Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651

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Results in Engineering
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High power and thermal-stable of graphene modified LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2

cathode by simple method for fast charging-enable lithium ion battery
Rosana Budi Setyawati a, b, Khikmah Nur Rikhy Stulasti b, Yazid Rijal Azinuddin b,
Windhu Griyasti Suci b, c, Harry Kasuma (Kiwi) Aliwarga d, Endah Retno Dyartanti a, b,
Agus Purwanto a, b, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, 57126, Indonesia
b
Centre of Excellence for Electrical Energy Storage Technology, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, 57146, Indonesia
c
Vocational School, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, 57126, Indonesia
d
UMG Idealab, Jakarta, 12930, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The use of batteries in modern electronic devices and electric cars is becoming increasingly important. Batteries
Cathode with high energy density, high rate and cycle capability, as well as operational safety, are in high demand today.
Fast-charging The cathode of a lithium-ion battery is a part that significantly affects the performance of the battery.
Graphene
LiNiMnCoO2 (NMC) cathode, especially in the composition of LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811), has high specific
Lithium-ion battery
NMC
capacity but not high thermal and electrical conductivity stability. To improve the temperature stability and
performance of the battery, conductive elements such as graphene can be added. The addition of graphene can
increase battery performance due to its high electrical conductivity characteristics. In this study, the addition of
graphene on NMC cathode through a simple solid-state technique along with direct mixing was shown to
improve the cathode characteristics. The addition of graphene on the NMC cathode also proved to be capable of
improving the cycle stability and rate capability. The retention capacity is 95.83 %, higher than that of the
cathode without graphene modification, which is 92.27 % after 100 cycles with 1C current, and comparable to
the capability of commercial batteries. The ability to work under rapid charge and discharge conditions was also
well demonstrated with a capacity drop of 5.44 % over 200 cycles at a charge and discharge current of 5C. The
addition of graphene was also shown to improve the safe use of NMC batteries. With the test at 5C current, the
highest temperature of the battery was 46.52 ◦ C, which is still considered safe for the operation of lithium ion-
based batteries at high currents. In this research, the use of a simple solid-state method to mix the graphene with
NMC811 cathode is proven to be able to produce lithium-ion batteries with superior performance. This offers
ease in terms for use in large-scale production of cathode preparation that can produce high-performance
cathodes.

1. Introduction
Basically, all human activities require energy [1,2]. Energy sources
to fulfill human needs are still dominated by fossil fuels that are limited
in availability and cause environmental problems [3,4]. In today’s era,
energy can be stored so that its use becomes more practical [5]. One of
the most efficient and popular energy storage devices used today is the
battery [6]. Batteries are widely applied to electronic equipment such as
laptops, cell phones, drones, remotes, and so on [7]. In addition to this
mobile electronic equipment, batteries are also used in the mini-grid
solar system and transportation sector [8–11]. Along with its develop­
ment, energy storage in the form of electronic devices is required to be
efficient, lightweight, not oversized, and have high performance [12].
The solution to this problem is to use Li-ion batteries [13], which have
advantages including high performance in the charge-discharge process,
high energy density, no memory effect, and small possibility of
self-discharge [14]. Improved Li-ion battery performance can be seen
from its ability to store large electrical capacity, produce good cycle
stability, and produce high energy density [15]. In addition, to fulfill the
needs for electric vehicles, high-specification batteries are needed with

