Things must be known M.

Prakash Academy
1. Geometry

1. Let P be a point outside ⊙(M, r). Let line P A touch ⊙(M, r) at A. Let line P B
touch ⊙(M, r) at B.
Then P A = P B
Hint: Use RHS test.

2. If P is any point on the bisector of an angle, then P is equidistant from the arms
of the angle.

3. If point P is equidistant from the arms of an angle then P is on the bisector of the
angle.

4. The internal angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent. ∆ABC is given. Let u, v, w
be the internal bisectors of angles A, B, C respectively. u, v, w are concurrent.
Strategy: If three lines are to be shown concurrent, we will consider the point of
intersection of two of these lines and with the help of given information deduce that
it also lies on the third line.
A

E v
w F

I
x o
x o
B D C

Draw ∆ABC. Draw bisectors v, w only.

Let v and w meet at I.....(1)
Construction: Draw ID ⊥ BC, IE ⊥ CA, IF ⊥ AB. ....(2)
Proof: By (1), I is on v, the bisector of angle B.
Hence by (2), IF = ID....(3)
Also by (1), I is on w, the bisector of angle C.
Hence by (2), IE = ID....(4)
From (3) and (4), we deduce that IF = IE
∴ By converse, I lies on u the bisectors of angle A.
Hence u, v, w all meet at I.
The point of concurrency of internal angle bisectors of a triangle is equidistant from
the sides of the given triangle.
Let ID = IE = IF = r (say).
⊙(I, r) touches the side BC at D, CA at E and AB at F .
I is called incenter of ∆ABC.
A

E
F

B D C

⊙(I, r) is called Incircle of ∆ABC.

5. ∆ = rs where ∆ is area of triangle , r is inradius and s is semiperimeter.
[ABC] = [IBC] + [ICA] + [IAB]
= 12 (BC)(ID) + 21 (CA)(IE) + 12 (AB)(IF )
= 21 (r)(a + b + c) = rs.

6. Geometrical significance of the terms occurring in Heron’s formula:

A
x x
E
F
r
z
y I

B y D z C

Description of the Figure: In ∆ABC incircle ⊙(I, r) touches BC, CA, AB at D, E, F

respectively. As AF, AE are tangent segments from A to ⊙(I, r) by LTST we have
AF = AE = x(say). Similarly BD = BF = y (say) and CD = CE = z (say). Note
that BC = a = y + z, CA = b = z + x, AB = c = x + y.
Compute the perimeter of ∆ABC in terms of lengths of tangent segments to ⊙(I, r).
2s = AB + BC + CA = (x + y) + (y + z) + (z + x) = 2(x + y + z)
∴ s = x + y + z. This gives
x = s − (y + z) = s − a, y = s − (z + x) = s − b, z = s − (x + y) = s − c. We
conclude that
s − a is the length of the tangent segment from A to ⊙(I, r).
s − b is the length of the tangent segment from B to ⊙(I, r).
s − c is the length of the tangent segment from C to ⊙(I, r).
So far we have not found the interpretation of s in Heron’s Formula. We need
extension of concurrency theorem.

7. In any triangle, the internal bisector of one angle and external bisectors of the
remaining two angles are concurrent.
∆ABC is given. Let u be the bisector of ∠BAC. Extend AB to L. Let v be the
bisector of ∠CBL. Extend AC to M . Let w be the bisector of ∠BCM .
u, v, w are concurrent.
Use exactly same strategy used for internal angle bisectors concurrency.
A

D1
B C
v r1 w
E1
F1
I1
M
L
 Let v, w intersect at I1 . (1)
Draw I1 D1 ⊥BC, I1 E1 ⊥ line(CA) and I1 F1 ⊥ line(AB). (2)
Proof: By (1), I1 is on v the bisector of ∠CBL.
Hence by (2), I1 D1 = I1 F1 .....(3) By (1), I1 is on w also, the bisector of ∠BCM .
Hence by (2), I1 D1 = I1 E1 .....(4)
From (3) and (4), we deduce that I1 F1 = I1 E1
∴ By converse, I1 lies on u the bisectors of angle A.
Hence u, v, w all meet at I1 .
The point of concurrency I1 is equidistant from the lines containing the sides of the
given triangle.
Let I1 D1 = I1 E1 = I1 F1 = r1 (say).
⊙(I1 , r1 ) touches side BC at D1 , CA at E1 and AB at F1 .
Tangent segments AF1 = AE1 , BF1 = BD1 , CD1 = CE1 .
I1 is called an excenter of ∆ABC.
⊙(I1 , r1 ) is called an Excircle of ∆ABC.

8. To compute lengths of tangent segments from the vertices of ∆ABC to the ⊙(I1 , r1 ).
Compute the perimeter of ∆ABC in terms of lengths of tangent segments to ⊙(I1 , r1 ).
2s = AB + BC + CA
= AB + (BD1 + D1 C) + CA
= (AB + BF1 ) + (E1 C + CA)
= AF1 + AE1
∴ 2s = 2AF1
Hence AF1 = AE1 = s, BD1 = BF1 = AF1 − AB = s − c
and CD1 = CE1 = AE1 − AC = s − b.

9. ∆ = (r1 )(s − a) where ∆ is area of triangle , r1 is exradius and s is semiperimeter

and a is length of side BC.
Calculate the area of ∆ABC by splitting into three parts using I1 as the pivot point.
[ABC] = [I1 CA] + [I1 AB] − [I1 BC]
= 12 (CA)(I1 E1 ) + 12 (AB)(I1 F1 ) − 21 (BC)(I1 D1 )
= 12 (r1 )(b + c − a) = 21 (r1 )(b + c + a − 2a) = 21 (r1 )(2s − 2a)
= r1 (s − a).
We chose the internal bisector of ∠A. We could have also chosen internal bisector
of ∠B or ∠C. The beauty of symmetry of ∆ABC is such that without actually
carrying out entire process we can predict the outcomes, as if the other choices were
actually made.

10. Choice of ∠B for internal bisector leads to ⊙(I2 , r2 ) where points B, I2 are on oppo-
site side of CA and this circle touches lines BC, CA, AB at D2 , E2 , F2 respectively.
Further ∆ = (r2 )(s − b). Length of the tangent segments to ⊙(I2 , r2 ) from B, C, A
have lengths s, (s − a), (s − c) respectively.

11. Choice of ∠C for internal bisector leads to ⊙(I3 , r3 ) where points C, I3 are on oppo-
site side of AB and this circle touches lines BC, CA, AB at D3 , E3 , F3 respectively.
Further ∆ = (r3 )(s − c). Length of the tangent segments to ⊙(I3 , r3 ) from C, A, B
have lengths s, (s − b), (s − a) respectively.
12. (1) Let 2ABCD be a parallelogram.
(2) Then, ∠A ∼
= ∠C and ∠B ∼ = ∠D.
A B

D C

Proof:
←
−−→ ← −−→ ←
−−→
AB k DC and AD is its transversal. m∠A + m∠D = 180.
←
−−→ ← −−
→ ←
−−→
AD k BC and AB is its transversal. m∠A + m∠B = 180.
m∠A + m∠D = m∠A + m∠B which gives m∠B = m∠D.
Similarly we can show that m∠A = m∠C.

13. (1) Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral.

(2) Let m∠A = m∠C.
(3) Let m∠B = m∠D.
(4) Then, 2ABCD be a parallelogram.
Proof:
We know that m∠A + m∠B + m∠C + m∠D = 360.
∴ m∠A + m∠D + m∠A + m∠D = 360.
∴ m∠A + m∠D = 180.
←
−−→ ←
−−
→ ←
−−
→
Note that AD is a transversal of AB and DC .
←−−
→ ← −−→
This gives AB k CD .
←−−
→ ←−−
→
Similarly we can show that AD k BC .
By definition of a parallelogram,
2ABCD be a parallelogram.

14. (1) Let 2ABCD be a parallelogram.

(2) Then, AB ∼
= CD and AD ∼ = BC.
A B

D C

Construction: Join A, C.
←
−−
→ ← −−→ ←
−−
→
Proof: By (1), AD k BC and AC is its transversal.
∠DAC ∼ = alt∠BCA.
∼
AC = CA... Self congruent.
←
−−→ ← −−
→ ←
−−
→
AB k CD and AC is its transversal.
∠DCA ∼ = ∠BAC.
By ASA theorem, ∆DAC ∼ = ∆BCA.
By C.S.C.T. DA ∼ = BC and DC ∼
= BA.
15. (1) Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral.
(2) Let AB ∼
= CD.
(3) Let BC ∼
= DA.
(4) Then, 2ABCD be a parallelogram.
Construction: Join A, C.
 Proof:
(6) CA ∼= AC... Self congruent.
By SSS Theorem, ∆ABC ∼ = ∆CDA.
∼
By C.A.C.T. ∠BCA = ∠DAC.
←−−
→ ←
−−→ ←
−−
→
Note that AD is a transversal of AB and DC .
Hence ∠BCA ∼ = alt∠DAC.
←−−
→ ← −−→
AB k CD .
←−−→ ←−−
→
Similarly, we can show that AD k BC .
By the definition of a parallelogram,
2ABCD be a parallelogram. .

16. (1) Let 2ABCD be a parallelogram.

(2) Then, AC and BD bisect each other.
A B

D C

Proof: ABCD is a convex quadrilateral.

AC intersects BD say in M .
←
−−→ ← −−
→ ←−−
→
AD k BC and AC is its transversal.
Hence ∠M AD ∼ = ∠CAD ∼ = alt∠ACB ∼ = ∠M CB.
∼
By AD = CB.
←
−−→ ← −−
→ ←
−−
→
By AD k BC and BD is its transversal.
Hence ∠M DA ∼ = ∠BDA ∼ = alt∠DBC ∼ = ∠M BC.
By ASA theorem, ∆ADM ∼ = ∆CBM .
By C.S.C.T., M A ∼
= M C and M B ∼= M D.

