial number and each
amended page, including the cover sheet, shows the publication date.
AIP Supplements.
Concerns;
I. Temporary changes of long duration (three months or longer) and
II. Information of short duration which contains extensive text and/or
graphics.
AIP supplement is published by means of colored, preferably yellow
pages for cospicuity.
An aeronautical information service provider shall–
(a) publish temporary changes of three months or more and information of
short duration which contains extensive text or graphics as aeronautical
information publication supplements;

307
(b) allocate each aeronautical information publication supplements a se-
rial number which are cconsecutive and based on the calendar year;
(c) keep aeronautical information publication supplement pages in the
aeronautical information publication if all or some oftheir contents remain
valid;
(d) publish a new aeronautical information publication supplement as a
replacement when an error
occurs in the aeronautical information publication supplement or when the
period of validity of the aeronautical information publication supplement
is changed;
(e) include a reference to the serial number of a Notice To Air Men in an
aeronautical information publication supplement when an aeronautical in-
formation publication supplement is sent in replacement of a Notice To
Air Men; and
(f) issue a checklist of valid aeronautical Information publications supple-
ments at intervals of not more
than one month and the information shall be issued through the medium
of the monthly plain-language list of valid Notice To Air Men required by
regulation

Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC)

Is the procedures by which operationally significant changes to the AIP
are published, and shall be clearly identified by the acronym - AIRAC.
AIRAC is based on a series of common effective dates at intervals of 28
days.
AIS unit distributes AIRAC information at least 42 days in advance of the
effective date and the information notified must not be changed for at
least another 28 days after the effective date.

308
Whenever major changes are planned and where additional notice is de-
sirable, publication is issued 56 days in advance of effective date.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
NOTAM are notices distributed by means of telecommunications contain-
ing information concerning the establishment, condition or change in any
aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge
of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.
NOTAM are required whenever information is of direct operational sig-
nificance and are to be originated and issued promptly whenever the in-
formation to be distributed lasts for a short duration (usually less than 3
months), or when operationally significant permanent changes, or tempo-
rary changes of long duration, are made at short notice.
When an AIP amendment or an AIP Supplement is published in accor-
dance with AIRAC procedures, NOTAM are to be originated giving a
brief description of the contents, the effective date and the reference num-
ber to the amendment or supplement.
This NOTAM shall come into force on the same effective date as the
amendment or supplement.
Notam validity;
NOTAM should remain in force as a reminder until the next checklist/
summary is issued.
Notices concerning unserviceability of Navaids, facilities or communica-
tion services should give an estimate of the period of unserviceability or
the time at which restoration of service is expected.
Excluded Matter.
The following information shall not be notified by NOTAM;
(a) routine maintenance work on aprons and taxiways which does not af-
fect the safe movement of aircraft;

309
(b) runway marking work, when aircraft operations can safely be con-
ducted on other available runways, or the equipment used can be removed
when necessary;
(c) temporary obstructions in the vicinity of aerodromes or heliports that
do not affect the safe operation of aircraft;
(d) partial failure of aerodrome or heliport lighting facilities where such
failure does not directly affect aircraft operations;
(e) partial temporary failure of air-ground communications when suitable
alternative frequencies are known to be available and are operative;
(f) the lack of apron marshalling services and road trafficcontrol;
(g) the unserviceability of location, destination or other instruction signs
on the aerodrome movement area;
(h) parachuting when in uncontrolled airspace under Visual Flight Rules
when controlled, at promulgated sites or within danger or prohibited ar-
eas; and
(i) other information of a similar temporary nature.
The aeronautical information service provider shall ensure that –
(a) at least seven days’ advance notice is given of the activation of estab-
lished danger, restricted or prohibited areas and of activities requiring
temporary airspace restrictions other than for emergency operations;
(b) notice of any subsequent cancellation of the activities or any reduction
of the hours of activity or the dimensions of the airspace is given at least
within 24 hours of the cancellation;
(c) Notice To Air Men notifying unserviceability of aids to air navigation,
facilities or communication services gives an estimate of the period of un-
serviceability or the time at which restoration of service is expected;
(d) when an AIP Amendment or an AIP Supplement is published in ac-
cordance with Aeronautical Information Regulation And Control proce-
310
dures, a Notice To Air Men is originated giving a brief description of the
contents, the effective date and time, and the reference number of the
amendment or supplement; and
(e) the Notice To Air Men in paragraph (d) comes into force on the same
effective date and time as the amendment or supplement and remains
valid in the pre-flight information bulletin for a period of fourteen days.
Distribution.
An aeronautical information service provider shall -
• Distribute a NOTAM on the basis of a request;
• Select the Notice To Air Men to be given international distribution.
• Notice To Air Men are prepared in accordance with the relevant
provisions of the International Civil Aviation Organisation communica-
tion procedures;
• The Aeronautical Fixed Service is employed for Notice To Air Men
distribution;
• A six-digit date-time group indicating the date and time of Notice
To Air Men origination, and the identification of the originator is used,
preceding the text when a Notice To Air Men exchanged as sent by means
other than the AFS;
• International exchange of Notice To Air Men takes place only, as
mutually agreed between the international Notice To Air Men offices con-
cerned;
International Notam office; means an office designated by the Authority
for the exchange of Notice To Air Men internationally. In Kenya this of-
fice is situated at JKIA.
The exchanges of Notice To Air Men between international Notice To Air
Men offices is limited to the requirements of the receiving States con-

311
cerned by means of separate series providing for at least international and
domestic flights.
NOTAM Checklists.
Refers to the latest aeronautical information publication Amendments,
aeronautical information publication Supplements and at least the interna-
tionally distributed AIC; and
A monthly plain-language list of valid Notice To Air Men, including in-
dications of the latest aeronautical information publication Amendments,
AIC issued and a checklist of aeronautical information publication Sup-
plements is prepared with minimum delay and forwarded by the most ex-
peditious means to recipients of the IAIP.
NOTAM with error;
A NOTAM with a new number to replace the erroneous NOTAM will be
issued or the erroneous NOTAM cancelled and a new NOTAM issued.
Notam Summary.
A monthly printed plain language summary of NOTAM in force, includ-
ing the indications of the latest AIP amendments, checklist of AIP supple-
ments and AIC issued, is to be sent by the most expeditious means to re-
cipients of the IAIP.

Aeronautical Information Circulars (AICs)

AIC is a means by which information that does not qualify for inclusion
in the AIP or is not suitable for NOTAM is disseminated to all interested
parties.
It’s concerns with long-term forecast of any major change in legislation,
regulations, procedures or facilities; information of a purely explanatory
or advisory nature liable to affect flight safety; or information or notifica-

312
tion of an explanatory or advisory nature concerning technical, legislative
or purely administrative matters.
AIC relates to;
(i) a long-term forecast of any major change in legislation, regulations,
procedures or facilities;
(ii) information of a purely explanatory or advisory nature liable to affect
flight safety; or
(iii) information or notification of an explanatory or advisory nature con-
cerning technical, legislative or purely administrative matters.
AIC includes information concerning;
(a) forecasts of important changes in the air navigation procedures, ser-
vices and facilities provided;
(b) forecasts of implementation of new navigation systems;
(c) significant information arising from aircraft accident or incident inves-
tigation which has a bearing on flight safety;
(d) information on regulations relating to the safeguarding of international
civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference;
(e) advice on medical matters of special interest to pilots;
(f) warnings to pilots concerning the avoidance of physical hazards;
(g) effect of certain weather phenomena on aircraft operations;
(h) information on new hazards affecting aircraft handling techniques;
(i) regulations relating to the carriage of restricted articles by air;
(j) reference to the requirements of, and publication of changes in, na-
tional legislation;
(k) aircrew licensing arrangements;
(l) training of aviation personnel;
313
(m) application of, or exemption from, requirements in national legisla-
tion;
(n) advice on the use and maintenance of specific types of equipment;
(o) actual or planned availability of new or revised editions of aeronauti-
cal charts;
(p) carriage of communication equipment;
(q) explanatory information relating to noise abatement;
(r) selected airworthiness directives;
(s) changes in Notice To Air Men series or distribution, new editions of
aeronautical information publication or major changes in their contents,
coverage or format; or
(t) other information of a similar nature.

General AIC specifications

The aeronautical information service provider shall –
(a) select the AIC to be given international distribution;
(b) allocate a serial number to an AIC, which is consecutive and based on
the calendar year;
(c) separately identify each series by a letter when the AICs are distrib-
uted in more than one series;
(d) use colour coding to differentiate and identify AIC topics according to
subjects where the numbers of AIC in force are sufficient to make identi-
fication in this form necessary; and
(e) Issue checklist of AIC currently in force at least once a year, with dis-
tribution as for the aeronautical information circular.

314
An aeronautical information service provider shall give AIC selected for
international distribution the same distribution as for the aeronautical in-
formation publication.
Annex 15 recommends that AICs are colour-coded according to topics as
per the below;

SNOWTAM
A notification concerning snow, ice and standing water on aerodrome
pavement areas.
Its validity is a maximum of 24 hours.
Contents of a SNOWTAM;
A. The ICAO aerodrome locator code e.g. EGLL (Heathrow)
B. The date/time of observation (UTC)
C. Runway designators (e.g. 27R)
D. Cleared runway length if less than published length (m)
E. Cleared runway width if less than the published width (m; if off set: L
or R)
F. Deposits over total runway length:
• Nil - Clear and dry
• Damp
• Wet or water patches
• Rime or frost covered
• Dry snow
• Wet snow
• Slush

315
• Ice
• Compacted or rolled snow
• Frozen ruts or ridges
G. Mean depth (mm) for each third of total runway length
H. Friction measurement on each third of runway and friction measuring
device
J. Critical snow banks (m)
K. Runway lights (if obscured “yes” followed by L , R or LR)
L. Further clearance (if planned inset length/width to be cleared or if to
full dimensions
insert FULL)
M. Further clearance expected to be completed by (UTC)
N. Taxiway
P. Taxiway snow banks (if > 60 cm insert “Yes” followed by distance
apart (m))
Q. Apron
S Next planned observation /measurement is for (month/day/hour (UTC))
T. Plain language remarks
Wheel Braking On Wet Runways.
Wet runway’ covers a range of conditions from ‘Damp’ to ‘Flooded’ but
does not include ice or runways contaminated with snow, slush, or water
associated with slush.
Paved runways of 1200m and longer at civil aerodromes licensed for pub-
lic use have been calibrated, to ensure that the friction characteristics of a
runway surface are of a quality to provide good braking
action in wet conditions.
316
The presence of water on a runway will be reported on RadioTelephony
using the following descriptions:
Interpretation.
Reported ‘DAMP’ or ‘WET’ surface assumes an acceptable level of run-
way wheel braking friction is available.
‘WATER PATCHES’ or being ‘FLOODED’ braking may be affected by
aquaplaning and appropriate operational adjustments should be consid-
ered.
“Water patches” will be used if at least 25% of the runway length is cov-
ered with standing water.
When runway is reported as wet,, take-offs or landings in wet conditions
should only be considered when the distances available equal or exceed
those required for a very slippery or icy runway as determined from infor-
mation in the aeroplane’s Flight Manual.