* Corresponding author. Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, 57126, Indonesia.
E-mail address: aguspurwanto@staff.uns.ac.id (A. Purwanto).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101651
Received 4 July 2023; Received in revised form 15 November 2023; Accepted 1 December 2023
Available online 7 December 2023
2590-1230/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
R.B. Setyawati et al.
good performance at high currents in both charging and discharging
processes [16]. The fast-discharging capability of lithium-ion batteries is
needed in the use of equipment that requires high power. Fast charging
capability is needed to compete with fuel-based vehicles [17]. Users will
compare the charging ability of fuel oil which only takes a few minutes
to fully charge [18]. However, charging with high currents in lithium
ion batteries can decrease the energy efficiency value and cause rapid
capacity degradation [19].
The diffusion and ion transfer process at the electrode is the deter­
mining factor, so the selection the right electrode material is needed to
improve the diffusion kinetics of electrons and lithium ions at the
electrode so that the charging and discharging process becomes faster
[18]. The cathode is a lithium ion battery component that has a major
role in the performance of a battery [20]. This is because the process of
transferring lithium ions during the charging and discharging process is
strongly influenced by the structure of the cathode. Several types of
lithium ion battery cathodes that have been widely used include LCO
(Lithium Cobalt Oxide), LMO (Lithium Manganese Oxide), NCA
(Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide), LFP (Lithium Iron Phospha­
te/LiFePO4), and NMC (Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide) [21,
22]. Among these cathode types, NMC is a cathode material in lithium
batteries that has excellent advantages such as high capacity [23], high
current stability, relatively high volume capacity, and long cycle life
[24]. Cathode materials such as NMC, especially LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2
(NMC811), which have a high specific capacity, have the disadvantage
of low electrical conductivity, causing a rapid decrease in specific ca­
pacity [25]. In addition, the result of low electrical conductivity also
causes low rate ability, which limits the use of high-current batteries
[26]. To overcome these problems, several ways can be done, including
by reducing the particle size to the nanomaterial scale [27], which can
help increase the surface area of the material, or by adding more
conductive materials [28]. Polycrystalline NMC (PC NMC) is a type of
NMC cathode active material that has been widely commercialized, so it
is easy to find on the market. However, PC NMC has poor stability when
compared to the single-crystalline NMC (SC NMC) type [29]. Therefore,
it is necessary to modify the PC NMC material to improve its perfor­
mance. In this study, PC NMC811 material is used with the addition of
conductive material to increase the conductivity of the material, which
can improve its performance.
Improving the performance of Li-ion batteries with the addition of
conductive materials has started at the LMO and LFP cathodes with the
addition of activated carbon [30,31]. Activated carbon is a relatively
cheap material and has good cycling ability and rate ability, but has a
low specific capacity. Several studies have been conducted to improve
the performance of NMC811 cathode by adding conductive materials
such as graphene oxide (GO) [32,33], reduced graphene oxide (rGO)
[34], carbon black [35], carbon nanotubes (CNT) [36], graphene [37,
38], amorphous carbon [39], and carbon coating [40]. Graphene ma­
terial is one of the promising materials that can be chosen because of its
material advantages. Graphene is a material that is widely used as
supercapacitors, conductive coating component, catalysts, and for other
purposes [41–43]. Graphene has a medium specific capacitance and
high electrical conductivity. The addition of graphene can increase
battery capacity due to its high electrical conductivity characteristics
[44] and its large active surface material [45], so it has been widely used
to improve the electrochemical characteristics of anode and cathode
materials [46]. The addition of graphene can cause the electrochemical
characteristics of the material to increase, especially in rate ability [47].
The graphene used must also be of superior quality so as not to degrade
battery performance [48].
However, in some studies that have been conducted, the method of
adding graphene must go through several long stages [49–51]. Fan