17. (1) Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral.

←
−−→ ←−−
→
(2) Let AD , BC bisect each other at M .
(3) Then, 2ABCD is a parallelogram.
Proof:
A B

D C

AM ∼ = CM .
←
−−→ ←−−
→
AC and BD intersect at M . ∴∠AM D ∼ = v.o.∠CM B.
∼
M D = M B.
By SAS postulate, ∆AM D ∼ = ∆CM B.
By C.S.C.T., AD ∼ = CB.
Similarly, we can show that AB ∼
= CD.
By 2ABCD is a parallelogram.

18. (1) If AB ∼
= CD. (2) Let AB k CD.
(3) Then, 2ABCD is a parallelogram.
Construction: Join A, C.
Proof:
 A B

D C
←
−−
→ ← −−→ ←
−−→
AB k CD and AC is its transversal.
Hence ∠BAC ∼ = alt∠DCA.
∼
AC = CA... Self congruent.
By SAS postulate, ∆BAC ∼ = ∆DCA.
By C.S.C.T., BC ∼= DA.
By 2ABCD is a parallelogram.

19. Segment joining the mid points of any two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third
side and is half of it.
Hint: Extend M N to K such that M -N -K and M N = N K. Draw AK, CK. Study
2AM CK carefully. Use special properties of 2AM CK to deduce special properties
of 2BM KC. We will refer to this result as mid point theorem.

20. Consider ∆ABC. Let M be the mid point of AB. Draw a line u through M parallel
←−−
→ ←−−
→
to BC . Then, (1) u intersects AC in a point, say N . (2) A-N -C (3) AN = N C
←−−
→
Hint: (1) Use indirect method. If possible, let uk AC .
Obtain a contradiction.
(2) Let N1 be the mid point of AC.
To show that N ≡ N1 . If possible let N and N1 be distinct.
←−−→ ←−−→
Hence lines u = MN and MN1 are distinct.
Obtain a suitable contradiction.
(Use mid-point theorem)

21. Altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.

Figure: Consider △ABC.
Draw line u through A parallel to BC.
Draw line v through B parallel to CA.
Draw line w through C parallel to AB.
Step 1. Show that v and w intersect, say at P .
Step 2. Show that w and u intersect, say at Q.
Step 3. Show that u and v intersect, say at R.
Now locate various parallelograms in the figure.
Deduce that A is the mid point of QR.
Draw AD⊥BC where D is the foot of the altitude.
Hence deduce that altitude of △ABC through A is perpendicular bisector of QR
at A.
Get similar results for altitudes from B and C.
Complete the proof of the theorem.
R A u Q

B D C
v

P
22. In any triangle, angle opposite to greater side is greater. In other words, in ∆ABC
if AC > AB then m∠B > m∠C.
A

x D

x w
B C
−−→
Hint: There exists D on AC such that AD = AB and A − D − C. Label the angles
as shown in the figure.
m∠B = x + w > x > m∠C

23. In any triangle, side opposite to greater angle is greater. Alternatively, in △ABC
if m∠B > m∠C then AC > AB
Hint: Indirect proof.
Obtain contradiction if AC = AB or AC < AB.

24. The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of
the third side.
D

B C
We will show that AB + AC > BC.
−−→
Construction: Choose D on BA such that B-A-D and AD = AC. Join DC.
Hint: Prove that in △DBC, m∠BCD > m∠BDC.

25. The difference of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is less than the length of
the third side.
Hint: Use previous theorem.

26. 2ABCD is a trapezium where AB k CD. Let M be the mid point of AD, N be
the mid point of BC, Q be the mid point of AC, P be mid point of BD. (1) Prove:
M N = 21 (AB + CD). (2) Prove: P Q = 21 |AB − CD|.
Hint for part 1: Join M P and P N .
Prove that P M k AB and P N k DC.
←−−→ ← −−→
Now deduce that PM = PN .
Hint for part 2: Prove that P N k DC and QN k AB.
←−−→ ← −−
→
Now deduce that PN = QN .
27. In a right angled triangle, the mid point of the hypotenuse is the center of its
circumcircle.
Hint: Consider △ABC with ∠B as right angle. Let M be the mid point of AC and
N be the mid point of AB. Join M B.

28. Basic Proportionality Theorem (BPT) In △ABC, M is such that A-M -B. A line
u through M is drawn parallel to BC, then (1) u intersects AC, say in N . (2)
AM AN
A − N − C (3) =
MB NC
Hint: Join BN and CM . Express required ratios in terms of ratios of areas of
suitable triangles.

29. Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem (CBPT) In △ABC, M and N are such
AM AN
that A-M -N and A-N -C. If = then M N k BC
MB NC
30. AAA Theorem: In △ABC and △P QR, if
(1) m∠A = m∠P , (2) m∠B = m∠Q, (3) m∠C = m∠R, then
(4) △ABC ∼ △P QR.
Hint: EBPT to complete the proof.
AA Corollary: As sum of the angles of a triangle is 180, congruency of two pairs of
corresponding angles is enough to prove two triangles similar.

AB AC
31. SAS Theorem: In △ABC and △P QR, if (1) = , (2) m∠A = m∠P , then
PQ PR
(3) △ABC ∼ △P QR.
Hint: Use point plotting theorem and extension of converse of BPT to complete the
proof.

32. SSS Theorem:

AB BC CA
In △ABC and △P QR, if (1) = = , then
PQ QR RP
(2) △ABC ∼ △P QR.
Hint: Use extension of converse of BPT and AA theorem of similarity to complete
the proof.

33. Angle Bisector Theorem : Internal angle bisector of any angle of a triangle divides
the opposite side internally in the ratio of the lengths of sides containing it.
Extend BA upto K such that AC = AK. Join CK.
As △ACK is isosceles base angles are equal = y.⇒ 2x = 2y ⇒ x = y.
⇒ AD||CK by corresponding angle property.
BA BD BA BD
Applying BP T to △BCK we get AK
= DC
⇒ AC
= DC

34. Converse of Previous Thm: In △ABC, if D divides BC internally in the ratio AB AC

then AD is internal bisector of ∠A. Perform similar construction and prove converse
Note: Both above theorems can be proved by considering. area of △ABC in two
different ways.

35. Given three non collinear points, there exists a unique circle passing through them.

36. Measure of an inscribed angle is half that of its intercepted arc.

37. The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

38. In a quadrilateral, if the opposite angles supplementary then given quadrilateral is

cyclic.

39. Tangent Secant Theorem: Consider a circle S with center M . Line T is a tangent
to S at point A. Secant L intersects S at A and B, P and Q are the distinct points
on T such that P -A-Q.
←
−−
→
Join M A and M B. We know M A⊥ PQ .
Let ∠BAQ = x ⇒ m∠M AB = 90 − x also m∠M BA = 90 − x (isosceles)
⇒ m∠AM B = 2x (central angle)
⇒ m∠ACB = x (half of central angle).

40. Converse of tangent secant theorem

←
−−→ ←−−
→
Given: PQ and AB intersect at A. Let C be any point on circle such that Q and
←
−−
→
C are in opposite half planes of line AB. m∠BAQ = m∠ACB then PQ is tangent
to ⊙ABC at A.
Hint: Find m∠AM B. Find m∠M AB. Show that m∠M AQ = 90.

41. P AP B = P CP D and P AP B = P T 2
Two chords of circle AB and CD intersect at P . Then P AP B = P CP D.
Hint: Show △P AD ∼ △P CB. Write ratios and multiply.
Prove that P A.P B = P C.P D
Hint Prove △P AC ∼ △P DB.
Prove that P AP B = P T 2
Hint Prove △P T A ∼ △P BT

42. Pythagoras Theorem

43. Converse of Pythagoras Theorem

44. Extension of Pythagoras theorem

45. Extension of extension of Pythagoras Theorem (E 2 P T ): Consider △ABC. Let M

be the mid point of BC. Join A, M . Use EP T to △AM B and △AM C to deduce
AB 2 + AC 2 = 2(BM 2 + AM 2 ). This result is also known as Appolonius Theorem.

46. Extension of extension of extension of PT (E 3 P T ): Consider 2ABCD. Join diago-

nals. Let M be the point of intersection of diagonals. Apply E 2 P T to △ADB and
△CDB to deduce AB 2 + BC 2 + CD2 + DA2 = AC 2 + BD2 . This result is also
known as Parallelogram Law.

47. In △ABC E is any point on BC. Then EC · AB 2 + EB · AC 2 = BC · EA2 + EB ·

EC · BC This relationship is known as Stewart’s Theorem

48. Ceva’s Theorem

Consider △ABC.
Let P be a point in the plane of △ABC such that
←
−−→ ← −−→ ←−−→ ← −−→ ←−−→ ←
−−→
AP ∩ B C = {D}, B P ∩ C A = {E} and C P ∩ AB = {F }.
BD CE AF
Then · · = 1.
DC EA F B
 Tools Required:
1. Area of a triangle equals half base into height.
x1 y1 x1 y1 x1 − y1
2. If = then = = .
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 − y2

F E
P

B D C
Fig.1
Strategy:
(1) If two triangles have equal heights then the ratio of their areas equals the ratio
of their bases.
BD
(2) Express as the ratio of areas of two triangles.
DC
Do this in two different ways.
BD [ABP ]
Use T 2 to prove that = .
DC [AP C]
CE AF
(3) Exploit the cyclic symmetry of △ABC to find and .
EA FB
BD CE AF
(4) Compute Ceva Product · · . Confirm that it is 1.
DC EA F B

49. Converse of Ceva’s Theorem:

←−−→ ← −−→ ←−−→
Consider △ABC. Let D, E, F be points on lines B C , C A , AB
BD CE AF
respectively such that the product · · = 1.
DC EA F B
←−−→ ← −−→ ←−−→
Then the lines AD , B E and C F are concurrent.
BD CE AF
Proof:It is given that · · = 1. (1)
DC EA F B
←−−−→ ← −−→
By applying Ceva’s Theorem to concurrent lines AD1 , B E and
←−−→ BD1 CE ˙ AF
C F we obtain · =1 (2)
D1 C EA F B
(1) and (2) give
BD BD1 BD BD1 BD + DC BD1 + D1 C
= ∴ +1= + 1. ∴ =
DC D1 C DC D1 C DC D1 C
BC BC
∴ = ∴ DC = D1 C ∴ DC = −CD1
DC D1 C
∴ DC + CD1 = 0
∴ DD1 = 0
∴ D ≡ D1 . Convention: Consider △ABC. Let P be a point in the plane of △ such
←−−→ ←−−→
that AP intersects B C in point D.
←−−→
In the honour of Ceva, the line AD is called a cevian. (similar to median)
The triangle whose vertices are three points D, E, F in the context of Ceva’s Theo-
rem is called the Cevian Triangle generated by point P.
 We encapsulate the above two theorems as Cevians are concurrent iff the corre-
sponding Ceva product equals unity.