ASHTAM
“ASHTAM” means a special series Notice To Air Men notifying by
means of a specific format change in activity of a volcano, a volcanic
eruption and/or volcanic ash cloud that is of significance to aircraft opera-
tions.
Volcanic ash cloud presents a significant hazard to turbine engine aero-
planes.
Timely warning of the presence of ash clouds or the possibility of an ash
cloud existing is vital
to safe operations in areas where volcanic activity is common.
Information concerning an operationally significant change in volcanic
activity, a volcanic eruption and/or volcanic ash cloud.

317
Maximum period of validity of ASHTAM is 24 hours. New ASHTAM
must be issued whenever there is a change in the level of alert.

Pre-flight and Post-flight Information

AIS service shall provide information essential for the safety, regularity
and efficiency of air navigation and relative to the route stages originating
at the aerodrome or heliport to flight operations personnel, including
flight crews and services responsible for pre-flight information at any
aerodrome or heliport used for international air operations.
Current NOTAM and other information of urgent character shall be made
available to flight crews in plain language in form of pre-flight informa-
tion bulletins (PIB).
PIBs may be made available in automated preflight systems to enable
self-briefing all concerned flight operation personnel.
Post Flight briefing
An aeronautical information service provider shall make arrangements to
receive at aerodromes or heliports information in accordance with the pre-
scribed format concerning-
(a)the state and operation of air navigation facilities or services noted by
aircrew and ensure that such information is made available for distribu-
tion as the circumstances necessitate;
(b) the presence of birds observed by aircrew and ensure that such infor-
mation is made available for distribution as the circumstances necessitate

318
 AERODROMES PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

i. Introduction
ii. Aerodrome Reference Code
iii. Aerodrome Data
iv. Runways
v. Taxiways
vi. Aprons

Introduction
Annex 14 of the ICAO contains SARPs for Aerodromes open for public
use.
Each contracting state is required to ensure that such aerodromes comply
with the requirements of the annex.
Definitions;
Aerodrome; means a defined area on land or water (including any build-
ings, installations and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in
part for the arrival, departure and surface movement of aircraft;
Aerodrome certificate; means a certificate issued by the Authority.

319
Aerodrome operator; means an operator of an Aerodrome either Regis-
tered, Licensed or Certificated under Regulations in Kenya.
Types of Aerodromes
 Private licensed
 Public licensed
 Government owned eg Military airports
Public Aerodromes
 International airports; Aerodrome at which immigration, port health,
customs and excise services are available.
 Domestic use airports

Aerodrome Categories (KCARs 2018-Aerodromes)

(a) Category A comprising aerodromes available for use by both interna-
tional and domestic air traffic;
(b) Category B comprising aerodromes available for use only by domestic
air traffic;
(c) Category C comprising aerodromes available for use only by domestic
air traffic of maximum certificated take-off mass not exceeding thirty
thousand kilograms (30000KGS)
(d) Category D comprising aerodromes available for use only by domestic
helicopters operations; and
(e) Category E comprising aerodromes available for use only by domestic
air traffic of maximum certificated take-off mass not exceeding 5700Kgs

Aerodrome layout
Aerodrome is divided into;
320
Land side; Area unrestricted for public access.
Airside; that portion of the aerodrome including buildings and facilities,
which are not accessible without security control.
An aerodrome has the following areas;
1. Movement area; that part of an aerodrome intended for the surface
movement of aircraft including the maneuvering area, aprons and
any part of the aerodrome provided for the maintenance of aircraft.
2. Maneuvering Area; that part of an aerodrome provided for the
take-off and landing of aircraft and for the movement of aircraft on
the surface.
Includes Runways and taxiways
3. Apron. The apron is a legally defined portion of the aerodrome
where passengers, mail and cargo are loaded on to an aeroplane. It is
commonly called the ramp.

Aerodrome reference codes

Reference codes are used during aerodrome construction planning for the
purpose of inter-relating specifications and characteristics to provide suit-
able facilities for aircrafts intended to use the aerodrome.
Reference codes is given in two elements;
 Code number; Numerical 1 to 4 based on aeroplane field length
requirements for take-off.
 Code letter; Based on aircraft wing span and outer main landing
gear span.

Aerodrome Reference Code

321
Code Element 1 Code Ele-
ment 2
Code Num- Aerodrome Code Let- Wing Span Outer
ber Reference ter Main Gear
Field Wheel
Length Span
1 Less than A Up to but Up to but
800m not includ- not includ-
ing 15m ing
4.5m
2 800m or B 15m or 4.5m up to
more, more, but but not in-
less than cluding 6m
but less
24m
than 1
200m
3 1 200m or C 24m or 6m up to
more, more, but but not in-
less than cluding 9m
but less
36m
than 1
800m
4 1 800m or D 36m or 9m up to
more more, but but not in-
less than cluding
52m 14m
E 52m or 9m up to but not includ-
more, but ing 14m
less than
65m
F 65m up to but not includ- 14m up to but not includ-
322
 ing 80m ing 16m

Aerodrome Data
Aerodrome reference point (ARP); Is the geographical center of the
aerodrome given in Latitude and Longitudes co-ordinates expressed in de-
grees, minutes and seconds.
In reality, it is usually the centre of the longest runway

Aerodrome elevation; The elevation of the highest point of the landing

area.
For QNH and altimeter setting during take-off and landing.
Pre-flight Altimeter check location; Normaly an entire apron can serve as
a satisfactory altimeter check location.
Main runway ;The runway most used for take-off and landing.
Non-instrument (visual) runway; A runway intended for the operation
of aircraft using visual approach
procedures.
Obstacle; All fixed (whether temporary or permanent) and mobile ob-
jects, or parts thereof, that are located on an area intended for the surface
movement of aircraft or that extend above a defined surface
intended to protect aircraft in flight
Condition of the Movement Area and Related Facilities; conditions and
operational status of facilities must be kept upto date and changes in con-
ditions reported immediately.
Runway conditions can be;
Damp; surface shows change in color due to moisture

323
Wet; Socked but no standing water
Flooded; Extensive standing water is visible.
Water patches; significant patches of standing water.
Changes on the following are notified by means of a Notam;
 Construction or maintenance work;
 Rough or broken surfaces on a runway, a taxiway or an apron;
 Snow, slush or ice on a runway, a taxiway or an apron;
 Water on a runway, a taxiway or an apron;
 Snow banks or drifts adjacent to a runway, a taxiway or an apron;
 Anti-icing or de-icing liquid chemicals on a runway or a taxiway;
 Other temporary hazards, including parked aircraft;
 Failure or irregular operation of part or all of the aerodrome visual
aids; and
 Failure of the normal or secondary power supply.
Pavement strength (runways, taxiways and apron); Reported for aero-
dromes used by aircrafts of TOW greater than 5700kgs.
Reported as;

(i) Aircraft Classification Number (ACN)” means a number ex-

pressing the relative effect of an aircraft on a pavement for a
specified standard sub grade category;
Given by manufacturer based on All Up Weight (TOW). Aircraft weight
is distributed on the wheels, therefore more wheels helps reduce weight
effect on the surface and thus reducing CAN.
Each aircraft has CAN.
(ii) Pavement Classification number (PCN) Indicates strength of
the Runway, taxiways and Apron, with focus on the Apron where
the aircraft has greatest weight.

324
Pavement strength is given in ACN-PCN and ACN must be lower than
PCN
Declared Distances
Threshold; means the beginning of that portion of the runway usable for
landing;
Displaced threshold; means a threshold not located at the extremity of a
runway
Stopway; means a defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of
the take-off run available, prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft
can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off;
Clearway; means a defined rectangular area under the control of the ap-
propriate authority selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an
aircraft may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height;
Take-off run available (TORA); which is the length of runway declared
available and suitable for the ground run of an aircraft taking off; It’s
Threshold to Threshold length of the runway.

Take-off distance available (TODA); is the length of the take-off run

available plus the length of the clearway, if provided;
Accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA); is the length of the take-off
run available plus the length of the stop way, if provided;
Landing distance available (LDA). Length of the runway which is de-
clared available and suitable for the ground run of an aircraft landing;

RUNWAYS
Runway; A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for
the landing and take-off run of aircraft along its length..

325
Take-off Runway ;A runway equipped to allow take-offs in specified
weather minima.
Shoulder;An area adjacent to the edge of a paved surface so prepared as
to provide a transition between the pavement and the adjacent surface for
aircraft running off the pavement.
Strip; An area of specified dimensions enclosing a runway and taxiway to
provide for the safety of aircraft operations.
A prepared (tarmac and concrete) strip can be used in either directions
therefore one runway strip gives two runways.
At controlled aerodromes, ‘runway belongs to the controller’, Pilots must
obtain permission (clearance) to use the runway either enter, backtrack,
cross, take-off from and land on a specified runway.
Factors considered in runway construction.
Topography and winds
Straight and level ground with consideration of wind direction for take-off
and landing at the runway.
Type of operation;
i) Non-instrument runways; used by VFR traffic, operates with ref-
erence to ground physical aids for landing.
ii) Instrument runways for IFR traffic has instrument approach and
departure procedures in place. Departure procedures in form of
SIDs.
Instrument runways can be;
 Precision runways (using ILS; GLS; MLS or PAR approaches)
 Non-precision (using VOR; NDB; SRA or ILS in azimuth only ap-
proaches)
Take Off Runway.