modified the NMC811 cathode by creating an ion-conducting layer
made by reacting H3PO4 with lithium residue on the surface of NMC811
to form Li3PO4 and then forming an interface with high electronic
conductivity by attaching graphene fragments to NMC811 [37]. In
2
Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651
addition, Jan has also tried to modify NMC811 with graphene nano­
sheets by grounding followed by ultrasonication using ethanol [38]. The
performance improvement obtained by modifying the NMC cathode
with graphene is quite good, but some of the methods that have been
done are difficult if they are to be used industrially. To be carried out on
a large scale, a simple process and simple materials are needed, but it
also produces a good product. Therefore, optimization of the method
and composition of adding graphene material to the NMC cathode is
needed in the development of lithium-ion batteries to obtain the most
optimal application formula for use on an industrial scale. This research
was conducted by adding graphene to the NMC811 lithium-ion battery
cathode by means of simple solid-state mixing which is expected that
although the steps taken are only simple, it can facilitate its realization
in the industry. In addition, the optimum composition of graphene
addition was also determined. To evaluate the results obtained, perfor­
mance testing is carried out which is expected to produce a battery that
is able to demonstrate its ability in terms of fast charging and fast dis­
charging needed in various applications including electric vehicles.
2. Methods
The work consists of two stages, material preparation and battery
preparation, which are shown in Fig. 1. The material preparation con­
sists of sieving, weighing, and drying the material. Meanwhile, battery
preparation consists of making NMP-PVDF solution and mixing powder
by solid state method, then mixing, coating, drying, and assembly as a
battery.
The first step in making NMC cathode material modified with gra­
phene is sieving the LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) material through a
200-mesh sieve. All materials including NMC, acetylene black (AB) and
PVDF, also graphene powder were weighed according to the required
composition. Considering that the materials used are very sensitive to
humidity and atmospheric conditions, pretreatment was carried out by
storing all materials in a vacuum oven at 90 ◦ C before use.
Then, the cathode was prepared by simple direct mixing. PVDF was
dissolved in NMP using a stirrer under vacuum. A mixture of active
material (NMC) powder , conductive material AB, and graphene was
prepared with graphene composition of 0 % (NMC-G 0 %), 4 % (NMC-G
4 %), 7 % (NMC-G 7 %), and 10 % (NMC-G 10 %) of the total compo­
sition with NMC composition of 94 %, 90 %, 87 % and 84 % respectively
with AB composition fixed at 1 %. Then, NMC, AB, and graphene
powders were mixed using the solid-state method using a mortar and
pestle for 2 h under atmospheric conditions. The mixed solid materials
were kept in a vacuum oven at 90 ◦ C while waiting for the PVDF to
dissolve homogeneously in NMP. The solid mixtures were then charac­
terized to compare the material changes.
The powder mixture (NMC, AB, and graphene) was mixed with the
PVDF solution for 3 h at a constant speed of 1000 rpm until a homo­
geneous slurry was formed. The mixing process was carried out under
vacuum conditions to avoid exposure to atmospheric air. The slurry was
casted on aluminium foil with a thickness setting of 200 μm. The slurry
was then dried overnight at 90 ◦ C in a vacuum oven. 18650 cylindrical
cells underwent electrochemical tests with graphite anode which is a
commercial anode material in lithium-ion batteries [52], PP separator,
and 1 M LiPF6 in EC + EMC 3:7 (volume ratio) as the electrolyte. In this
study, the ratio of negative and positive electrode areal capacity (N/P
ratio) of 1.2 was used because it had been proven to produce the best
battery cycle among other ratios [53]. The type of separator used was PP
separator which has been widely commercialized, so it is easy to find.
The tests carried out consist of material characterization (raman
spectroscopy, XRD, FTIR, and SEM), electrochemical testing (EIS testing,
capacity testing, lifecycle, and rate capability) and thermal stability
testing. Raman spectroscopy testing was performed with Raman iHR320
Horiba. An XRD (X-Ray Diffractometer) from D2 Phaser Bruker, Ger­
many, was used for the analysis of the crystal structure of the powder
mixture using CuKα radiation λ = 1.54 Å with 2θ range of 10–80◦ and a
R.B. Setyawati et al. Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651