50. Menelaus’ Theorem

Consider △ABC.
Consider a line u in the plane of △ABC such that it does not pass through any of
the points A, B, C and is not parallel to any of the
←
−−→ ← −−→ ← −−→
lines AB , B C , C A .
←
−−→ ←
−−→ ←−−→
Let B C ∩ u = {D}, C A ∩ u = {E}, AB ∩ u = {F }.
BD CE AF
then, · · = −1.
DC EA F B
Proof: Draw a line v parallel to u and transfer all the ratios to a single line and use
BP T.
A

K
E
v
D
B C u
←−−→
As shown in the figure, draw line v through C such that vku and v ∩ AB = {K}.
←−−→
We will transfer all the ratios to the ratios on the line AB .
Consider △BDF and △BCK.
BD BF
Ex. of BPT gives = in magnitude and sign (1)
DC FK
Consider △AKC and △AF E.
CE KF
Ex. of BPT gives = in magnitude and sign (2).
EA FA
(1) and (2) give
BD CE AF BF KF AF
· · = · · = −1.
DC EA F B FK FA FB

51. Converse of Menelaus’ Theorem.

←
−−→ ←−−→ ← −−→
Consider △ABC. Let D, E, F be points on lines B C , C A , AB
BD CD AF
respectively such that, · · = −1.
DC EA F B
Then points D, E, F are collinear.
How do we go about proving the converse?
How did we prove the converse of Ceva’s Theorem?
Master that proof.
We used Ceva’s theorem to prove its converse.
←−−→ ←
−−→
Proof: Let line E F intersect line B C in D′ .
 ←−−→
Now apply Menelaus’ Theorem to line E F .
BD′ CE AF
We obtain ′ · · = −1 (1)
D C EA F B
BD CE AF
It is given that · · = −1 (2)
DC EA F B
BD BD′
(1) and (2) give us = ′ .
DC DC
This leads to D ≡ D′ . Hence we deduce that D, E, F are collinear.
Application:
←−−→ ← −−→ ← −−→
Consider △ABC. Let the bisector of external angles A, B, C meet lines B C , C A , AB
respectively in D′ , E ′ , F ′ . Then D′ , E ′ , F ′ are collinear.

52. Combination of Ceva and Menelaus Theorems:

Consider △ABC.
←−−→ ← −−→ ← −−→
Let the bisectors of angles A, B, C meet B C , C A , AB in D, E, F respectively.
←
−−→ ← −−→ ← −−→
Let the bisector of external angles A, B, C meet lines B C , C A , AB respectively
in D′ , E ′ , F ′ .
Consider three pairs of Cevians.
(1) AD, AD′ (ii) BE, BE ′ (iii) CF , CF ′ .
BD BD′ CE CE ′ AF AF ′
We have, =− ′ , = − ′ and =− ′ .
DC D C EA EA FB FB
This suggests the following generalisation.
Consider any cevian AD of △ABC.
←−−→ BD BD′
Now choose a point D′ on B C such that =− ′ .
DC DC
We will call AD′ as the excevian of △ABC w.r.t. cevian AD.
In the incenter-excenter configuration, we know that Internal bisector are concur-
rent.
Also the points corresponding to external bisectors are collinear.
That is one concurrency leads to a collinearity.
Is this true in general?
Indeed we have the following mega-generalisation.
 F1

E1

A
F E
D1 C
B D

Concurrency-Collinearity Mega Theorem.

Consider △ABC. Consider the three cevian AD, BE and CF which are concurrent
at P.
←
−−→ ← −−→ ← −−→
Choose the points D1 , E1 , F1 on lines B C , C A , AB respectively such that
BD BD1 CE CE1 AF AF1
=− , =− and =− .
DC D1 C EA E1 A FB F1 B
Then
←
−−→ ← −−−→ ← −−−→
(1) Cevains AD , B E1 , C F1 are concurrent.
←
−−−→ ← −−→ ← −−−→
(2) Cevains AD1 , B E , C F1 are concurrent.
←
−−−→ ← −−−→ ← −−→
(3) Cevains AD1 , B E1 , C F are concurrent.
(4) Points D1 , E, F are collinear.
(5) Points D, E1 , F are collinear.
(6) Points D, E, F1 are collinear.
(7) Points D1 , E1 , F1 are collinear.
Proof: These are natural and easy consequences of converse of Ceva’s Theorem and
Converse of Menelaus’ Theorem.
←
−−→ ←−−→ BD
Definition: Consider line B C . Let D and D1 be points on B C such that =
DC
BD1
− .
D1 C
We say that D and D1 divide BC harmonically.
D and D1 are called harmonic conjugates w.r.t. BC.
We notice that in the previous theorem, we had three pairs of harmonic conjugates
points.
(i) D, D1 divide BC harmonically.
(ii) E, E1 divide CA harmonically.
(iii) F, F1 divide AB harmonically.
We summarise that theorem as follows:
Concurrency and collinearity are two sides the same coin called Harmonic Conju-
gacy.
53. Ptolemy’s Theorem
If 2ABCD is cyclic then ac + bd = AC.BD
Construction: (1) Join AC (2) take point k on AC
such that (i) A − K − C (ii) m∠KBC = m∠ABD = x
Proof: Consider △ABD ↔ △KBC
(i) ∠ABD ∼ = ∠KBC · · · by construction = x
(ii) ∠ADB ∼ = ∠KCB · · · Inscribed in same arc
AB
∴ By AA similarity △ABD ∼ △KBC. ∴ KB = BD
BC
AD
= KC ⇒ BC.AD = BD.KC
AB BK
Consider △ABK ↔ △DBC by previous result (i) DB = BC
(ii) ∠ABK ∼ = ∠DBK · · · x + m∠DBK
∴ By SAS △ABK ∼ = △DBC
AB
⇒ DB = BK
BC
= AK
DC
⇒ AB.DC = BD.AK
⇒ AB.DC + BC.AD = BD.KC + BD.AK = BD(KC + AK) = BD.AC
⇒ a.c + b.d = AC.BD

54. Converse of Ptolemy’s theorem:

If in any quadrilateral ABCD as shown in figure a.c + b.d = AC.BD then quadri-
lateral in cyclic.
Construction: (1) Let ray K and ray BK intersect at K such that m∠ABD =
m∠KBC. (2) Join AK.
Proof: △ABD ↔ KBC
(i) ∠ABD ∼ = ∠KBC (ii) ∠ADB ∼ = ∠KCB · · · by construction
∼
∴ By AA similarity △ABD = △KBC ⇒ KB AB
= BD AD
= KC ⇒ BC.AD = BD.KC
BC
In △ABK ↔ △DBC
AB
(i) DB = BK
BC
by previous result
∼
(ii) ∠ABK = ∠DBK by SAS we have △ABK ∼ △DBK
AB
⇒ DB = BK
BC
= AKDC
⇒ AB.DC = BD.AK
∴ AB.DC + BC.AD − BD.KC + BD.AK = BD(KC + AK)
Given AB.DC + BC.AD = BD.AC
⇒ KC + AK = AC ⇒ K is collinear with A & C
⇒ Now ∠ABD ∼ = ∠KBC
Hence by inscribed angle property 2ABCD is cyclic.

55. Simpson line Theorem

P is any point on circumcircle of △ABC. L, M, N are feet of perpendiculars from
P on AB, AC, BC respectively. Then L, M, N are collinear.
Line passing through L, M, N is known as simson line.
Hint: 2P LAM, 2P M N C, 2P LBN, 2P ABC are cyclic.
To prove that m∠AM L = m∠N M C
Proof: m∠N M C = m∠N P C
m∠N P C = 90 − m∠N CP.
90 − m∠N CP = m∠P AL
m∠P AL = m∠P M L = 90 − m∠N CP
∴ m∠LM A = 90 − (90 − m∠N CP ) = m∠N CP .
⇒ m∠N M C = m∠N CP · · · collinear.

56. Converse of Simson line theorem:

In △ABC, L, M, N are such that L is on line AB. M is on Line AC and N is on line
BC and perpendiculars at L, M, N are concurrent at ‘P ′ then P lies on circumcircle
 of △ABC.
Proof: Similar to Simson line Theorem.

57. Anticenter Configuration

A2

A1

O
H1

H2
A3
M34
A4

Consider four points A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 on a circle with center O.