326
Only used for take offs, usually due to terrain preventing an instrument
approach or precluding a missed approach. A take-off runway is usually
only in one direction (the reciprocal not being used.

Runway Threshold
Normally located at the extreme end of the runway, marking the runway
length used for landing and take-offs (TORA) unless operational require-
ments justify another location.
Threshold displacement
May be due to unserviceability or other operational factors and runway
distance is re-declared.
Location of the threshold is shown by a transverse white stripe across the
runway surface and arrows leading to the position of the threshold.
Runway dimension
Runway length is reported in metres and should meet operational require-
ments of the aircrafts intended to use the runway.
Width
The primary factors in deciding the width of a runway are wing span and
outer main gear wheel span and width should never be less than that re-
quired by intended aircrafts. Introduction of larger aircrafts e.g. A380 ren-
ders some runways inadequate.
Width of Runways
Code Code letter
num-
ber
C D E F
A B
327
1 18m 23m - - -
2 23m 30m - - -
3 30m 30m 45m - -
4 - - 45m 45m 45m 60m

Stop way
Rectangular area on the ground at the end of take-off run available
(TORA), prepared as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in
the case of an abandoned/rejected take-off. It is to have the same width as
the runway but not necessarily as strong as the runways.
Runway strip
Part of the runway that is not tarmacked but is located on both sides of the
runway to accommodate aircraft in case of displacement from the runway
and during take-off and landing.
Obstacles must be kept to a minimum and are frangible.
Must have length of 60m beyond runway end and 75m wide for VFR run-
ways and width 150m for IFR runways.
The surface of that portion of a strip that abuts a runway, shoulder or stop-
way must be flush with the surface of the runway, shoulder or stopway.
No obstacles (other than PAPIs) or mobile objects are permitted on this
part of a runway strip during landing or take off. An object which is situ-
ated within the stated dimensions is to be regarded as an obstacle and, as
far as is practicable, removed.

Runway End safety Area (RESA)

328
An area at each end of runway strip and stopway at the extended runway
centerline that doesn’t form part of the runway, clear of obstacles in-
tended to reduce risk of damage incase an aircraft overshoots the runway.
Should be double width of the runway and extends not less than 90m from
runway strip and 240m on code 4 runways.
Clearways.
This is a defined rectangular area on the ground under the control of the
appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which
an aeroplane may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height.
The origin of a clearway should be at the end of the take-off run available
(TORA).
The length should not exceed half the length of TORA, and the width
should extends at least 75m on each side of the extended centre line of the
runway.
Radio Altimeter operating Area.
Established in CAT ii/iii runways, usually extending 300m length before
threshold and width 60m.
TAXIWAYS
Taxiways are used to move aircrafts into and out of the runway.
Like runways, taxiways should be able to accommodate aircrafts of in-
tended use. Width is the most important factor in taxiway construction.
Strength should be equal to that of the runway.
Taxiways are more vulnerable than runways due aircrafts weights and
turning.
Taxiways parallel to runways should never be confused with runways.
Sufficient entrance and exit taxiways for a runway should be provided,
and paved turning area at the end of the runway if no taxiway is provided.

329
Rapid exit taxiways (fast turn off lanes);
Are provided at runways with high traffic volumes.
Enables aircraft exit the runway at higher speeds; 60kts for Code 3/4 and
35kts for code 1/2
Intersects the runway at not more than 45° not less than 25° but preferably
30° angle.

Taxiway dimensions
Outer main wheel clearance from taxiway edge;
Wheel to Taxiway Edge Clearance
Code Letter Clearance
A 1.5m
B 2.25m
C 3m if the taxiway is
intended to be used
by aeroplanes with
330
 wheel base less than
18m; otherwise 4.5m
D /E/F 4.5m

Width of taxiways.
The straight portion of a taxiway should have a width of not less than that
specified in the table below;

Code Letter Taxiway Width

A 7.5m
B 10.5m
C 15 m if the taxiway
is intended to be
used by aeroplanes
with a wheel base
less than 18 m; oth-
erwise 18 m
D 18 m if the taxiway
is intended to be
used by aeroplanes
with an outer main
gear span of less than
9 m; otherwise 23 m
E 23m
F 25m

331
Runway holding position
Aircrafts waiting for their turn to take off may be lined along the taxiway
leading to the take-off runway.
At aerodromes with heavy traffic, holding bays are provided and ensures
runway is protected by mandatory distances away from runway edge as
follows;

Distance from Centre Line of Runway)

Type of Runway code number

332
Runway 1 2 3 4
Take-off 30m 40m 75m 75m
Non in- 30m 40m 75m 75m
strument
(Visual)
Non-pre- 40m 40m 75m 75m
cision In-
strument
Precision 60m 60m 90m 90m
CAT I
Precision - 90m 90m
CAT II/
III

Aprons
An area provided for embarking, disembarking of passengers and cargo as
well as servicing of aircrafts.
Apron should be adequate to expeditiously handle expected traffic at its
highest density.
Aprons are required to withstand higher stress than the runway, due to
higher weights and slow movement of aircrafts.
Aircraft parking stands/bays are marked at the apron and provides mini-
mum clearance between adjacent aircrafts, minimum of 3M for code A
and 7.5M for code D aircrafts.
Isolated aircraft parking position
Provided to accommodate aircrafts believed to be subject to unlawful in-
terference or which for some reasons need isolation from normal traffic.

333
Minimum distance is 100m from other parking areas, buildings, public ar-
eas or underground utilities e.g. fuel, electrical or communication cables.

AERODROMES - VISUAL AIDS, MARKINGS AND SIGNS

Chapters
i. Requirements
ii. Visual Aids for Navigation
iii. Runway Markings
iv. Taxiway Markings
v. Signs
vi. Markers
vii. Visual Docking Guidance Systems

VISUAL NAVIGATION AIDS

i) Wind direction Indicators
Aircrafts land and take off into wind. Aerodrome must have a wind-
sock positioned such that it can be visible to aircrafts at least 300m height,
indicating clear direction of surface wind and general wind speed.

334
 Colours should be either white or orange for and a way of illumina-
tion should be provided if intended for use at night.
ii) Landing Location indicator
Shall be located in a conspicuous place if provided at an aerodrome.
A landing “T” is signaled at the signal square to indicate landing direc-
tion.
The “T” should be signaled by color white or orange, and if in-
tended for use at night it should be illuminated or outlined by white lights.
iii) Signaling lamp
Provided at controlled aerodromes at the control tower for signaling
aircrafts in the air or ground as appropriate.
The lamp is designed to produce three lights; Red, green and white
and capable of being manually aimed at specific target (aircraft) to signal
the intended message.
iv) Signal Area
Provided at aerodromes where non-radio traffic are accepted.
Usually a 9m square, visible at all angles at a height of at least 300m
and located in front of the control tower. Display signals to be discussed
later.
Markings
Markings are found on runways, taxiways and aprons.
Markings may either give location or directional information or in-
dicate a mandatory requirement i.e. to stop. The colour of a marking is de-
pendent upon where it is used and the size must be sufficient for it to be
read or understood easily from the flight deck of an aeroplane.
RUNWAY MARKING

335
 The ICAO standard is for runway markings to be white,o utlined in
black background for cospicuity.
Runway markings to assist the pilot include the following;
i) Runway Designation Marking.
Provided at threshold of paved runways, and as far as is practicable
at the threshold of unpaved (grass) runways to designate the specific run-
way.
A runway designation marking should consist of a two digit number
representing a whole number nearest the magnetic bearing (QDM) di-
vided by 10 (094 ÷ 10 = 09.4 rounded down to 09) of the runway when
viewed from the direction of approach. E.g. JKIA has runway designated
06 and reciprocal is runway 24.
Parallel runways shall be supplemented with a letter e.g. 27L, 27R,
and 27C if three parallel runways.
For four parallel runways “09L” “09R” “10L” “10R” (in this case
the QDM for one pair will be increased to differentiate that pair form the
other)

336
 ii) Runway Centre Line Marking; required on a paved runway and
is painted along the centre line of the runway. Consists of a line
of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. The length of a stripe plus a
gap shall be not less than 50m or more than 75m.
The length of each stripe shall be at least equal to the length of the
gap or 30m, whichever is greater.

iii) Threshold Marking

A threshold marking is required to be provided at the thresholds of
paved instrument runways, and of paved non-instrument code 3 and 4
runways and the runway is intended for use by international commercial
air transport.
The stripes (commonly known as ‘piano keys’) of the threshold
marking, should start 6m from the threshold and disposed symmetrically
about the centre line of the runway.
For a runway width of 45m they may be placed either side of the
runway designation number. The stripes should extend laterally to within
3m of the edge of the runway or to a distance of 27m on either side of a
runway centre line. The stripes shall be at least 30m long and approxi-
mately 1.80m between them except as provided.
Where a runway designation marking is placed within a threshold
marking there will be a minimum of three stripes on each side of the cen-
tre line of the runway. Where a runway designation marking is placed
above a threshold marking the stripes shall be continued across the run-
way.
Number of stripes is dependent on runway width as follows;

Runway Threshold
Markings
337
 Runway Number
Width of Stripes
18m 4
23m 6
30m 8
45m 12
60m or 16
more

Displaced Threshold;
Threshold displacement from initial location at runway extremity
must be indicated by a sign designating the new location (for traffic tak-
ing off) by a transverse stripe added to the threshold marking.
Can be permanent or temporary displacement.
Temporary displacement will retain runway designator then arrows
leading to the new temporary Threshold position.
When a runway threshold is permanently displaced, arrows shall be
provided on the portion of the runway before the displaced threshold.