Fig. 1. Research method Diagram of (a) material preparation and (b) battery preparation.

scanning speed of 0.02◦ per second. A Shimadzu (Japan) FTIR spec­
trometer with a mid-IR region (4000-400 cm− 1) was used to analyze the
functional groups of the materials. A scanning electron microscope
(SEM) (JEOL JSM-6510 LA, Japan) was used in the morphs of the
sample. EIS electrochemical testing was performed with the NuVant
Systems EZstat Potentiostat. The electrochemical performance was
further tested for battery performance in cylindrical cell batteries using
a NEWARE Battery Analyzer and BTS program with a voltage window of
2.6–4.2 V to test the capacity, lifecycle, and rate capability of the bat­
tery. Battery temperature stability during the test was observed using
thermocouples attached to each cell. After testing in the form of a single
cell, performance testing was carried out using assembled drone device
with the F450 drone type. Testing is done by applying the battery as a
source of driving energy on the drone. Tests were carried out with 2
battery versions, the first with a 3S1P battery array and the second
version using a 3S2P array applied to the same drone.
NMC raw materials, it is also in accordance with the reference. So, the
test results of raw materials show that the graphene material used is as
expected. Synthesis of NMC-Graphene composite material has been
successfully carried out using solid state mixing method. Material
characterization tests were carried out to determine the structure of the
material after the addition of graphene to the NMC material. X-Ray
Diffractometer (XRD) testing was carried out to determine the crystal
structure of the material formed. Fig. 2 shows the XRD test results of
graphene-modified NMC cathode material.
The XRD pattern presented in Fig. 2 shows that all samples comply
with the JCPDS standard (No. 82–1495) and do not have a secondary
phase. All samples have a diffraction pattern of hexagonal structure
α-NaFeO2 (space group R3m). The splitting of (006)/(102) and (108)/
(110) peaks at 38◦ and 65◦ were clearly identified, indicating that the

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Material characterization

Material characterization testing was carried out for testing starting

materials and materials resulting from the solid-state process. Tests
carried out include raman spectroscopy, XRD, FTIR, and SEM. Previ­
ously, tests were carried out on the starting material to ensure its purity
and suitability for use. The tests carried out were Raman spectroscopy
and XRD, which are shown in Fig. S1 and Table S1 for Raman spec­
troscopy test results, and Fig. S2 for XRD test results. The specifications
of the graphene material used are attached in Table S2. Based on the
Raman test results, the graphene used has the same peak as the reference
in the D bands, G bands, and 2D bands with the ratio of the peak in­
tensity of the D to G bands (ID/IG) of 0.212 which is included in the
graphene material class [54]. As for XRD testing of AB, graphene, and
Fig. 2. XRD patterns of NMC-G in various graphene addition.