Notation: △1 means △A2 A3 A4 , △2 means △A1 A3 A4 ,
△3 means △A1 A2 A4 , △4 means △A1 A2 A3 .
H1 , H2 , H3 , H4 are orthocenters and N1 , N2 , N3 , N4 are nine point centers of △1 , △2 , △3 , △4
respectively. M12 , M23 , M34 , M14 are midpoints of A1 A2 , A2 A3 , A3 A4 , A1 A4 respec-
tively.
Theorem 1: A1 H1 , A2 H2 , A3 H3 , A4 H4 are concurrent and they bisect each other.
Proof:
A1 H2 is parallel to OM34 and twice its length.
Same is true for A2 H1 .
⇒ A1 H1 ||A2 H2 , A1 H1 = A2 H2
⇒ A1 A2 H1 H2 is a parallalogram.
Diagonals of a parallalogram bisect each other.
⇒ A1 H1 and A2 H2 bisect each other.
Similarly we can show that A1 H1 and A3 H3 bisect each other, etc.
So, these four line segments, namely, A1 H1 , A2 H2 , A3 H3 , A4 H4 are concurrent and
bisect each other.
This point is called as the anticenter of the cyclic quadrilateral A1 A2 A3 A4 .
Theorem 2
A2
M12

A1

H2

A4 D34 A3

A line from midpoint of any of the six line segments ⊥ to the opposite side also
passes through the anticenter. So, there are six more lines concurrent at the anti-
center.
Proof:
Let us make two cases.
Case I is Perpendicular from midpoint of a side of the quadrilateral on the opposite
side.
Case II is perpendicular from midpoint of one diagonal to the other diagonal.
Case I
Draw ⊥ from M12 on the side A3 A4 .
Let the foot be D34 .
M12 D34 ⊥ A3 A4 , A1 H2 ⊥ A3 A4 ⇒ M12 D34 ||A1 H2
In △A1 A2 H2 , line M12 D34 is drawn from midpoint of side A1 A2 and it is parallel
to side A1 H2 . So by converse of midpoint theorem, it bisects the side A2 H2 , which
means it passes through the anticenter.
 Case II
A2

A1

H1
D24

M13

A3

A4

Draw ⊥ from M13 on A2 A4 .

Let the foot be D24 .
M13 D24 ⊥ A2 A4 , A3 H1 ⊥ A2 A4 ⇒ M13 D24 ||A3 H1
In △A1 A3 H1 , line M13 D24 is drawn from midpoint of side A1 A3 and it is parallel
to side A3 H1 . So by converse of midpoint theorem, it bisects the side A1 H1 , which
means it passes through the anticenter.
Theorem 3 The orthocenters are concyclic and radius of the circumcircle of the
orthocenters is same as that of the main circle.
Proof:
H1 , H2 , H3 , H4 are homothetic images of A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 with the anticenter as the
pole and −1 as the ratio of transformation. Hence the result follows.
Theorem 4 The nine point centers are concyclic and the radius of their circumcircle
is haslf that of the main circle.
Proof:
N1 , N2 , N3 , N4 are homothetic images of H1 , H2 , H3 , H4 with O as the pole and 12 as
the ratio of transformation. Hence the result follows.

58. All formulae for Area of triangle.

1
(a) △ = 2
base × height
(b) △ = r.s
(c) △ = r1 (s − a)
(d) △ = r2 (s − b)
(e) △ = r3 (s − c)
p
(f) △ = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
√
(g) △ = rr1 r2 r3
abc
(h) △ = △R

Where: r is in radius
r1 , r2 , r3 are exradii of circles opposite to ∠A, ∠B, ∠C respectively. s is semiperime-
ter. a, b, c are sides of △ABC, BC, CA, AB respectively. R is circumradium of
△ABC.
 59. Four lines in general position
Consider four lines L1 , L2 , L3 , L4 in general position, that is no 3 are concurrent &
no 2 are parallel. Circumcircles of four triangles so formed are concurrent.
Proof: Consider △ formed by L1 , L3 & L4 . Circumcircles of these two △s will pass
through B and will intersect in one more point say ‘P ′ .
Now P will have simson line joining feet of perpendiculars on lines L1 L2 L3 and
L1 L3 L4 . Which means feet of perpendiculars on all four lines will be collinear.
Hence by converse of simson line theorem P will be on circumcircles of remaining
two triangles.

60. Geometric constructions

2. Coordinate Geometry

1. Distance Formula
Consider A1 (x1 , y1 ) and A2 (x2 , y2 ).
To detremine distance between these two points in terms of x1 , y1 and x2 , y2 .
Draw a line u through A1 parallel to X-axis.
Y Y

u B (x2,y1 ) A1 (x1 ,y1 )

A2 (x2,y2 )

u A2 (x2,y2 )
A1(x1,y1 ) B (x2,y1 )
v
O X X
O v

We note that |A1 B| = |x2 − x1 | and |A2 B| = |y2 − y1 |.

Applying PT to △A1 A2 B we get
A1 A22 = A1 B 2 + A2 B 2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
p
∴ |A1 A2 | = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

2. Section Formula (SF) for One dimension

Consider two distinct points A1 , A2 .
←−−→
Set up the coordinate system on A1A2 .
←−−
→
Let P be any point on A1A2 other than A2 .
A1 P
We say that P divides A1 A2 in the ratio .
P A2
Note that A1 P, P A2 are directed distances.
Let A1 ↔ x1 , A2 ↔ x2 and P ↔ x′ ,
A1 P x′ − x1
then = . (As A2 6= P, x2 − x′ 6= 0).
P A2 x2 − x′
We note that, if the coordinates of A1 , A2 , P are known, then
A1 P
we can compute in terms of x1 , x2 , x′ .
P A2
A1 P
Let us now consider the problem where A1 ↔ x1 , A2 ↔ x2 and = k, where
P A2
 k ∈ R.
Can we find the coordinate of P in terms of x1 , x2 , k?
A1 P x′ − x1
Given = k. Hence = k. ∴ x′ − x1 = kx2 − kx′ .
P A2 x2 − x′
∴ x′ (1 + k) = x1 + kx2 .
x1 + kx2
Hence x′ = · · · (1).
1+k
A1 P
If possible let 1 + k = 0 ⇒ k = −1 ⇒ = −1 ⇒ A1 P = −P A2 .
P A2
Negative sign implies P is external to A1 A2 and |A1 P | = |A2 P | · · · (∗).
Case (i): A1 − A2 − P
|A1 A2 | + |A2 P | = |A1 P | (By definition of between-ness).
As A1 6= A2 , |A1 A2 | > 0 ∴ |A1 P | > |A2 P | contradicting (∗).
Case (ii): P − A1 − A2
|P A1 | + |A1 A2 | = |P A2 | (By definition of between-ness).
As A1 6= A2 , |A1 A2 | > 0 ∴ |P A2 | > |P A1 | contradicting (∗).
Hence we deduce that 1 + k 6= 0.
Hence division by 1 + k in (1) is allowed.
A1 P m1
The value of is also denoted by where m1 , m2 ∈ Z.
P A2 m2
A1 P m1
That is =k= . Note that A1 P = λm1 and P A2 = λm2 for some suitable
P A2 m2
λ ∈ R.
Substituting this value in (1) we get
x1 + m 1
m2 2
x m 1 x2 + m 2 x1
x′ = m1 = .
1 + m2 m1 + m2

3. Section Formula (SF) for Two dimensions:

Y-axis

R(0,y') P (x',y')

C2(0,y2)
A2(x2 ,y2 )

C1(0,y1)
A1(x1 ,y1)

X-axis
O B1(x1,0) B2(x2,0) Q(x',0)

Description of the figure: Let A1 (x1 , y1 ), A2 x2 , y2 ) be two distinct points in the XY-
plane.
←
−−→
Let P (x′ , y ′ ) be any point on A1A2 other than A2 .
A1 P
Let = k.
P A2
Let B1 be the foot of the altitude from A1 to the X-axis.
 Let B2 be the foot of the altitude from A2 to the X-axis.
Let Q be the foot of the altitude from P to the X-axis.
Let C1 be the foot of the altitude from A1 to the Y-axis.
Let C2 be the foot of the altitude from A2 to the Y-axis.
Let R be the foot of the altitude from P to the Y-axis.
We observe that
(1) B1 ≡ (x1 , 0), B2 ≡ (x2 , 0), Q ≡ (x′ , 0).
(2) C1 ≡ (0, y1 ), C2 ≡ (0, y2 ), R ≡ (0, y ′ ).
(3) A1 B1 k A2 B2 k P Q.
(4) A1 C1 k A2 C2 k P R.
By (3) and property of intercepts made by three parallel lines
A1 P B1 Q
we get k = = .
P A2 QB2
x1 + kx2
Hence by section formula of one dimension, x′ = .
1+k
By (4) and property of intercepts made by three parallel lines
A1 P C1 R
we get k = = .
P A2 RC2
y1 + ky2
Hence by section formula of one dimension, y ′ = .
  1+k
x1 + kx2 y1 + ky2
∴ P (x′ , y ′ ) ≡ , .
1+k 1+k
m1
or replacing k by we get
 m2 
m 1 x 2 + m 2 x 1 m 1 y 2 + m 2 y 1
P (x′ , y ′ ) ≡ , .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

4. Mid-Point Formula:
We note that P is mid point of A1 A2 if and only if k = 1.
 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
Hence the mid point of A1 A2 is given by P ≡ , .
2 2
5. Equation of line in different forms

(a) Two Points Form of the line:

Let A1 (x1 , y1 ) and A2 (x2 , y2 ) be two distinct points in the XY plane.
←−− →
To find the equation of S = A1A2 .
Case (i) x1 = x2
← −−→
In this case A1A2 k Y axis.
← −−→
Hence equation of S = A1A2 is x = x1 .
Case (ii) x1 6= x2
← → y2 − y1
−−
Then slope of A1A2 is .
x2 − x1
Hence using the slope point form we deduce that the equation of
←−−
→ y2 − y1
A1A2 is y − y1 = (x − x1 ).
x2 − x1
(b) Slope point form: y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) where (x1 y1 ) is point & m is slope
 (c) Two intercept form: xa + yb = 1
Where a is x axis intercept b is y axis intercept
(d) General Form ax + by + c = 0.
(e) Parametric Form x = x0 + bc & y = y0 − at where (x0 , y0 ) is point on line a, b
are from general equation & t in parameter.
(f) Normal form x cos θ + y sin θ = p
Where θ is angle in anticlockwise direction of perpendicular from origin on line
and the x axis. p in distance between origin and line.