338
 iv) Aiming Point Marking.
Indicates the position of the origin of the visual glide slope (PAPI) and the
ILS GP transmitter and is to be provided at each approach end of code 2,
3 or 4 paved instrument runways.
An ICAO specification aiming point marking consists of two conspicu-
ous.
Aiming point distances from threshold shall be as below except on a run-
way equipped with a visual approach slope indicator system (PAPI or
VASI); the beginning of the marking shall be coincident with the visual
approach slope origin;
Aiming Point Marking Location

339
 Landing Dis- Threshold to
tance Available Beginning of Mark-
(LDA) ing
Less than 800m 150m
800m up to but 250m
not including 1200m
1200m up to but 300m
not including 2400m
2400m or more 400m

NB; For a code 4 runway less than 2400m long, the aiming point is 300m
from the threshold For a normal 3° glide path (300ft/nm), the aircraft on
glide path will cross the threshold at a height of 50ft. For runways 2400m
or more in length have the aiming point 400m from the threshold so large
aircraft crosses the threshold at 67ft thus giving additional gear to con-
crete clearance.
v) Touchdown Zone Markings (TDZ);
Indicate the area of the runway where the aeroplane should be landed.
It is not common practice to land the aeroplane on the threshold marking.
The TDZ markings give the pilot an indication of extent of the useable
touchdown area and if distance coded, the length of the touchdown zone
remaining. Markings are required for code 2, 3 and 4 paved precision ap-
proach runways, and recommended for code 3 or 4 paved non-precision
or non-instrument runways, where additional conspicuity is required.
TDZ markings consist of pairs of rectangular markings symmetrically
placed about the runway centre line with the number of pairs related to the

340
landing distance available. For code 4 runways (1 800m or more in
length) the TDZ markings have 6 pairs.
The pairs of markings have longitudinal spacing of 150 m beginning from
the threshold and is deleted if it coincides with aiming point markings are
within 50m of aiming point.
vi) Runway Side Stripe Marking;
A continuous white marking provided between the thresholds of precision
runways, and paved runways where there is a lack of contrast between the
runway edges and the shoulders or the surrounding terrain.
It is recommended that side stripes are marked on all precision runways
regardless of the contrast with the surrounding ground.

TAXIWAY MARKINGS
Standard Taxiway markings are yellow.
Apron safety lines;
Though not strictly taxiway markings, they enhance safe movement into
and out of the parking stands.
All GSEs are to be positioned behind safety lines.

Taxiway centre line marking;

Shall be provided at code 3-4 airports and recommended for code 1-2
aerodromes and guides the aircraft away from runway centerline.
Runway holding position marking
Provided at entrance to the runway and marked by a mandatory sign.
There can be multiple holding positions to a runway.
Holding position markings can be augmented by stop bars.

341
Can be Type A or Type B;
Type A
IS always the closest holding point to a runway, and is at the intersection
of a taxiway and non-instrument (visual) runways or a take-off runway.
For code 4 runways, it must be at least 75M from the runway.
Type B
Where two or more holding positions are provided for a runway, the clos-
est to the runway is pattern A and subsequent ones will be pattern B.
Intermediate holding positions
Provided where taxiways intersect and are yellow broken lines. It may be
that one taxiway has priority.
Aircraft stand markings
Provided for designated parking positions on a paved apron and on de/anti
icing facilities.
Include stand identification, lead in line, turn bar, turning line, alignment
bar, stop line and lead-out line, as are required by the parking configura-
tion and to complement other parking aids.
A stop line should be located at right angles to the alignment bar, abeam
the left pilot position at the intended point of stop.
Information markings
Mandatory markings
Mandatory instruction marking is to be displayed on the surface of the
taxiway pavement, include;
 Holding point signs (runway designator in white on a red back-
ground)
 No entry signs (white markings on red background)

342
 Pilots are not to pass any mandatory marking unless specifically
cleared by ATC

SIGNS
i)Mandatory instruction signs;
Are white letters or numbers on a red background.
 Runway designation,
 CAT I, II or III holding positions,
 Taxiway holding positions,
 Road holding positions and
 NO entry signs.
No aircraft or vehicle shall proceed beyond mandatory sign marking un-
less authorized by aerodrome tower.
Runway signs-are number signs
Signs are illuminated or be reflective if intended for use at night, and po-
sitioned to make them visible to cockpit crew.
 A runway designation sign at a taxiway/runway intersection shall be
located at least on the left side of a taxiway facing the direction of
approach to the runway. Where practicable a runway designation
sign shall be located on each side of the taxiway.

 A NO ENTRY sign shall be located at the beginning of the area to

which the entrance is prohibited at least on the left hand side of the
taxiway as viewed by the pilot. Where practicable, a NO ENTRY
sign shall be located on each side of the taxiway.

343
  A Category I, II or III holding position sign shall be located on each
side of the holding position marking facing the direction of the ap-
proach to the critical area.

 A taxi-holding position is to be located on the left-side of the taxi-

holding position facing the approach to the runway or ILS/MLS crit-
ical/sensitive area, as appropriate, and where practicable, on each
side of the taxi-holding position

NB: Signs shall be frangible. Those located near a runway or taxiway

shall be sufficiently low to preserve clearance for propellers and the en-
gine pods of jet aircraft.

ii)Information signs;
Can be installed or displayed on the pavement surface across the taxiway
or apron, clearly visible from the cockpit.
Location signs; inscribed in yellow on black background
Direction sign; Black on yellow background e.g. The inscription on a
destination sign identifies the destination with an arrow indicating the di-
rection to proceed.
(Runway 06 straight ahead indicated by 02 and arrow, Taxiway D2 to the
right is indicated by D2 and an arrow)
Markings containing numbers are only reserved for runways and runway
designators.

Taxiway Designators.

344
Taxiways are identified by a designator comprising a letter(s) or a combi-
nation of a letter(s) followed by a number. When designating taxiways,
the use of the letters I, O or X and the use of words such as inner and
outer should be avoided wherever possible to avoid confusion with the
numerals 1, 0 and closed marking. The use of numbers
alone on the manoeuvring area is reserved for the designation of runways.
Aircraft Stand Identification Signs.
The sign should be located so as to be clearly visible from the cockpit of
an aircraft prior to entering the stand. The sign consists of an inscription
in black on a yellow background.
Road-Holding Position Signs.
Provided at all road entrances to runways and located 1.5 m from the edge
of the road (left or right as appropriate to the local traffic regulations) at
the holding position.
Consist of an inscription in white on a red background.
If the sign is intended for night use, it is to be reflective or illuminated.
The inscription on a road-holding position sign is to be in the national lan-
guage, must conform to the local traffic regulations and include a require-
ment to stop; a requirement to obtain an ATC clearance; and the location
designator.

Markers
Definition. A marker is an object which is displayed above ground level
in order to indicate an obstacle or delineate a boundary.
Markers are used where lights are not provided or where lighting (or
ground markings) does not serve the purpose
Their height shall be sufficiently low to preserve clearance for propellers
and for the engine pods of jet aircraft.
345
Unpaved Runway Edge Markers.
Provided to clearly mark the extremities of the runway edge.
Where runway lights are provided, the markers should be incorporated in
the light fixtures. Where there are no lights, markers of flat rectangular or
conical shape should be placed so as to delimit the runway clearly. The
flat rectangular markers should have a minimum size of 1 m by 3 m and
should be placed with their long dimension parallel to the runway centre
line.
conical markers should have a height not exceeding 50 cm.
Taxiway Edge Markers.
Provided where edge lights are not provide.
Markers are required to be reflective blue. Taxiway edge markers shall be
frangible.
Taxiway Centre Line Markers.
Taxiway centre line markers should be provided on a taxiway where edge
lights or taxiway edge markers are not provided. The markers should be
installed at least at the same location as would taxiway centre line lights
had they been used.
Taxiway centre line markers are reflective green. The markers shall be so
designed and fitted to withstand being run over by the wheels of an air-
craft without damage either to the aircraft or to the markers themselves.

Unpaved Taxiway Edge Markers. Where the extent of an unpaved taxi-

way is not clearly indicated by its appearance compared with that of the
surrounding ground, markers should be provided. Where taxiway lights
are provided, the markers should be incorporated in the light fixtures.

346
Where there are no lights, markers of conical shape should be placed so as
to delimit the taxiway clearly.
Stopway Edge Markers. The stopway edge markers shall be sufficiently
different from any runway marker used to ensure that the two types can-
not be confused.
Fixed Distance Markers (distance to go markers); Used to indicate the
length of runway remaining runway as end of the runway approaches.
They consist of white numbers on a black background and are positioned
on the side of the runway at intervals of 1000 ft (300m) with the first
marker positioned 1000 ft (300 m) from the threshold of the landing run-
way.
Parking Stand Markers.
Positioned as markings at the entrance to a parking stand or as a sign posi-
tioned on a building at the end of the stand.
The marker consists of white inscriptions on a blue background.
Visual Docking Guidance Systems (VDGS)
Also referred to as Nose-in Docking Guidance systems or Stand Entry
Guidance systems) provide guidance where pilot interpreted alignment
and stopping information is required for accurate parking, particularly at
air-bridges.
ICAO states that aircraft stand manoeuvring guidance lights should be
provided to facilitate the positioning of an aircraft on an aircraft stand on
a paved apron, or on a de/anti-icing facility intended for use in poor visi-
bility conditions, unless adequate guidance is provided by other means.

347
 AERODROME LIGHTING

Chapter
i. Aerodrome Lights
ii. Approach Lighting Systems
iii. Runway Lighting
iv. Taxiway Lighting

AERODROME LIGHTING
Introduction.
Each light or lighting system has a purpose and most are to do with air-
craft safety.
ICAO has laid down the standards and recommended practices in Annex
14.
For aircraft safety, all non-aeronautical light in the vicinity of an aero-
drome which might bring confusion to aircraft is to be extinguished,
screened or otherwise modified so as to eliminate the source of danger.
Elevated lights near aircraft movement areas are frangible or collapsible
and sufficiently low for propeller and jet engine clearance.
348
Airport lights are to be available and can be turned off as long as they can
be turned on within one hour.
Aerodromes will have alternative power source to cope with failures, and
where back up power is unavailable primary runway should have emer-
gency light.
Aerodrome lights can be;
 Fixed
 Flashing
 Variable intensity
 Unidirectional
 Omnidirectional
 White, green, red, blue or yellow.
The following lights have intensity control mechanism to enable light in-
tensity meet prevailing conditions e.g. fog
 approach lighting system
 runway edge lights
 runway threshold lights
 runway end lights
 runway centre line lights;
 runway touchdown zone lights
 taxiway centre line lights
Aeronautical Beacon
Located on top of control tower or any other elevated position in the aero-
drome.