3
R.B. Setyawati et al.
material has a highly ordered layered structure [55]. A well-ordered
layered structure is required for efficient lithium-ion inter­
calation/deintercalation during discharge [56]. In addition, the sharp
peaks of 2θ in 15 – 20◦ and 40 - 46◦ show high crystalline properties.
Data presented in Table 1.
The layered material can be evaluated using the lattice, the results
are presented in Table 1. In the hexagonal structure, the values of a and c
can be determined by equations (1) and (2):
[ (a)2 ] 1
1 4 ( 2 )
2
= h + k2 + hk + l2 (1)
dhkl 3 c a2
1 4 1 ( 2 ) 1
2
= h + k2 + hk + 2 (2)
dhkl .l2 3 a2 .l2 c
Based on the calculation, all samples have a c/a value of >4.89,
which proves the existence of a regular hexagonal layered structure. The
better the hexagonal ordering, the higher the c/a ratio [57]. In this case,
the highest c/a value was obtained by NMC-G 0 %, followed by NMC-G
7 %, NMC-G 4 %, and NMC-G 10 %. In addition, cation mixing may
occur due to a small amount of Ni2+ at the Li+ site. Cation mixing occurs
due to the presence of Ni2+ during phase formation, which has a nega­
tive impact on the performance of the NMC cathode material. The
substitution of Li+ with Ni2+ causes blocking of the Li-ion pathway and
results in poor electrochemical performance. The higher the value of I
(003)/I(104), the lower the cation mixing of the material [58]. The ideal
cation mixing value is > 1.2, where NMC-G 7 % has the highest value
[59]. This means that the level of cation mixing in NMC-G 7 % is lower
than the other compositions, so it can produce the best cycling perfor­
mance when applied to lithium-ion batteries. The XRD pattern of gra­
phene has a sharp peak at 25◦ [60]. Graphene diffraction peaks are also
found, which can be observed in the XRD pattern of NMC-G with fairly
low peaks, indicating that graphene material envelops the NMC mate­
rial. The greater the amount of graphene added, the higher the peak
formed. This shows that the surface treatment of graphene has an effect
on the crystal structure [61]. However, in some previous studies it was
also found that the addition of graphene did not affect the original
crystal structure of pure NMC [25,49].
FTIR (Fourier Transform Infra-Red) testing is carried out to deter­
mine whether or not there are changes in the functional groups on the
cathode as a result of the addition of graphene material to the NMC
cathode. The spectra of the FTIR sample test results are shown in Fig. 3.
With the addition of graphene to the NMC cathode material, the sharp
peak at 760 cm− 1 is reduced, and the slope of the basin is sloping. This
shows the increase of the C– –O bond between graphene material and
NMC cathode material formed due to solid state mixing between gra­
phene and NMC [62]. The greater the amount of graphene added, the
greater the change in the peak formed. This is predicted to be caused by
the greater the amount of graphene added, the more bonds formed be­
tween graphene and NMC particles. However, further research is still
required regarding the atomic relationships that occur between particles
that are bound together physically and chemically in a battery electrode.
To determine the morphology and size of the material, SEM and TEM
testing was conducted. SEM images were taken with 1000 times
magnification. Fig. 4a shows an image of NMC material before the
addition of graphene. From the figure, it can be observed that the NMC
particles are uniform and the NMC material grains are very clear. NMC
particles with a size range of 1–20 μm are obtained. The uniform size
Table 1
The lattice parameter of NMC-G samples.
Sample NMC-G 0 % NMC-G 4 % NMC-G 7 % NMC-G 10 %
a (Å) 2.850 2.852 2.848 2.856
c (Å) 17.408 16.667 16.667 16.440
c/a 6.108 5.843 5.852 5.756
I(003)/I(104) 1.826 1.906 1.939 1.836
4
Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651
Fig. 3. FTIR patterns of NMC-G in various graphene addition.
distribution of NMC particles without significant agglomeration is
clearly observed. The particle shape is like a regular polyhedron with a
smooth surface, implying high crystallinity of the material [63]. Fig. 4
(b), (c), and (d) show images of NMC material with graphene added with
4 %, 7 %, and 10 % composition. With a magnification of 1000 times, we
can see flake particles which are graphene material [64] around the
NMC material, the more the amount of graphene added, the graphene
material attached to the NMC material is more clearly visible.
To further visualize the morphology of graphene on the surface of
NMC, TEM testing was carried out, which is shown in Fig. 4e. Based on
the test results, it is clear that NMC particles with graphene flakes are
attached to the side of the NMC material surface. This shows that the
graphene material is distributed on the surface of the NMC material.
Based on testing of this material, mixing the material with a simple solid-
state method is able to mix the material evenly. However, the addition of
graphene with a simple solid-state method has not been able to make the
NMC material perfectly coated with graphene material. The addition of
conductive material to the material with a simple method is difficult to
make the conductive material and binder able to envelop the active
material properly. To find out further effects in the form of electrodes,
cross-section SEM testing was carried out on the resulting electrodes.
The test results are shown in Fig. S3f for 2000x magnification and Fig. 4
(f and g) for 10000x magnification. Based on the test results of NMC-G 7
% electrodes, graphene material is seen to stick and spread evenly on the
surface of NMC material (Fig. 4g), which looks different from electrodes
that do not use graphene (NMC-G 0 %) which are still clearly visible
NMC particles (Fig. 4f). This shows that the effect of graphene addition
can be observed quite clearly when it is already applied in the form of
electrodes. Other methods offer better results of enveloping NMC ma­
terials with graphene. As in previous studies, the addition of graphene
by solution dispersion method can make the material well coated and
produce >70 % capacity stability up to 300 cycles and resistance up to
10C current [65].Thus, in terms of morphological test results, the se­
lection of a simple solid-state method is seen to have disadvantages
compared to other methods. The performance of the active material can
be further enhanced by adding graphene with a large surface area to the
surface of NMC cathode. This will increase the area of contact of the
electrolyte and the cathode material. Furthermore, during the dis­
charging and charging process, lithium storage on graphene sheets
might lessen electrochemical polarization [55]. The active material’s
surface layer of conductive material serves as an electrical conductor
that ions can pass through, facilitating transfer process of the electron
[66]. Therefore, the NMC active material’s conductivity will rise if
graphene particles can cover its surface, improving battery performance
R.B. Setyawati et al. Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651