6. Equation of circle in standard form and center radius form. Now we are equipped
to find the equation of a circle.
Let S = ⊙(M (h, k), r).
To derive equation of S.
The very definition of equation of S indicates that our derivation will be split in
two parts.
In the first part, we will start with a general point P (x′ , y ′ ) ∈ S and show that it
satisfies a certain equation.
In the second part we will start with a solution P (x′ , y ′ ) of that equation and show
that P (x′ , y ′ ) ∈ S.
Part I:
Let P (x′ , y ′ ) ∈ S.
⇒ M P = r.
⇒ M P 2 = r2 .
⇒ (x′ − h)2 + (y ′ − k)2 = r2 . Using distance formula.
⇒ P (x′ , y ′ ) satisfies the equation (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 · · · (1)
Part II:
Let Let P (x′ , y ′ ) be any solution of (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2
∴ (x′ − h)2 + (y ′ − k)2 = r2
∴ M P 2 = r2
∴ |M P | = r
∴ r ∈ S · · · (2)
From (1) and (2) we conclude that (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 is the equation of
⊙(M (h, k), r)

7. Formula for center and radius in standard form.

It is customary to start with the equation x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 · · · (4).
This can be rearranged to get
(x2 + 2gx + g 2 ) + (y 2 + 2f y + f 2 ) = g 2 + f 2 − c. Thus giving
p
(x + g)2 + (y + f )2 = ( g 2 + f 2 − c). Or a still better form is
p
[x − (−g)]2 + [(y − (−f )]2 = ( g 2 + f 2 − c).
Comparing this with the centre and radius form of the equation of circle, we notice
that (4) represents S = ⊙(M (h, k), r).
Remark: We must have g 2 + f 2 − c > 0. What if g 2 + f 2 − c = 0?
Indeed it represents {(−g, −f )}.
We will call this a point circle.
What happens if g 2 + f 2 − c < 0.
Now LHS is a sum of two squares.
 Hence for any choice of (x, y) it is non-negative.
But RHS is negative.
Hence the solution set will be an empty set. We say that in this case we get an
imaginary circle.
Of course any non-zero multiple of this equation will also represent a circle. What
is the most general form of the second degree equation in x and y?
f (x, y) = ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 with at least one of a, h, b non-zero,
is such an equation.
The presence of 2 at various places in the equation is from the
hind-sight.
We can conclude our discussion by saying that every circle in the XY-plane is rep-
resented by a second degree equation x and y.
Every second degreep equation in x, y with a = b = 1 and h = 0 represents the circle
S = ⊙(M (−g, −f ), g 2 + f 2 − c).

3. Algebra:
Student is expected to have basic skills of handling algebra. You may check your skills by
solving given problems or upgrade your skills so that you can solve the given problems.
1. Simplification:
a2 − b 2 a3 − b 3
1. − 2 .
a−b a − b2
1 1 1
2. + + .
(a − b)(a − c) (b − c)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b)
4(a + b)2 (a + b)2 − ab
 3
a − b3
 
3. − 16 : .
ab ab ab
 2
a + 3b2

a + 3b a − 3b
4. + :
(a − b)2 a2 − b2 (a − b)2
   
4mn m n 2mn
5. m+n− : − − .
m+n m + n n − m m 2 − n2
    
1 1 1 2 1 1
6. + + + m 2 n2 .
(m + n)2 m2 n2 (m + n)3 m n
√ √ !
a 2 2 2 a−3
7. − −1 .
(1 + a2 )−1 a 1 − a−2
1 1
+ b 2 + c 2 − a2
 
a b+c
8. 1 1+
1 (a + b + c)−2 .
a
− b+c
2bc
2 ! 2 !!
a3 + 1
 
a+1 a−1 2a
9. +3 : +3 : 3 − .
a−1 a+1 a −1 a−1

a2 − 2a a + 8
 
a 8
10. − 2 + .
a − 4 a + 2a
2 4−a a+2
 2 2
2b + a − 4a a−b a3 b − 2a2 b2 + ab3
11. 3 . .
b + 2ab2 − 3a2 b a2 − b 2
√5
p √
( a4/3 )3/2 ( a3 a2 b)4
12. √
5
. p 3
√ .
( a4 ) 3 ( a b)6
a2 + 1
  
1 1 1
13. √ + √ − 1+ .
2 + 2 a 2 − 2 a 1 − a2 a

(1 − x)(1 − x−1/2 )
14. x1/2 + x−1/2 + √ .
1+ x
√ √
15. (x + x2 − 1)2 + (x + x2 − 1)−2 + 2(1 − 2x2 ).
√ √ √ √
a a+b b 2 b ab
16. √ √ +√ √ − .
( a + b)(a − b) a+ b a−b
√ 2  √ √ 
a 1 a−1 a+1
17. − √ √ −√ .
2 2 a a+1 a−1
√  3/2
a + b3/2

2 b 1
18. √ √ + √ √ − (a − b)−1 .
a+ b a+ b (ab)−1/2
√ √
√1 + a−1
a−1 a−1
19. 1 1 + √ √ .
√
a+1
− √a−1 (a − 1) a + 1 − (a + 1) a − 1
√
a3 − 8 (a + 1)2 + 3 a2 + a
 
ab
20. − + √ : √ .
a − 5a + 6
2 a−3 4
a 4
a−1 b2
 3
a + a2 + 2a

2 a+1 1 2
21. − − − : .
a a3 − 1 a2 + a + 1 1 − a a3 − 1
2. Linear equation in one variable
Solve Completely. a, b ∈ R are parameters. x is a real variable. Find the solution set of
ax = b.
Also the converse of this problem.
5x + 2ab 1
1. Solve completely: ax + b − = .
5 4
2. Find the values of a, b if the equation
a(2x + 3) + 3bx = 12x + 5 has infinitely many solutions.

3. Find the integral value of k such that the equation

11x − 2 = kx + 15 has positive integral solution for x.
Find that solution.

4. Given that the equation 2a(x + 6) = 4x + 1 has no solution in variable x, find the
value of the parameter a.

5. Given that the equation ax = 12 has positive integral solutions only, where a is an
integer parameter, find the possible values of a.
 x−n x−m m
6. Solve the equation − = where mn 6= 0.
m n n
7. Find positive value of parameter k if the equation
k 2 x − k 2 = 2kx − 5k has a positive solution for x.
8. If positive numbers a, b, c satisfy abc = 1, solve the equation
3. Solving Simultaneous equations in two and three variables. Crammer’s
Rule
Let a, b, c, d ∈ R.
We will arrange these four numbers in a square array and enclose them between two
vertical lines as shown below.
a b
. This expression is called a determinant of order two.
c d
a b
Its value is defined as, = ad − bc.
c d
a1 b 1 c 1 b1 a1 c 1
Let D = , Dx = , Dy = .
a2 b 2 c 2 b2 a2 c 2
The point of intersection of
u1 : a1 x + b1 y = c1 and
u2 : a2 x + b2 y = c2 provided a1 b2 − a2 b1 6= 0
 
Dx D y
is given by , .
D D
This formula is known as the Cramer’s Rule.
Numerical Example:
u1 : 3x − y = 5 and
u2 : x + 2y = 4.
3 -1
D= = (3)(2) − (1)(−1) = 7 6= 0.
1 2
5 −1
Dx = = (5)(2) − (4)(−1) = 14.
4 2
3 5
Dy = = (3)(4) − (1)(5) = 7.
1 4
Hence the required solution is
   
D x Dy 14 7
, = , = (2, 1).
D D 7 7
4. Solving Quadratic equation
Consider the equation,
ax2 + bx + c = 0; a, b, c ∈ R, a 6= 0
∴ 4a2 x2 + 4abx + 4ac = 0
∴ (2ax)2 + 2(2ax)b + 4ac = 0
∴ (2ax)2 + 2(2ax)b + b2 − b2 + 4ac = 0
∴ (2ax + b)2 − (b2 − 4ac) = 0
∴ (2ax + b)2 − ∆ = 0 where ∆ = b2 − 4ac
Remark: Appreciate the trick of multiplying by 4a.
Case (i): ∆ = 0
We get (2ax + b)2 = 0
 b
∴ 2ax = −b ∴ x = − 2a repeated twice.
b
Anyhow the solution set is written as {− 2a }.
Case (ii) ∆ > 0
√
We have (2ax + b)2 − ( ∆)2 = 0
√ √
∴ (2ax + b + ∆)(2ax + b − ∆) = 0
√ √
∴ 2ax + b + ∆ = 0 or 2ax + b − ∆ = 0
√ √
∴ 2ax = −b − √ ∆ or 2ax = −b√+ ∆
−b − ∆ −b + ∆
∴x= or x =
2a 2a
( √ √ )
−b − ∆ −b + ∆
∴ solution set is , .
2a 2a
Case (iii) ∆ < 0.
In this case we get
(2ax + b)2 + (−∆) = 0
We note that for any real value of x, (2ax + b)2 ≥ 0 and (−∆) > 0.
∴ (2ax + b)2 + (−∆) > 0.
Hence the solution set is empty.
5. Polynomial

1. Remainder theorem
Let a(x) ∈ R[x]. Let k ∈ R.
Let b(x) = x − k. Apply DA to divide a(x) by b(x) = x − k.
Let r(x) be the remainder.
Then r(x) ∈ R, say r(x) = r and r = a(k).
Proof: We note that b(x) = x − k is not a zero polynomial.
Hence we can apply DA to divide a(x) by b(x) = x − k
deg(b(x)) = 1. ∴ Either r(x) = 0 or deg(r(x)) < 1.
That is deg(r(x)) = 0.
∴ In either of the cases, r(x) must be a real number, say r.
Let q(x) be the quotient given by DA.
∴ a(x) = (x − k)q(x) + r(x)
∴ a(k) = (k − k)q(k) + r ∴ r = a(k).
Restatement of the Remainder Theorem:
If a polynomial a(x) is divided by (x − k) then the remainder is the value of a(x)
at x = k that is r = a(k).