349
Used at aerodromes intended for night operations and cannot be easily
identified from the sky by any other means.
Flashes white or white and green at land aerodromes and white and yel-
low at water aerodromes.
Identification beacon
Land aerodromes; Flashes green
Water aerodromes; Flashes yellow
Military aerodromes; flashes red.

RUNWAY LIGHTING
Approach lights (white)
A pattern of white lights placed before the threshold on the approach path
and guides the aircraft to TDZ or aiming point in poor visibility or at
night.
Can vary from simple centerline extension and cross bar lights to more
complex patterns at CAT III approaches.
Simple Approach lighting system
Consist of simple lights on extended runway centerline not less than
420M and a cross bar at at 300M from Threshold.
Used at non-instrument and non-precision runways.

350
Precision Approach CAT I
Centerline extended a distance of 900M from runway threshold and 5
cross bars 150m apart making 5 segments.

351
ICAO precision approach CAT I
Has extended centre line of 900m from threshold and one cross bar at 300
m from threshold.
Centre line is augmented by strobe/flashing lights that ripple towards the
threshold from start line.

352
Precision approach CAT II/III
More complex pattern due to reduced ceiling and visibility minimums, to
enable pilot achieve visual criteria for landing.
System is 900m from threshold and enhanced by supplementary approach
lights on both sides of the extended centerline.

353
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPIs)
Consists of four lights showing either red or white to guide the pilot on
the glide path angle (usually 3°)
PAPIs can give a pilot 5 positions on the glide path;
i) All white; Well above glide path
ii) 3 outer white and 1 inner red; slightly above
iii) 2 outer white and 2 red (inner) ; on glide path
iv) 1 outer white ,3 innner red lights; slightly below GP
v) All red lights; Well below GP

354
VASI. Standard Visual Approach Slope Indicator. This consists of 2
sets of 3 lights positioned as wing bars.
Each set of lights is designed so that the lights appear as either white or
red, depending on the angle at which the lights are viewed. When the pilot
is approaching the lights on the glide slope the first set of lights appears
white and the second set appears red.
When both sets appear white, the pilot is flying too high, and when both
appear red the approach is too low.

355
T-VASIS. T-Visual Approach Slope Indicating System.
A T-VASIS incorporates a horizontal bar in addition to the approach an-
gle lights (forming a T like pattern). When on the correct approach path to
a T-VASIS, only the horizontal bar is visible.
A (Abridged)T-VASIS are only located to the left of the runway.

RUNWAY LIGHTING
Runway edge lights (white)
Provided at AD intended for night operations or precision approach run-
ways used day and night.
356
Runway edge lights are fixed, variable intensity white showing in the di-
rection from which approaches are made.
Provided at runway edge full length equally spaced at 50m.
Caution zone at the last 600m or 1/3 of the runway designated by yellow
edge lights.
Runway threshold lights (green)
Runway threshold lights are provided for a runway equipped with runway
edge lights.
Are fixed, unidirectional lights showing green in the direction of approach
to the runway.

Runway end lights (Red)

Runway end lights are fixed, unidirectional lights showing red in the di-
rection of the runway.
Provided at aerodromes with runway edge lights.
Runway centre line lights;
Provided on Cat II/III precision approach runways.
They should be provided on a Cat I precision approach runway where the
width between the runway edge lights is greater than 50m
Runway centre line lights are fixed, variable intensity white.
Over the last 900m from the runway end, the lights show alternate red
and white from 900m to 300m from the runway end; and all red from
300m to the runway end.
Runway touchdown zone lights
Provided in the touchdown zone of a Cat II/III precision approach run-
way.

357
Extend from the threshold for a distance of 900m where the runway is
1800m or more in length.
Stopway lights (red)
Shall be fixed, variable intensity, unidirectional lights showing red in the
direction of the runway.

TAXIWAY LIGHTS
Consists of centreline lights, edge lights, guard lights, and stop lights at
holding points.
Twy Edge lights (blue)
Are fixed, variable intensity omni-directional blue.
Taxiway centre line lights (green)
Are fixed, variable intensity showing green such that the light is visible
only from the aeroplanes on or in the vicinity of the taxiway. Within the
ILS/MLS critical/sensitive area, the centre line lights are alternating green
and yellow.
358
Stop bars (red)
Showing in the direction of taxiing aircraft and when illuminated require
the aircraft to stop and not proceed until cleared by ATC.
Provided at a taxiway intersection or taxi-holding position when it is de-
sired to supplement markings with lights.
Stop bar shall be provided at every taxi-holding position serving a run-
way.

Runway guard lights (yellow)

Runway guard lights are two pairs of alternately flashing yellow lights.
Each pair located next to the taxiway indicating close proximity to the
runway. Where a taxiway is wider than usual an alternate variation may
be installed, where additional pairs of alternately flashing yellow lights
are installed into the taxiway across the full width.
Configuration A; lights positioned at right and left sides of the taxiway
Configuration B; lights positioned across pavement surface.

359
360
 OBSTACLE MARKING AND AERODROME SER-
VICES
Chapter
i. Introduction
ii. Visual Aids for Denoting Obstacles
iii. Visual Aids for Denoting Restricted Use Areas .
iv. Emergency and Other Services
v. Other Aerodrome Services

Introduction
Markings or lighting near aerodrome indicates presence of obstacles and
hence reduces hazards.
Responsibility of marking/lighting is determined between airport author-
ity and owner of such structures.
Obstacle Identification Surface (OIS)
Aerodrome obstacles are those within 15KM radius of the ARP.
Inner surface of OIS extend 3000m from runway strip and obstacle eleva-
tion is limited at height of 45m within this zone.
Beyond 3000m of the runway strip to 15km, Obstacle elevation is limited
at 150m.

Visual denotation

361
Fixed obstacles should be marked and, if the aerodrome is used at night,
obstacles shall be lit.
The marking may be omitted when the obstacle is lit by high intensity ob-
stacle lights by day.
Obstacle on the Movement Area.
Vehicles and other mobile objects excluding aircraft on the movement
area of an aerodrome are obstacles.
Vehicles and aerodromes used at night or in conditions of low visibility,
lit.
Aircraft servicing equipment and vehicles used only on aprons may be ex-
empt.
Elevated aeronautical ground lights within the movement area shall be
marked so as to be conspicuous by day.
Vehicles and Mobile Objects.
A single conspicuous colour;
Red or yellowish green for emergency vehicles
Yellow for service vehicles.
Aerodrome ambulances, police/security, RFF vehicles and appliances
should also carry blue flashing lights for use whilst responding to an
emergency.
Aerodrome operators are responsible for ensuring that vehicles on the
movement area of an aerodrome e.g. maintenance vehicles, ATC vehicles,
‘Follow Me’ vehicles, aircraft towing vehicles, refuellers etc are lit and/or
marked as required.
Vehicle on the movement area, shall have beacon lights switched on.
Vehicle obstacle lights are low intensity flashing yellow fitted at the high-
est point of the vehicle.
362
Trailers and objects with limited mobility (air bridges etc.) are to be lit
with low intensity steady red lights at the highest point.

Civilian fire/rescue vehicles vehicles not normally based on the aero-

drome when called upon for assistance, are will show flashing blue lights
and escorted by vehicles with radio communication with ATC.
Low intensity lighting (steady)
Steady/fixed red low intensity is used on fixed objects but sufficient to en-
sure conspicuity, eg air bridges and slow moving objects.

Medium intensity lights (flashing)

Flashes red at rate of 20-40 per minute when isolated but flashes white
when collocated with high intensity lights.
Used when obstacle exceeds 45m height of the surrounding.
Objects located beyond 15 km radius of the aerodrome considered obsta-
cles to aircraft if they exceed 150 m in height and are usually lit by steady
red lights at night and high intensity flashing white lights by day.
Prominent objects of less height may be regarded as obstacles if they are
on or adjacent to routes regularly used by helicopters.
Objects lit by low or medium intensity lighting and top exceeding 45 m
high above the surrounding shall have additional lightings at intermediate
levels.
High intensity lights (flashing)
Flashes white at rate of 40-60 per minute.
Indicates objects protruding above surrounding exceeds 150m and such
objects are essential for recognition by day.
Lighting of Aircraft.
363
It should be noted that aircraft parked on the manoeuvring area are obsta-
cles and should be lit either by the aircraft navigation lights or anti-colli-
sion that determines the extremities of the aeroplane.

Closed Runways/Taxiways
Closed marking is provided for permanently or temporarily closed Rwys
or Twys or portions closed.
White cross markings indicated closed rwys and placed at the ends of
each runway and additionally at distances not more than 300m apart.
Yellow cross markings used at each end or portion of a closed twy.
No lighting should be operated for closed runways or taxiways.

EMERGENCY AND OTHER SERVICES

Rescue and Fire Fighting (RFF).
The principal objective of a RFF service is to save lives
The assumption at all times is the possibility of, and need for, extinguish-
ing a fire which may occur either immediately following an aircraft acci-
dent or incident, or at any time during rescue operations.
Emphasis is on;
 The training received by concerned personnel
 The effectiveness of the equipment and
 The speed with which personnel and equipment designated for
rescue and fire fighting

364
Requirements to combat building and fuel farm fires, or to deal with
foaming of runways, are not taken into account.
Public or private organisations, suitably located and equipped, may be
designated to provide the RFF service.
(In Kenya ,G4S,NYS,KDF, and other similar private organizations may
be called to participate)
RFF station is intended to be located within the aerodrome but provided
the response time can be met, the fire station need not be within the aero-
drome confines

Level of protection to be provided.