Fig. 4. SEM and TEM test results: SEM morphology of the materials at magnification 1000 times of (a) NMC-G 0 %, (b NMC-G 4 %, (c) NMC-G 7 %, and (d) NMC-G
10 %; (e) TEM test results of the NMC-G 7 % material; SEM cross section test results of the electrode at magnification 10000 times for (f) NMC (NMC-G 0 %) cathode
and (g) NMC-G (NMC-G 7 %) cathode.

during cycles of charging and discharging. With the results obtained in graphite anode on 18650-type cylindrical cell. Fig. 5 shows the elec­
this study, the presence of graphene around the NMC material, which is trochemical test results of NMC-G materials with 0 % – 10 %wt graphene
quite evenly distributed, is expected to help improve electron transfer addition. NMC material with graphene addition using a simple direct
and result in better cathode performance [67]. mixing method with 7 % graphene addition produces the highest initial
specific capacity in this research, which is 158.1 mAh/g. Meanwhile,
NMC materials with the addition of 0 %, 4 %, and 10 % graphene pro­
3.2. Electrochemical analysis
duced initial specific capacities of 138.1, 141.6, and 145.7 mAh/g,
respectively. This research proves that NMC materials with the addition
Electrochemical analysis of the battery was performed by electro­
of conductive materials such as graphene can improve electrochemical
chemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) test and charge and discharge
performance [55]. However, with the addition of 10 % by weight of
performance test, to test the battery capacity, rate capability, and cycle
graphene, the specific capacity decreases. This is because the more
capability test. The cathode film was prepared based on the mass
graphene added, the more it is possible to reduce the electrochemical
composition as presented in Table 2. The EIS test results are attached in
capacity during battery charge and discharge testing. The addition of too
Fig. S4 in the supporting information. The EIS test results provide
semicircular and straight-line plots showing that the NMC-G 7 % sample
has a very small Rct value indicating the high electrochemical perfor­
mance that can be produced by the NMC-G 7 % sample. Thus, the
addition of graphene with proper composition can reduce the imped­
ance efficiently.
To determine the electrochemical performance, NMC-Graphene
composite material was tested and applied as the cathode with

Table 2
The cathode’s material composition.
No Sample Composition of Material Mass ratio of NMC
to Graphene
NMC811 Graphene AB PVDF

1. NMC-G 0 0.94 0 0.01 0.05 1:0

%
2. NMC-G 4 0.90 0.04 0.01 0.05 1 : 0.04
%
3. NMC-G 7 0.87 0.07 0.01 0.05 1 : 0.08
%
4. NMC-G 0.84 0.10 0.01 0.05 1 : 0.12
Fig. 5. Specific initial discharge capacity test results of NMC-G in various
10 %
graphene addition.