2. Factor theorem
Let a(x) ∈ R[x]. Let k ∈ R. (x − k) is a factor of a(x) if and only if a(k) = 0.
Proof: Part I: Given a(k) = 0.
RT gives a(x) = (x − k)q(x) + a(k) = (x − k)q(x) + 0 = (x − k)q(x).
∴ (x − k) is a factor of a(x).
Part II: Let (x − k) be a factor of a(x).
∴ ∃ q(x) ∈ R[x] such that a(x) = (x − k)q(x).
 ∴ a(k) = (k − k)q(k) = 0 × q(k) = 0.

3. Synthetic division. Method of finding quotient polynomial and remainder.

6. Solutions of Quadratic Inequations

1. For what values of a does the equation 9x2 − 2x + a = 6 − ax possess equal roots?

2. Find the value of k for which the equation (k + 1)x2 + (k + 4)x + k + 7 = 0 has equal
roots.

3. For what values of c does the equation (c − 2)x2 + 2(c − 2)x + 2 = 0 possess no real
roots?
1√ 1√
4. Form a quadratic equation whose roots are the numbers 10− 72
and 10+6 2
.

5. For what values of k is the inequality x2 − (k − 3)x − k + 6 > 0 valid for all real x?

6. For what integer k is the inequality x2 − 2(4k − 1)x + 15k 2 − 2k − 7 > 0

7. Find the values of a for which one root of the equation x2 + (2a − 1)x + a2 + 2 = 0
is twice as longer as the other.
15
8. Find a such that one of the roots of the equation x2 − 4
x + a = 0 is the square of
the other.

9. The roots x1 and x2 of the equation x2 + px + 12 = 0 are such that x2 − x1 = 1.

Find p.

10. For what values of a is the difference between the roots of the equation (a − 2)x2 −
(a − 4)x − 2 = 0 equal to 3?

11. For what values of a is the difference between the roots of the equation 2x2 − (a +
1)x + (a − 1) = 0 equal to their product?

12. Find all values of a for which the sum of the roots of the equation x2 −2a(x−1)−1 = 0
is equal to the sum of the squares of its roots.

13. For what values of a does the equation (2 − x)(x + 1) = a possess real and positive
roots?

14. Find all values of a for which both roots of the equation x2 − 6ax + 2 − 2a + 9a2 = 0
are greater than 3.

15. For what values of a are the roots of the equation x2 − 4ax + 1 = 0 real and satisfy
the conditions x1 ≥ a and x2 ≥ 0?

16. For what real a do the roots of the equation x2 − 2x − a2 + 1 = 0 lie between the
roots of the equation x2 − 2(a + 1)x + a(a − 1) = 0?

Find all real values of x satisfying given inequality.

17. 3x2 − 7x + 4 ≤ 0.

18. 2 − x − x2 ≥ 0.
 19. x2 − 5|x| + 6 < 0

20. |x2 − 4x| < 5.

21. |x2 − 2x − 3| < 3x − 3.

22. x2 − 7x + 12 < |x − 4|.

23. |x − 2| ≤ 2x2 − 9x + 9.

24. x2 − |5x + 8| > 0.

25. |x − 6| > |x2 − 5x + 9|.

26. |x2 − 2x − 8| > 2x.

7. Polynomial related Manupulations

1. a, b, c ∈ R. Find the mimimum value the following polynomial expression can take:
P (a, b, c) = 3a2 + 27b2 + 5c2 − 18ab − 30c + 237.

2. Evaluate the expression

10
(2 + 1)(22 + 1)(24 + 1) · · · (22 + 1) + 1.
 
1
3. If x + = 3, then find the value of,
x
         
2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1
x + 2 , x + 3 , x + 4 , x + 5 , x + 6 .
x x x x x
4. It is given that numbers x, y, z satisfy,
(i) x + y + z = 6 (ii) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 26 (iii) x3 + y 3 + z 3 = 90.
Find the value of xyz and x4 + y 4 + z 4 .

5. a, b, c, d are positive real numbers and satisfy

a4 + b4 + c4 + d4 = 4abcd. Prove that a = b = c = d.
Solve the problem without using AM-GM inequality.

6. Given that a + b = c + d and a3 + b3 = c3 + d3 .

Prove that a2011 + b2011 = c2011 + d2011 .

7. If the numbers a, b satisfy a2 +b2 +8a−14b+65 = 0 then find the value of a2 +ab+b2 .

8. If a − b = 2 and b − c = 4, find the value of a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca.

9. Given 14(a2 + b2 + c2 ) = (a + 2b + 3c)2 find the ratio a : b : c.

x x2
10. Given = a(a =
6 0), find the value of .
x2 + 3x + 1 x4 + 3x2 + 1
Hint 1: The theme is suitable regrouping. We will also use that square of an expression
containing real quantities is non negative.
3a2 + 27b2 + 5c2 − 18ab − 30c + 237 = 3(a − 3b)2 + 5(c − 3)2 + 192.
Hence the minimum value of given polynomial expression is 192.
Further, it is attained at infinitely many ordered triples of the type (3k, k, 3) as k varies
over real numbers.
Revise: The relationship between the roots of a polynomial equations and the coefficients
of the polynomial.
an−1 an−2 an−r a0
σ1 = − , σ2 = , · · · , σr = (−1)r , · · · , σn = (−1)n .
an an an an
Possible rational root theorem.
11. a, b, c, d ∈ R. a 6= 0. Find the simplest relationship between a, b, c, d if the roots of
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are in arithmetic progression.

12. a, b, c, d ∈ R. a 6= 0. Find the simplest relationship between a, b, c, d if the roots of

ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are in geometric progression.

13. Let r1 , r2 be roots of x2 + bx + c = 0.

Let S0 = r10 + r20 , S1 = r11 + r21 , S2 = r12 + r22 .
Show that S2 + bS1 + cS0 = 0.

14. Generalise P3 for higher order polynomial. For example,

Let r1 , r2 , r3 be roots of x3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0.
Let S0 = r10 + r20 + r30 , S1 = r11 + r21 + r31 , S2 = r12 + r22 + r32 ,
S3 = r13 + r23 + r33 . Show that S3 + bS2 + cS1 + dS0 = 0.

15. u, u, v, v are the roots of x4 + px3 + qx2 + rx + s = 0.

Express each of q and s in terms of p, r.

16. If the roots of x2 + bx + c = 0 are squares of the roots of the equation x2 + x + 1 = 0.

Find b, c.

17. If the roots of x2 + bx + c = 0 are cubes of the roots of the equation x2 + x + 1 = 0.

Find b, c.

18. Find all values of x satisfying the pair of equations

x2 − px + 20 = 0 and x2 − 20x + p = 0.

19. Let p(x) be a polynomial over integers.

let p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 .
Prove that p(x) = 0 does not have any rational root if
each of a0 , an and a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an is an odd integer.

20. Find all real values of k for which the roots of the equation (k − 3)x2 − 2kx + 6k = 0
are real and positive.

Additional Algebra Practice

8. Handling absolute value identities Definition: Absolute value of x

Let x ∈ R.
Then |x| = x if x ≥ 0, and |x| = −x if x < 0.
Also note that, |x| = max {x, −x}.
Let a ∈ R. Consider points P (x), A(a) on the real number line.
Then |x − a| denotes absolute distance P A.
Note that (i) |x − a| = x − a if a ≤ x (ii) |x − a| = −(x − a) if x < a.
1. (i) Solve |x − 4| = 0. (ii) Solve |x − 4| = 1. (iii) |x − 4| = 2.45.

2. (i) Solve |x − 4| = 2. (ii) Solve |x − 4| ≤ 2. (iii) |x − 4| ≥ 2.

 3. Let a ∈ R. (i) Solve |x − 4| = a. (ii) Solve |x − 4| < a. (iii) |x − 4| > a.

Warning: You will have to consider cases depending upon a is negative, zero or positive.

4. Solve: (i) |x − 2| + |x − 5| = 3. (ii) |x − 2| + |x − 5| = 2. (iii) |x − 2| + |x − 5| = 5.

5. a, b, c ∈ R..
(i) Solve: (x − a)(x√− b)(x − c) = 0.
(ii) Solve: (x2 − 4) √x − 1 = 0.
(iii) Solve: (x2 − 4) 1 − x = 0.

Caution: One of the solution set is empty, one has two numbers and one has infinitely
many real numbers.

5. Solve: (i) |x − 2| − |x − 5| = 3.
(ii) |x − 2| − |x − 5| = 2.
(iii) |x − 2| − |x − 5| = 5.

Definition: Radical x.
Non negative square√ root of non negative real number.
That is ∀x ∈ R, x2 = |x|.
p √
6. Simplify: 8 − 2 15. q p
We rewrite the given expression as (5 + 3) − 2 (5)(3) as and then we obtain
√ √
5 − 3 as the final answer.
p √
a, b are real numbers. Simplify:√ a +√b − 2 ab.
A popular incorrect answer is: a − b.
We invite you to find ways in which this answer could go wrong.
Method1: Given answer is wrong if any of a, b is negative.
Method2: Even if both a, b ≥ 0 the answer is wrong if b > a.
p √
a, b are real numbers.
√ Simplify:
√ a + b + 2 ab.
In this case also, a + b will be a correct answer iff a, b ≥ 0.
p √
7. Simplify: 4 + 15.
What does one do if key number 2 is missing? p √
TKP. Rewrite the expression in which 2 is present at the correct place. 4 + 15 =
r √ r r
8 + 2 15 5 3
= + .
2 2 2
8. x is a real variable.
√
Simplify S(x) = x2 +p6x + 9.
We rewrite S as, S = (x + 3)2 = |x + 3|.
We can further simplify an get rid of the mod sign. But for that we must consider
appropriate cases.
Case(i) For x ≤ −3 we get S = −(x + 3).
Case(ii) For −3 < x we get S = x + 3.
Solve the following problem on your own and then compare the given solution.
 9. x is a real variable. Simplify:
√ √ √
S(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 − x2 + 4x + 4 + x2 − 6x + 9.
S(x) = |x + 1| − |x + 2| + |x − 3|. Several cases must be done.
The key values of x scanning from left to right are −2, −1, 3 resp.
Case1: For x ≤ −2, S(x) = −(x + 1) + (x + 2) − (x − 3) = −x + 4.
Case2: For −2 < x ≤ −1, S(x) = −(x + 1) − (x + 2) − (x − 3) = −3x.
Case3: For −1 < x ≤ 3, S(x) = (x + 1) − (x + 2) − (x − 3) = −x + 2.
Case4: For 3 < x, S(x) = (x + 1) − (x + 2) + (x − 3) = x − 4.
Draw the graph of y = S(x).