RFF level of protection provided at an aerodrome shall be appropriate to
the aerodrome category.
Aerodrome category shall be based on the longest aeroplanes normally
using the aerodrome and fuselage width.
Below is a table of aerodrome RFF categories.
If, after selecting the category appropriate to the longest aeroplane’s over-
all length that aeroplanes fuselage width is greater than the maximum
width for that category then one category higher is used.
The highest category of aircraft using the aerodrome shall be assumed at
all times regardless or reduced activity

Category Aeroplane Maximum

Overall Fuselage
Length Width
1 0m up to but 2m
not including

365
 9m
2 9m up to but 2m
not including
12m
3 12m up to but 3m
not including
18m
4 18m up to but 4m
not including
24m
5 24m up to but 4m
not including
28m
6 28m up to but 5m
not including
39m
7 39m up to but 5m
not including
49m
8 49m up to but 7m
not including
61m
9 61m up to but 7m
not including
76m
10 76m up to but 8m
not including
90m

366
Response time.

RFF response time is 2 minutes and not exceeding 3 minutes to the end of
the runway and any othet part of movement area.
Response time is considered to be the time between the initial call to the
RFF service, and the time when the first responding vehicle is in position
to apply foam at a rate of at least 50% of the discharge rate specified.

All RFF vehicles should normally be housed in a fire station.

Satellite fire stations should be provided whenever the response time can-
not be achieved from a single fire station. The fire station should be lo-
cated so that the access for RFF vehicles into the runway area is direct
and clear, requiring a minimum number of turns
Emergency access roads.
Emergency access roads should be provided on an aerodrome where ter-
rain conditions permit their construction, so as to facilitate achieving min-
imum response times.
Focus should be provision of ready access to approach areas up to 1,000m
from the threshold, or at least within the aerodrome boundary.
Where a fence is provided, the need for convenient access to outside areas
should be taken into account. Aerodrome service roads may serve as
emergency access roads when they are suitable located and constructed.

Emergency Vehicles. An emergency vehicle responding to an emer-

gency shall be given priority over all other surface movement traffic.
A vehicle operating on an apron shall:
367
  Give way to an emergency vehicle; an aircraft taxiing, about to taxi,
or being pushed or towed, and
 Give way to other vehicles in accordance with local regulations.
Ground Servicing to Aircraft.
Fire extinguishing equipment suitable for at least initial intervention in the
event of a fuel fire and personnel trained in its use shall be readily avail-
able during the ground servicing of an aircraft, and there shall be a means
of quickly summoning the rescue and fire fighting service in the event of
a fire or major fuel spill. When aircraft refuelling operations take place
while passengers are embarking, on board or disembarking,
ground equipment shall be positioned so as to allow:
• The use of sufficient number of exits for expeditious evacuation, and
• A ready escape route from each of the exits to be used in an emergency.

368
 FACILITATION
(Annex 9)
I. Aim
II. Entry and Departure of Aircraft
Contracting States are required “to adopt all practicable measures,
through the issuance of special regulations or otherwise, to facilitate and
expedite navigation by aircraft between the territories of Contracting
States, and to prevent unnecessary delays to aircraft, crews, passengers,
and cargo, especially in the administration of the laws relating to immi-
gration, quarantine, customs and clearance.
Documentation required by states for entry/departure of aircrafts, crew
and passengers should ensure rapid movement of aircraft and the philoso-
phy of expediting the movement of aircraft. Old documents are now out
of date and where still necessary, have been replaced by electronic data
systems and digital transmission systems.
Entry and exit of aircraft
Contracting States shall adopt procedures for the clearance of aircraft, in-
cluding those normally applied for aviation security purposes, as well as
those appropriate for narcotics control, which will be applied and carried
out in such a manner as to retain the advantage of speed inherent in air
transport.
General Declaration.
Is internationally recognized form containing the aircraft details; Registra-
tion Mark and nationality, Flight number, date and place of departure, and
destination.
It also contains flight routing details, number of crew boarding and disem-
barking at the various locations. It contains a health declaration and a cer-
tificate signed by the PIC or an authorised agent.
369
Contracting States will not require the presentation of the General Decla-
ration when this information can be readily obtained in an alternative and
acceptable manner.
General Declaration shall be accepted when signed by either the autho-
rised agent or the pilot-in-command, but may, when necessary, require the
health section signed by a crew member when the General Declaration it-
self has been signed by a non-crew member.
Information on total number of crew on board shall be presented in re-
spective section in the general declaration.
Manifests
Passenger and cargo manifest
Internationally recognised documents that detail names of passengers and
nature of goods embarked on the aeroplane.
Passengers travelling to destinations where visa is not required of them
are not required to provide any other document apart from a valid pass-
port.
Cargo Manifest contains are details of: The Airway Bill number, the num-
ber of packages and the nature of the goods.
Attestation on the Cargo Manifest can be provided by means of a rubber
stamp by PIC or Authorized agent.
Passenger Baggage.
States shall not require the presentation of a list of the number of pieces of
accompanied baggage.
However operators carrying baggage shall, upon request from the authori-
ties, provide them with any available information where it has not other-
wise been provided for customs clearance purposes by the passenger.

370
Unaccompanied Baggage. Unaccompanied baggage is cleared under
procedures applicable to cargo but in accordance with a simplified proce-
dure.
Stores List. This details the goods (whether or not sold) intended for the
consumption of passengers and crew as well as goods necessary for the
operation and maintenance of the aircraft, including fuel and lubricants
Oral Declaration.
An oral declaration is acceptable concerning the content of crew and pas-
senger baggage. A random inspection of baggage is acceptable.
Completion of Documents.
Documents may be typewritten, produced in electronic data form or hand-
written in ink or indelible pencil, providing it is in a legible form.
Not more than 3 copies of the General Declaration, 3 copies of the Cargo
Manifest and 3 copies of the General Stores List are required.

Crew member certificate (CMC)

Is an identification document/card developed and issued by contracting
states to facilitate immigration facilitation.
Contracting States shall provide facilities which will enable crew mem-
bers of their airlines to obtain without delay and without charge, crew
members’ certificates (CMC), valid for the crew members’ term of em-
ployment.
Contracting State shall accept a crew member certificate for temporary
admission to the State and shall not require a passport or visa if airline
crew are required to lay over at the airport or adjacent city and depart on
the same aircraft or next regular scheduled flight.
Contracting states are required to waive visa requirements for crew arriv-
ing on international flight duty and present CMC.
371
A CMC does not contain any reference on crew professional qualification
contained in their licenses.
Arriving crew are given fast track immigration channels upon arriving on
international flight.
Contracting States shall ensure that when inspection of crew members and
their baggage is required on arrival or departure, such inspection shall be
carried out as expeditiously as possible.
Non-scheduled Operations.
Contracting States shall extend privileges of temporary admission to flight
crew and cabin attendants of an aircraft engaged non-scheduled in com-
mercial air services, subject to the requirement that such flight crew and
cabin attendants must depart on the aircraft on its first flight out of the ter-
ritory of the State.
Transit Passengers. Passengers may remain in a transit lounge for a
maximum of 2 days.

Freedom from Duty.

An aircraft which is not engaged in international scheduled air services
and which is making a flight to or through any designated airport in a
Contracting State, and is admitted temporarily free of duty, shall be al-
lowed to remain in that State for a period of time as established by the
State.
Responsibility of the Operator
The responsibility of the Operator for custody and care of passengers and
crew members shall terminate from the moment such persons have been
admitted into that State.

372
 SEARCH AND RESCUE

Topics
i. Definitions and Abbreviations
ii. Establishment and Provision of SAR Service .
iii. Co-operation between States
iv. Operating Procedures

373
Definitions;

Alert phase A situation wherein apprehension

exists as to the safety of an aircraft
and its occupants.

Distress phase A situation wherein there is a rea-

sonable certainty that an aircraft
and its occupants are threatened by
grave and imminent danger or re-
quire immediate assistance.

Emergency phase A generic term meaning, as the

case may be, uncertainty phase,
alert phase or distress phase.

Operator A person, organisation or enter-

prise engaged in or offering to en-
gage in an aircraft operation.

Pilot-in-command (PIC) The pilot responsible for the opera-

tion and safety of the aircraft dur-
ing flight time.

Rescue co-ordination A unit responsible for promoting

centre (RCC) efficient organisation of SAR ser-
374
 vice and for co-ordinating the con-
duct of SAR operations within a
SAR region.

State of Registry The State on whose register the

aircraft is entered.

Uncertainty phase A situation wherein uncertainty ex-

ists as to the safety of an aircraft
and its occupants

Contracting states have a responsibility of establishing a 24 hour SAR ser-

vices within their territories.
SAR services shall be provided to aircrafts in distress and survivors air-
craft accidents irrespective of their nationalities.
A Flight information region (FIR) shall be divided into SAR regions, each
region shall have a RCC to improve SAR efficiency.
In conducting SAR, contracting staes are required to co-operate with other
neighbouring states including establishment of SAR procedures to facili-
tate coordination.
Contracting State shall permit immediate entry into its territory rescue
units of other States for the purpose of searching for the site of aircraft in-
cidents and rescuing survivors of such accidents.
The authorities of a Contracting State which wishes its rescue units to en-
ter the territory of another Contracting State for SAR purposes shall trans-
mit a request, giving full details of the projected mission and the need for
it, to the RCC of the State concerned or to such other authority as has
been designated by that State.

375
The authorities of Contracting States shall:
 Immediately acknowledge the receipt of such a request, and
 As soon as possible indicate the conditions, if any, under which the
projected mission may be undertaken;

Contracting states shall have agreements with its neighboring states that
should also provide expediting entry of SAR units with the least possible
formalities.
Each Contracting State should authorise its rescue co-ordination centres
to:
 request from other rescue co-ordination centres such as-
sistance, including aircraft, vessels, personnel or equip-
ment, as may be needed;
 grant any necessary permission for the entry of such air-
craft, vessels, personnel or equipment into its territory;
and
 make the necessary arrangements with the appropriate
customs, immigration or other authorities with a view to
expediting such entry.
Each Contracting State should authorise its rescue co-ordination centres to
provide, when requested, assistance to other rescue co- ordination centres,
including assistance in the form of aircraft, vessels, personnel or equip-
ment.
Aircraft in emergency
Contracting States should encourage any person observing an accident or
having reason to believe that an aircraft is in an emergency to give imme-
diately all available information to the appropriate alerting post or to the
RCC

376
 Rescue co-ordination centres shall, immediately upon receipt of informa-
tion concerning aircraft in emergency, evaluate such information and de-
termine the extent of the operation required. When information concern-
ing aircraft in emergency is received from other sources than air traffic
service units, the rescue co-ordination centre shall determine to which
emergency phase the situation corresponds and shall apply the procedures
applicable to that phase.