Practice Problems
p √
10. Simplify: 9 − 77.
p √
11. Simplify: 122 − 2 3397.
r
√ √ √
q p
12. Simplify: − 3 + 4 + 5 + 17 − 4 15.
r
√ √ √
q p
13. Simplify: 2+ 5− 6 − 3 5 + 14 − 6 5.
p √
14. Simplify: 3x + 2 − 2 2x2 − x − 15.
√ √
15. Simplify: S(x) = 4 − 4x + x2 + 4 + 4x + x2 .
Draw the graph of y = S(x).
p √ p √
16. Simplify: S(x) = x + 3 + 4 x − 1 + x + 3 − 4 x − 1.
p √
17. Simplify: 1 + x2 + 1 + x2 + x4 .
1 2 3
18. Simplify: √ √ +√ √ −√ √ .
3+ 2 5− 3 2+ 5
1 2 1
19. Simplify: p √ −p √ −p √ .
12 − 2 35 10 + 2 21 8 + 2 15
1
20. Rationalise the denomiator: √ √ √ .
2+ 3+ 5
1 1
21. Simplify: √ √ √ +√ √ √ .
2+ 3− 5 2− 3− 5
√ √
q p q p
22. Simplify S = 2 + −2 + 2 5 − 2 − −2 + 2 5.
p √
23. If x = 19 − 8 3, find the value of
P (x) = x4 − 6x3 − 2x2 + 18x + 23.
 s r s r
3 x+8 x−1 3 x+8x−1
24. Simplify: x+ + x− .
3 3 3 3
√ √ √
Hint 20: First of all multiply and divide by ( 2 + 3 − 5).
√ √
q p q p
Hint 22: Let a = 2 + −2 + 2 5 and b = 2 − −2 + 2 5
First compute a2 + b2 and ab. Now compute (a − b)2 .
Hint 23: First show that x2 − 8x + 13 = 0.
Now use division algorithm to divide P (x) by x2 − 8x + 13.
r
x−1
Hint 24: Let y = .
3
Now rewrite the given expression in terms of y.
|x − |x||
25. Is there a real number x such that is a positive number?
x
26. If a, b, c are non-zero real numbers, find all possible values of the expression
a b c
+ + .
|a| |b| |c|
a−b b−a
27. Determine the condition for the equality | |= .
a a
1
28. a, b, c are real numbers satisfying (3a + 6)2 + | b − 10| + |c + 3| = 0. Find the value
4
of a10 + bc.

29. Given 1 < x < 3, simplify the following expressions:

|x − 3| |x − 1|
(i) − . (ii) |x − 1| + |3 − x|.
x−3 (1 − x)
30. Given 1 < x < 3, simplify |x − 2| + 2|x|.

31. Simplify ||x − 2| − 7| − |7 − |x − 5|| for −2 < x < 5.

32. Determine the number of real solutions of the equation |x − 2| + |x − 3| = 1.

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D) more than 3.

33. Given m = |x + 2| + |x − 1| − |2x − 4|. Find the maximum value of m.

34. Let a < b < c, find the minimum value of the expression y = |x−a|+|x−b|+|x−c|.
9. Simultaneous Equations: (Beyond Crammers rule)
As numbers chosen in the problems are on purpose kept as simple as possible, you will
be able to guess at least some answers easily. The important point is, are you able to
systematically deduce these answers? And of course there could be few more answers. It
is expected that you supply the details of the fact that the solution set you have found
out is complete.
xy xz yz
1. = 1, = 2, = 3.
x+y x+z y+z
2. x + y = 5, x3 + y 3 = 35.

3. x − y = 1, x3 − y 3 = 7.
 4. x3 + y 3 = 7, xy(x + y) = −2.

5. x4 + y 4 = 82, xy = 3.

6. x3 + y 3 = 7, x3 y 3 = −8.

7. x + 3|y| = 1, x + y = −3.

8. x + 2y = 2, |2x − 3y| = 1.

9. |x − 1| + |y − 2| = 1, y = 3 − |x − 1|.

10. |x − 1| − |y − 2| = 1, y = 3 − |x − 1|.

11. y 3 − 9x2 + 27x − 27 = 0,

z 3 − 9y 2 + 27y − 27 = 0,
x3 − 9z 2 + 27z − 27 = 0.

12. (
Solve the system of equations
x−y x+y 1
− = ,
5 4 2
2(x − y) − 3(x + y) + 1 = 0.
13. Solve the system of equations
5.4x + 4.6y = 104,
4.6x + 5.4y = 96.

14. (
Solve the system of equations
x + 2(5x + y) = 16,
5x + y = 7.

15. (
Solve the system of equations
x y z
= = ,
2 3 5
x + 3y + 6z = 15
16. 
Solve the system of equations
 x+y =5

y+z =6

 z + x = 7.

17. 
Solve the system of equations

 x + 2y = 5,

 y + 2z = 8,

 z + 2u = 11,

u + 2x = 6.


18. Solve the system of equations

5x − y + 3z = a,
5y − z + 3x = b,
5z − x + 3y = c.
 19. Given that x, y, z satisfy the system of equations
2000(x − y) + 2001(y − z) + 2002(z − x) = 0,
2002 (x − y) + 20012 (y − z) + 20022 (z − x) = 2001, find the value of z − y.

20. Solve the system of equations for (x, y), and find the value of k.
x + (1 + k)y = 0,
(1 − k)x + ky = 1 + k,
(1 + k)x + (12 − k)y = −(1 + k).

10. Factorisation of algebraic identities

1. (d2 − c2 + a2 − b2 )2 − 4(bc − da)2 .

2. 64x6 − 729y 12 .

3. 2a3 + 6a2 + 6a + 18.

4. (i) x4 + 2x3 + 7x2 + 6x − 7; (ii) x3 + 9x2 + 23x + 15.

5. (i) (a + 1)(a + 2)(a + 3)(a + 4) − 120; (ii) x5 + x + 1.

6. (2y − 3z)3 + (3z − 4x)3 + (4x − 2y)3 .

7. (3a + 3b − 18ab)(3a + 3b − 2) + (1 − 9ab)2 .

8. 2x2 + 7xy − 4y 2 − 3x + 6y − 2.
Find the square root of the given polynomial .
x2 y 2
 
x y
9. 2 + 2 − 2 + + 3.
y x y x

2
10. (x − 1)(x3 + 4) + x2 + x2 .

11. (x − y)4 + 2(x4 + y 4 ) − 2(x2 + y 2 )(x − y)2 .

12. 16x3 (x − 2) − 8x(1 − 3x) + 1.

13. x2 + (1 + x2 )(1 + x)2 .

14. 4x4 + 32x2 + 96 + x644 + 128

x2
.

2

15. x2 + 2x12 − 12 x2 − 2x12 + 34.

16. (x2 + 3x + 7)(x2 + 5x + 3) + (x − 2)2 .

17. 4 x2 + x12 − 12 x − x1 + 1.

18. 4(x + 5)(x − 2)(x + 6)(x − 1) + 49.

19. x(x − 1)(x2 − x − 4) + 4.

20. Find the value of k such that

9x4 − 24x3 + 4x2 + kx + 4 is a perfecct square.
 21. Find the value of k such that
4x6 − 24x5 + 20x4 + 68x3 − 44x2 − 40x + k is a perfect square.
Factorize following symmetric and cyclic expressions.

22. a(b3 − c3 ) + b(c3 − a3 ) + c(a3 − b3 )

23. x2 (y − z) + y 2 (z − x) + z 2 (x − y)

24. x3 (y − z) + y 3 (z − x) + z 3 (x − y)

25. yz(y − z) + zx(z − x) + xy(x − y)

26. (y − z)3 + (z − x)3 + (x − y)3

27. x(y − z)3 + y(z − x)3 + z(x − y)3

28. x2 (y − z)3 + y 2 (z − x)3 + z 2 (x − y)3

29. x4 (y 2 − z 2 ) + y 4 (z 2 − x2 ) + z 4 (x2 − y 2 )

30. (x + y + z)3 − x3 − y 3 − z 3
a3 b3 c3
31. Simplify + +
(a − b)(a − c) (b − c)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b)
x=a x+b x+c
32. Simplify + +
(a − b)(a − c) (b − c)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b)
11. Fractional equations
x+7 x+8 x+5 x+6
1. Solve equation − − + = 0.
x+8 x+9 x+6 x+7
1 1 1 1 1
2. Solve the following Equation + + = − .
x2 + 2x x2 + 6x + 8 x2 + 10x + 24 5 x2 + 14x + 48
|x − 3| − |x + 1|
3. Solve equation = 1.
2|x + 1|
2x2 + 1 2x + 4
4. Solve equation + 2 = 3.
x+1 2x + 1
5. Suppose that the two roots of the equation
1 1 2
+ 2 − 2 = 0 are α and β.
x − 10x − 29 x − 10x − 45 x − 10x − 69
2

Find the value of α + β.

xy 1 xy 1
6. Solve the system for (x, y) : = , = .
3x + 2y 8 2x + 3y 7
4x2 + x + 4 x2 + 1 31
7. Solve equation + = .
x2 + 1 x2 + x + 1 6
x2 48 2x 8
8. solve equation + 2 = − .
15 5x 3 x
2−3
9. Solve equation 2x2 − 3x + = 1.
x2
  2
2 x
10. Solve equation x + = 3.
x+1
12. Rational Inequalities
Find all real values of x satisfying given rational inequality.
1. (x − 1)(3 − x)(x − 2)2 > 0
6x − 5
2. <0
4x + 1
x2 − 5x + 6
3. <0
x2 + x + 1
x2 + 4x + 4
4. >0
2x2 − x − 1
3
5. <1
x−2
x 1
6. >
x−5 2
5x − 1
7. <1
x2 + 3
x2 − 7x + 12
8. >0
2x2 + 4x + 5
x2 + 6x − 7
9. ≤2
x2 + 1
1 + x2
10. <0
x2 − 5x + 1
x2 − 5x + 7
11. >0
−2x2 + 3x + 2
17 − 15x − 2x2
12. <0
x+3
1
13. 2x2 + >0
x
x2 − x − 6
14. ≥0
x2 + 6x
x2 − 6x + 9
15. ≥0
5 − 4x − x2
1 3
16. <
x+2 x−3
x−1 x+1
17. − <2
x x−1
2(x − 3) 1
18. ≤
x(x − 6) x−1
 7 9
19. + +1<0
(x − 2)(x − 3) x − 3
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
20. >1
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
x2 + 6x − 7
21. <0
|x + 4|
2
22. >1
x−4
x2 − 3x − 1x
23. <3
x2 + x + 1
|x − 3|
24. ≥2
x2 − 5x + 6
x2 − |x| − 12
25. ≥ 2x
x−3
4. Numbers
1. Handling rational numbers and irrational numbers
Definition of Rational Numbers, Irrational Numbers.
Recurring decimal number, method to conver into fractional number, examples of
irrational numbers, how to construct irrational number in decimal expression form.
Prove why every rational number is recurring decimal number.

2. LCM,GCD
Prime factorisation, methods of finding LCM and GCD, finding total number of
divisors.
5. Graphs Sketch following graphs.
1. Quadratic function

(a) y = x2
(b) y = x2 + 1, y = x2 − 2
(c) y = (x − 1)2 , y = (x + 2)2
(d) y = (x − 1)2 + 1, y = (x + 2)2 + 2
(e) y = x2 − 7x + 10
(f) y = ax2 + bx + c

2. Linear Rational function

1
(a) y = x
1 1
(b) y = x
+ 1, y = x
−2
1 1
(c) y = x−1
, y= x+2
1 1
(d) y = x−1
+ 2, y = x+2 −1
(e) y = 2x−1
x−1
, y = −x−1
x+2
 ax+b
(f) y = cx+d

3. Absolute value function

(a) y = x
(b) y = |x|
(c) y = |x| + 2, y = |x| − 3
(d) y = |x − 1|, y = |x + 3|
(e) y = |x − 1| + 2, y = |x + 3| − 1
(f) y = ||x − 1| + 2|, y = ||x + 3| − 1|
(g) y = |x|2 − 7|x| + 10
(h) |y| = |x|
(i) |y| = |x| + 2, |y| = |x| − 3
(j) |y| = |x − 1| + 2, |y| = |x + 3| − 1
(k) |y| = ||x − 1| + 2|, |y| = ||x + 3| − 1|
(l) y = ||x|2 − 7|x| + 10|
(m) |y| = ||x|2 − 7|x| + 10|

6. Triangle Trigonometry

1. Definitions of Trigonometric ratios.

2. Three identities

7. Set Theory

1. Definitions: Universal set, Set, Subset, Proper subset, Power set, Empty set, Inter-
section of sets, Union of sets, Complement of a set etc..

2. De Morgan laws:
1. Complement of union is intersection of complements.
2. Complement of intersection is union of complements

3. Venn Diagram

8. Progressions

1. Arithmetic Progression
Consider a sequence t1 , t2 , t3 , · · ·
It is also denoted by < tn >.
t1 is called the first term of the sequence.
t2 is called the second term of the sequence.
t3 is called the third term of the sequence and so on.
tn is called the nth term of the sequence.
A sequence t1 , t2 , t3 , · · ·, in which t1 = a and for each n ∈ N tn+1 − tn = d, is called
an arithmetic sequence or an arithmetic progression. The number d is the common
difference of the A.P.
Formula for the nth term of an A.P.
Consider an A.P. with t1 = a and common difference = d.
a2 − a1 = d, ∴ a2 = a1 + d
a3 − a2 = d, ∴ a3 = a2 + d = a1 + 2d
a4 − a3 = d, ∴ a4 = a3 + d = a1 + 3d
Clearly to obtain next term of A.P. we need to add d to the previous term. To
obtain tn from t1 will be required to add d to a totally n − 1 times.
Hence tn = a + (n − 1)d.
Addition- Done Smartly:
In a class, there are 40 students.
Each student contributes some amount for a social cause.
Say Rupees 23, 15, 12, 21, 19, · · · , 26, 20.
Then to calculate the total contribution we will have to add all these 40 numbers. As
there is no specific pattern among these numbers, one will have to add labouriously
all these numbers to compute the total contribution.
Can you suggest the situation in which it would be very easy to compute the total
contribution. Indeed, if each student contributes say Rs 20, then obviously the total
contribution = 20 × 40 = 800.
Activity: Consider an A.P. < tn >, with t1 = a and common difference =d. We
wish to find the sum of the first n terms of this progression. We will denote it by
Sn .
Hence sn = t1 + t2 + · · · + tn .
In particular, s1 = t1 , s2 = t1 + t2 , s3 = t1 + t2 + t3 , etc.
As n numbers, to be summed up, have a simple pattern, we hope that we will be
able to add these n numbers rather easily.
You are invited to find out a smart method of doing so. Generally d is not zero and
hence, these numbers are certainly not equal.
Can we group them suitably such that, the sum of the numbers in each group will
be equal? We have already observed that if d > 0 then t1 < t2 < · · · < tn−1 < tn .
So how do we group these?
In terms of a and d.
sn = t 1 + t 2 + · · · + t n
sn = a + [a + d] + [a + 2d] + · · · + [a + (n − 2)d] + [a + (n − 1)d] · · · (1)
Let us denote the last term tn by L.
Say tn = L. How much is tn−1 in terms of L and d?
Indeed, tn−1 = L − d.
Then, tn−2 = L − 2d etc.
If we add these terms in the reverse order, what will be the total sum? Obviously,
the sum would remain the same. Hence,
sn = tn + tn−1 + tn−2 + · · · + t3 + t2 + t1 . Or in terms of L,
sn = L + (L − d) + (L − 2d) + · · · + (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a · · · (2)
We could rewrite (1) as
sn = a + [a + d] + [a + 2d] + · · · + [L − 2d] + [L − d] + L · · · (3)
Let us consider (2) and (3) together.
 sn = a + a + d +···+ L − 2d + L − d + L (I)
sn = L + L − d +···+ a + 2d + a + d + a (II)
Observe these two expressions (I) and (II) together.
Do they together suggest what to do next?
Indeed, let us add these two expressions.
LHS will be 2sn .
There are 2n terms on RHS.
Let us scan the RHS from left to right.
There are n pair of numbers.
What is the sum of two numbers in the first column?
What is the sum of two numbers in the second column?
What is the sum of two numbers in the third column?
What is the sum of two numbers in the last column?
What is the sum of two numbers in the second last column?
Indeed the two numbers in each column add upto a + L.
Can you give reason for this?
In the row (I) each successive term is obtained by adding d to the previous term.
In the row (II) each successive term is obtained by subtracting d to the previous
term.
Consider two successive columns say k th and k + 1th

k th column (k + 1)th column

Row I x x+d
Row II y y−d
Sum x+y x+y
Hence the sum of two numbers in each column remains same.
Now the sum of two elements in 1st column in a + L.
There are n such columns on RHS.
Hence the sum of all 2n members of RHS is (a + L)(n) = n(a + L)
∴ 2sn = n(a + L) · · ·(III).
∴ sn = n2 [t1 + tn ] = n2 [a + a + (n − 1)d]
∴ sn = n2 [2a + (n − 1)d] · · · (IV)
Let us give a name to this progress, which will help our memory trigger. Any
suggestions?
We will call this process Reverse and Add.

2. Geometric progression
tn+1
A sequence t1 , t2 , t3 , · · · in which t1 = a 6= 0 and for each n ∈ N, = r 6= 0 is
tn
called a geometric progression.
The number r is called the common ratio of the G.P.
Adding the first n terms of Geometric Progression:
Recall our method of finding the sum of the first n terms in an A.P.
Reverse and Add clearly uses the pattern that exists in the successive terms in an
A.P.
Can the same method work in case of G.P.? It is easy to see that it doesn’t. Con-
vince yourself.
We must learn to use the special pattern that exists in the successive terms of G.P.
Consider G.P. <tn> with t1=a and common ratio equal to r. Thus
sn = t1 + t2 + t3 + · · · + tn−1 + tn
= a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−2 + arn−1 · · · (1)
Consider rsn = ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 + arn · · · (2)
Let us rewrite (1) and (2) as shown below.
sn = a + ar +···+ arn−2 + arn−1 + (I)
n−2 n−1 n
rsn = + ar +···+ ar + ar + ar (II)
The effect of multiplying sn by r is to slide the expression to the right by one term.
(I)-(II) gives
sn − rsn = a − arn
∴ (1 − r)sn = a(1 − rn ).
If (1 − r) 6= 0 that is r 6= 1 we get,
1 − rn
sn = a( ).
1−r
If r = 1, sn = na.
We will say that we have used the slide and subtract technique.