First a/c on scene

If the first aircraft to reach the scene of an accident is not a SAR aircraft,
PIC of that aircraft shall take charge of on-scene activities of all other air-
craft subsequently arriving until the first dedicated SAR aircraft arrives.
If, in the meantime, the aircraft is unable to establish communication
with the appropriate rescue co-ordination centre or air traffic services unit,
it shall, by mutual agreement, hand over to an aircraft capable of estab-
lishing and maintaining such communications until the arrival of the first
SAR aircraft.
Direction of Surface Craft.
An aircraft may direct a ship or surface craft to scene whre a ship or sur-
face craft is in distress and shall do so by transmitting precise instructions
by any means at its disposal. All ships at sea maintain a radio watch on
the HF Maritime Distress and calling frequency 2 182 Khz (2.182 Mhz).
In coastal waters, all ships maintains a watch on VHF FM Chan 16.
If no radio communication can be established the aircraft shall use the ap-
propriate signal to attract the attention of the vessel.
Communication with Survivors.
When it is necessary for an aircraft to convey information to survivors or
surface rescue units, and two way communication is not available, it shall,
377
if practicable, drop communication equipment that would enable direct
contact to be established, or convey the information by dropping the mes-
sage.
Signals with Surface Aircraft
The following manoeuvres by an aircraft mean that the aircraft wishes to
direct a surface craft towards a distress scene (repetition of such manoeu-
vres has the same meaning):
 Circling the surface craft at least once
 Crossing the projected course of the surface craft close ahead at low
altitude and:
• Rocking the wings; or
• Opening and closing the throttle; or
• Changing the propeller pitch.
 Heading in the direction in which the surface craft is to be directed.
The same maneuvers are displayed also to indicate no more assistance is
needed.

SAR signals;
Ground-Air Visual Signal Code;
Can be displayed by survivors or search teams to communicate messages.
i) Signal Code for Use by Survivors (ground/air by survivors)
The following signals may be set out in some form (marked in snow, oil
on sand, burned grass in open areas) to ask for help.

378
Ground/Air signals by SAR teams

Air to Ground Signals

To indicate that the ground signals have been understood (lack of the sig-
nal indicates that the ground signal is not understood).
During the day rock the aircraft’s wings; during hours of darkness, flash-
ing on and off twice the aircraft’s landing lights or, if not so equipped, by
switching on and off twice its navigation lights.
Marking of Droppable Supplies.

379
Packages of supplies to survivors may be dropped from aircraft and con-
tents indicated as follows
a. Red Medical supplies and first aid equipment.
b. Blue Food and water.
c. Yellow Blankets and protective clothing.
d. Black Miscellaneous equipment such as stoves, axes, cooking
utensils, etc.
Emergency Frequencies. Below are international radio frequencies used
for emergency, distress or relaying of safety messages;
• VHF 121.500 MHz (Aeronautical mobile emergency VHF)
• UHF 243.000 MHz (Aeronautical mobile emergency UHF)
• HF 2182 kHz (International maritime distress and calling HF)
• SARSAT 406 MHz (SAR beacon frequency (also radiates on 121.5))

380
 SECURITY
Annex 17
Chapter
i. Introduction
ii. Objectives
iii. Organization
iv. Preventative Security Measures
v. Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference
vi. Further Security Information

Introduction
The annex to the Chicago which contains the SARPs for Security is Annex
17. Information applicable to the implementation of security policy is
also contained in other ICAO publications
Definitions.
Airside; The movement area of an airport, adjacent terrain and buildings
or portions thereof, access to which is controlled (used to be called ‘the
aeronautical part’).
381
Screening; The application of technical or other means which are in-
tended to identify and/or detect weapons, explosives or other dangerous
devices, articles or substances which may be used to commit an act of
unlawful interference.
Security; Safeguarding civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference.
This objective is achieved by a combination of measures and human and
material resources.
Security; restricted area Those areas of the airside of an airport which
are identified as priority risk areas where in addition to access control,
other security controls are applied. Such areas will normally include all
commercial aviation passenger departure areas between the screening
point and the aircraft, the ramp, baggage make-up areas, including those
where aircraft are being brought into service and screened baggage and
cargo are present, cargo sheds, mail centres, airside catering and aircraft
cleaning premises.
Unidentified baggage; Baggage at an airport with or without a baggage
tag, which is not picked up by or identified with a passenger. Some air-
lines refer to it as Red bag.

Objectives
The aim of aviation security shall be to safeguard civil aviation operations
against acts of unlawful interference.
Primary objective od each contracting state shall be the safety of passen-
gers, crew, ground personnel and the general public in all matters re-
lated to safeguarding against acts of unlawful interference with civil avia-
tion.
Organization.

382
In order to achieve this objective, each Contracting State shall establish
an organization, develop plans and implement procedures, which to-
gether provide a standardized level of security for the operation of inter-
national flights in normal operating conditions and which are capable of
rapid expansion to meet any increased security threat.
The security measures and procedures established should cause a mini-
mum of interference with, or delay to the activities of, international civil
aviation.
The annex requires all Contracting States to:
 Establish national civil aviation security programmes
 designate an authority responsible for security
 keep the level of threat under constant review
 co-ordinate activities with other relevant national agencies and li-
aise with the corresponding
authority in other States.
The programme may be extended to cover domestic air service.
A copy of the programme is to be given to ICAO.
Airport Design.
Requirements necessary for the implementation of security measures
are integrated into the design and construction of new facilities alter-
ations to existing facilities at airports.
International Co-operation.
Each Contracting State is required to co-operate with other States in or-
der to adapt their respective national civil aviation security programmes
as necessary;

383
  to make available to other States on request a written version of
the appropriate parts of its national civil aviation security pro-
gramme;
 to include in its bilateral agreements on air transport, a clause re-
lated to aviation security;
 to ensure that requests from other States for special security mea-
sures in respect of a specific flight or specified flights by operators
of such other States, as far as may be practicable, are
met;
This is to ensure cooperation with each other in the development and ex-
change of information concerning training programmes; and to co-oper-
ate with other States in the field of research and development of new se-
curity equipment which will better satisfy international civil aviation se-
curity objectives.
Preventative Security Measures
Prohibited Objects. States shall establish and implement measures to
prevent weapons, explosives or any other dangerous devices which may
be used to commit an act of unlawful interference, the carriage or bear-
ing of which is not authorized, from being introduced, by any means
whatsoever, on board an aircraft engaged in international civil aviation.
Measures must be put in place with, special attention to the threat
posed by explosive devices concealed in, or using electric, electronic or
battery operated items carried as hand baggage and/or in checked bag-
gage.
Protection of Cargo, Mail and Other Goods.
States must protect cargo, mail and other goods by applying the below
security measures;:
a. Screening prior to being loaded onto the aircraft
384
 b. Approval and security screening of Agents or known consignors
c. Access Control (entry of only authorized personnel)

Law Enforcement Officers.

Carriage of weapons on board aircraft, by law enforcement officers and
other authorized persons, acting in the performance of their duties, re-
quires special authorization in accordance with the laws of the States in-
volved.
Pilot-in-command is notified as to the number of armed persons and
their seat location.
All en route States as well as the departure and destination must as well
be notified and
States and the aerodrome authorities, must approve the transit of armed
security personnel.
Passengers and Their Baggage.
States must ensure measures for adequate measures exist to control the
transfer and transit of passengers and their cabin baggage to prevent
unauthorized articles being taken on board aircraft engaged in interna-
tional civil aviation.
States are also to ensure that there is no possibility of mixing or contact
between passengers subjected to security control and other persons not
subjected to security control, after the security screening at airports has
been applied.
If mixing does occur,the passengers and their baggage will be re-
screened before boarding an aeroplane.
Deportees and Persons in Custody.

385
Contracting states are required to establish procedures to ensure that
the operator and the PIC are informed when deportees and persons in
custody are travelling so that the appropriate security measures can be
enforced.
Persons in custody are embarked first and before any passengers. Opera-
tors are to ensure that procedures are detailed for the carriage of depor-
tees and persons in custody.
This includes ‘potentially disruptive’ passengers who are obliged to travel
because they have been subject of judicial or administrative proceedings.
Checked Baggage and Other Goods.
States are required to establish measures to ensure that operators do
not transport the baggage of passengers who are not on board the aero-
plane unless the baggage is stowed in separate compartments from the
passengers, and it has been the subject of other security control mea-
sures.
This is often referred to as red bag in the airline environment.
Restricted area access;
States are required to establish procedures and identification systems to
prevent unauthorized access by persons or vehicles to the airside of an
aerodrome serving international civil aviation, and other areas of impor-
tance to the security of the aerodrome.
Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference
Safety of Passengers and Crew.
Each Contracting State shall take adequate measures for the safety of
passengers and crew of an aircraft which is subjected to an act of unlaw-
ful interference until their journey can be continued.
ATC service;
386
Each Contracting State responsible for providing air traffic services for an
aircraft which is the subject of an act of unlawful interference shall col-
lect all pertinent information on the flight of that aircraft and transmit
that information to all other State responsible for the Air Traffic Services
units concerned, including those at the airport of known or presumed
destination, so that timely and appropriate safeguarding action may be
taken enroute and at the aircraft’s known, likely or possible destination.
The operator and other concerned departments must be notified as soon
as possible.
Assistance to aircraft;
Each Contracting State shall provide such assistance to an aircraft sub-
jected to an act of unlawful seizure, including the provision of navigation
aids, air traffic services and permission to land as may be necessitated by
the circumstances.
ATS units shall also:
• Transmit, and continue to transmit, information pertinent to the safe
conduct of the flight, without expecting a reply from the aircraft.
• Monitor and plot the progress of the flight with the means available,
and co-ordinate transfer of control with adjacent ATS units without re-
quiring transmissions or other responses from the aircraft, unless com-
munication with the aircraft remains normal.
• Inform, and continue to keep informed, appropriate ATS units, includ-
ing those in adjacent flight information regions, which may be concerned
with the progress of the flight.
Notify:
 The operator or his designated representative.
 The appropriate RCC in accordance with appropriate alerting proce-
dures.
387
  The designated security authority. It is assumed that the designated
security authority and/or the operator will in turn notify other par-
ties concerned in accordance with pre-established procedures.
Relay appropriate messages, relating to the circumstances associated
with the unlawful interference, between the aircraft and designated au-
thorities.
Detention on the Ground. Each Contracting State shall take measures, as
it may find practicable, to ensure that an aircraft subjected to an act of
unlawful seizure which has landed
in its territory is detained on the ground unless its departure is necessi-
tated by the overriding duty to protect human life, recognizing the im-
portance of consultations, wherever practicable, between the State
where that aircraft has landed and the State of the operator of the air-
craft, and notification by the State where the aircraft has landed to the
States of assumed or stated destination.
The State is required to make provision for the comfort and safety of the
crew and passengers until they can continue their journey
Case; Air India hijack

Extracts from Annex 2 - Rules of the Air

• Unlawful interference. An aircraft which is being subjected to unlawful
interference shall endeavour to notify the appropriate ATS unit of this
fact, any significant circumstances associated therewith and any devia-
tion from the current flight plan necessitated by the circumstances, in or-
der to enable the ATS unit to give priority to the aircraft and to minimize
conflict with other aircraft.
• Action by PIC.

388
Unless considerations aboard the aircraft dictate otherwise, the pilot-in
command should attempt to continue flying on the assigned track and at
the assigned cruising level at least until able to notify an ATS unit or
within radar coverage.
• Departure from assigned track.
When an aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful interference must de-
part from its assigned track or its assigned cruising level without being
able to make radiotelephony contact with ATS, the pilot-in-command
should, wherever possible:
 Attempt to broadcast warnings on the VHF emergency frequency
and other appropriate frequencies, unless considerations aboard
the aircraft dictate otherwise. Otherequipment such as on-board
transponders, data links, etc should also be used when it is advan-
tageous to do so and circumstances permit; and
 Proceed in accordance with applicable special procedures for in-
flight contingencies, where such procedures have been established
and promulgated.
 If no applicable regional procedures have been established, pro-
ceed at a level which differs from the cruising levels normally used
for IFR flight in the area by 300 m (1000 ft) if above FL290 or by 150
m (500 ft) if below FL290.
• Security of the flight crew compartment. In all aeroplanes which are
equipped with a flight crew compartment door, this door shall be capa-
ble of being locked. It shall be lockable from within the compartment
only.
• Aeroplane search procedure checklist. An operator shall ensure that
there is on board a checklist of the procedures to be followed in search-
ing for a bomb in case of suspected sabotage. The checklist shall be sup-
ported by guidance on the course of action to be taken should a bomb or
389
suspicious object be found and information on the least-risk bomb loca-
tion specific to the aeroplane.
• Reporting acts of unlawful interference.
Following an act of unlawful interference the pilot-in-command shall
submit, without delay, a report of such an act to the designated local au-
thority.
• Least-risk bomb location. Specialized means of attenuating and direct-
ing the blast should be provided for use at the least-risk bomb location.
• Carriage of weapons.
Where an operator accepts the carriage of weapons removed from pas-
sengers, the aeroplane should have provision for stowing such weapons
in a place so that they are inaccessible to any person during flight time.
Extracts from Annex 9 - Facilitation
 Transit and transfer of passengers and crew.
Facilities and measures should transiting crew and passengers in
direct transit on the same aircraft, or transferring to other flights,
may remain temporarily without being subject to inspection for-
malities, except for aviation security measures, or in special circum-
stances
 Inadmissible persons.
Where a person is returned to the operator for repatriation to the
State of Departure or any other State to which the person is admis-
sible, if that person is inadmissible to the State of Destination,
nothing will prevent the operator from seeking compensation from
the passenger in the State of Departure.
 Deportees. Contracting States removing deportees from their terri-
tory are to assume all obligations and costs associated with the re-
moval.
390
  Unruly passengers. Contracting States should ensure that airport
and aircraft operators and public authorities provide training to the
relevant personnel concerning the identification and management
of unruly passengers including recognition and defusing of escalat-
ing situations, and crisis containment.
 Priority. An aircraft known or believed to be in a state of emer-
gency, including being subjected to unlawful interference shall be
given priority over other aircraft.
 Unlawful interference. Air traffic services personnel shall be pre-
pared to recognize any indication of the occurrence of unlawful in-
terference with an aircraft.
 Isolated aircraft parking position. An isolated aircraft parking posi-
tion is to be designated for the parking of aircraft subject to unlaw-
ful interference.
The position shall be never less then 100 m from other parking posi-
tions. It is not to be over underground utilities such as gas and avia-
tion fuel and where feasible electrical or communications cables.
Taxi Instruction Considerations.
ATC must abide by the following considerations:
a. The aircraft is to remain as far away from other aircraft and installa-
tions as possible
b. The taxi route must be specified to the pilot
c. The taxi route shall be selected with a view to minimizing any security
risks to the public, other aircraft and installations

391
AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Annex 13
392
 Chapter
I. Introduction
II. Objective of Investigation
III. Investigations
IV. Serious Incidents

Accident. Is an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft

which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with
the intention of flight until such time as all such persons have disem-
barked, in which:
 A person is fatally or seriously injured as a result of;
 being in the aircraft,
 direct contact with any part of the aircraft, including parts
which have become detached from the aircraft, or
 direct exposure to jet blast.
Except when the injuries are from natural causes, self inflicted or in-
flicted by other persons, or when the injuries are to a stowaway hiding
outside the areas normally available to the passengers and crew, or
 The aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which: Adversely
affects the structural strength, performance or flight characteristics
of the aircraft, and would normally require major repair or replace-
ment of the affected component.

Except for engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited to the
engine, its cowlings or accessories; or for damage limited to propellers,
wing tips, antennas, tyres, brakes, fairings, small dents or puncture holes
in the aircraft skin, or
393
  The aircraft is missing or completely inaccessible. Provided that, an
aircraft shall be deemed to be missing when the official search has
been terminated and the wreckage has not been located.

Incident; An occurrence, other than an accident, associated

with the operation of an aircraft which affects or could affect
the safety of operation ,

Reportable accidents/incidents (to the authority)

All accidents are reportable.
Reportable incidents;
 Near collisions requiring an avoidance manoeuvre to avoid a colli-
sion or an unsafe situation or when an avoidance action would
have been appropriate.
 Controlled flight into terrain only marginally avoided.
 Aborted take-offs on a closed or engaged runway.
 Take-offs from a closed or engaged runway with marginal separa-
tion from obstacle(s).
 Landings or attempted landings on a closed or engaged runway.
 Gross failures to achieve predicted performance during take-off or
initial climb.
 Fires and smoke in the passenger compartment, in cargo compart-
ments or engine fires, even though such fires were extinguished by
the use of extinguishing agents.
 Events requiring the emergency use of oxygen by the flight crew.
 Aircraft structural failures or engine disintegrations not classified as
an accident.
394
  Multiple malfunctions of one or more aircraft systems seriously af-
fecting the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew incapacitation in
flight.
 Fuel quantity requiring the declaration of an emergency by the pi-
lot.
 Take-off or landing incidents including undershooting, overrunning
or running off the sides of runways.
 Systems failures, weather phenomena, operations outside the ap-
proved flight envelope or other occurrences which could have
caused difficulties controlling the aircraft.
 Failures of more than one system in a redundancy system manda-
tory for flight guidance and navigation.
Investigation; A process conducted for the purpose of accident preven-
tion which includes the gathering and analysis of information, the draw-
ing of conclusions, including the determination of causes and, when ap-
propriate, the making of safety recommendations.
Serious incident; An incident involving circumstances indicating that an
accident nearly occurred.
Serious injury; An injury which is sustained by a person in an accident
and which:
 Requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours commencing
within seven days from the date the injury was received, and
 results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers,
toes, or nose), or
 Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, mus-
cle or tendon damage, or
 Involves injury to an internal organ, or
 Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more
than 5% of the body surface, or
395
  involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious ra-
diation .
State of occurrence; The State in the territory of which an accident or in-
cident occurs.
Objective. The objective of the investigation of an accident or incident
shall be the prevention of accidents and incidents.
It is not the purpose of this activity to apportion blame or liability.
Investigation Responsibilities.
Where an accident or serious incident occurs in the territory of a con-
tracting state (other than the State of Registry or the State of the Opera-
tor), the State of occurrence is to instigate the investigation.
If the accident or incident occurred in a non-contracting state, the state
of registry should endeavour to instigate an investigation.
If the accident or incident occurred outside the territory of any state or
the location of the occurrence cannot be determined, the State of Reg-
istry is to instigate the investigation.
If the State of Occurrence declines to investigate the incident, the State
of Registry (or the State of the Operator) may investigate.
The State of Registry, the State of the Operator, the State of Design and
the State of Manufacture, are entitled to be represented at any investi-
gation.
Any state, which when requested provides information, facilities, or ex-
perts to the state conducting the investigation, is entitled to be repre-
sented at the investigation.
Where the citizens of a state have suffered fatalities or serious injuries,
that state, if a request has been made, will be permitted to appoint an
expert who should be entitled to:
396
  Visit the scene of the accident
 Have access to the relevant factual information
 Participate in the identification of the victims
 Assist in questioning survivors who are citizens of that state
 Receive a copy of the final report
Final Report. The final report of an investigation of an accident is to be
sent with the minimum delay, by the State conducting the investigation
to:
 The state that instigated the investigation
 The state of Registry
 The state of the Operator
 The state of Design
 The state of Manufacture
 Any state who’s citizens have suffer fatalities or injuries, and
 Any state which provided relevant information, significant facilities
or experts
If the investigation concerned an aircraft with max mass over 2250kg or
is a turbojet, the final report is also to be sent to ICAO.

END

397