5
R.B. Setyawati et al.
much graphene can also reduce the composition of the active cathode
material used. Whereas the amount of active material contained in the
cathode will determine the capacity of the battery [68].
The test results of the rate capability of NMC materials with the
addition of graphene variations are shown in Fig. 6a. First, the battery
cells are tested for variations in discharging current from 0.5C to 3C with
a constant charging current 0.5C to test the ability of the battery at
various discharging currents. In testing up to 3C current, there is a
decrease in specific capacity of 16.3 %, 14.06 %, 8.4 %, and 13.4 % from
the first cycle capacity for graphene addition of 0 %, 4 %, 7 %, and 10 %
respectively. Then, the battery cells are tested for variations in charging
current from 0.5C to 3C with a constant discharging current at 0.5C to
test the ability of the battery at various discharging currents. In testing
up to 3C current, there is a decrease in specific capacity by 43 %, 18.5 %,
12.9 %, and 20.5 % from the first cycle capacity for graphene additions
of 0 %, 4 %, 7 %, and 10 %. After testing up to 3C current, the battery is
returned to testing at 0.1C current as in the initial capacity test. Based on
the test results, the battery with 7 % graphene composition has the best
capacity resistance with the ability to return the same capacity as the
initial capacity. These findings demonstrate that NMC materials
including up to 7 % by weight of graphene have improved rate capa­
bility, while compositions containing up to 10 % of graphene perform
slightly worse than those containing 7 % graphene. The charge/
discharge curve profile for the NMC-G 7 % battery at each C-rate is
shown in Fig. 6b. With the addition of graphene up to the optimum
composition, the irreversible capacity loss is smaller than the NMC
cathode without graphene addition [69]. Batteries with 7 % graphene
composition have been shown to maintain their capacity up to 3C cur­
rent. This opens up opportunities for the battery to be used at higher
currents. Testing at higher currents will be discussed in the next section.
Fig. 6. Rate capability test results of (a) NMC-G in various graphene addition
and (b) NMC-G 7 % charge/discharge curves of each C-rate.
6
Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651
To test the battery cycle life, Fig. 7a shows the cycling ability test
results of NMC material with 7 % graphene addition (NMC-G 7 %)
compared to NMC material without battery addition (NMC-G 0 %). The
battery cell was tested with a charge current of 0.5C and a discharge
current of 1C. Based on the test results, it was found that the addition of
graphene can improve the cycle stability of the battery. The retention
capacity of NMC-G 7 % battery is 95.83 %, which is greater than that of
NMC-G 0 % battery, which is 92.27 % after 100 cycles. In addition, tests
were also conducted on commercial batteries that have been produced
on an industrial scale, shown in Fig. 7b. The commercial cylindrical
battery used is type US18650VTC5 (Green) with a theoretical capacity of
2600 mAh and a nominal voltage of 3.6V. The commercial battery
showed a retention capacity of 73.75 % after testing for 1000 cycles,
lower than the NMC-G 7 % battery which was able to retain 81.32 % of
its first discharge capacity at the same current. Based on the test results,
the NMC-G 7 % battery, which is the result of this research in the lab­
oratory, has a capacity that is able to compare with commercially pro­
duced batteries, which are automated in the production process and
have minimal errors also minimal impurities, and even have comparable
cycle stability. This result can be said to be very good, and the NMC-G 7
% battery is able to compete in the market if it will be produced on an
industrial scale.
Further cycle tests were conducted on the NMC-G 7 % battery for
3500 cycles. The results of the cycling ability test are shown in Fig. 8.
The results show that the cycle endurance of the NMC-G 7 % battery is
very good as there is still a capacity retention of 64.75 % after 3500
cycles, which is influenced by the presence of 7 % graphene in the
cathode. This can be attributed to the high conductivity of graphene
material which is able to build an effective conductive network with
NMC and conductive particles [70] and the uniform size of graphene
offers easier access for electrolyte ions into the electrode [71], short­
ening the diffusion length of lithium ions and accelerating the diffusion
of Li+ ions from/to the lithium insertion site in the NMC material [72].
Thus, the addition of graphene can improve cycle stability and thus
increase battery life.
Some of the studies that have been conducted regarding the addition
of graphene to the cathode of Li-ion batteries are shown in Table 3.
Compared to the existing studies, graphene addition using simple solid-
state mixing is the easiest method and possible to be used on an indus­
trial scale. By fabricating 18650 cylindrical cell batteries, the resulting
batteries have a fairly good capacity and good rate capability, which can
be compared with existing research. In terms of lifetime, the battery has
superior durability so that its cycling ability is very good. Therefore, the
use of a simple solid-state method with the ease of battery production
process through this method makes it possible to be carried out on a
large scale and produce good quality batteries.
3.3. Temperature stability analysis
Temperature testing is also carried out to test the safety of battery
operation because lithium-ion batteries can degrade at high tempera­
tures [73]. The performance, durability, and safety of lithium-ion bat­
teries are all greatly impacted by operating temperature [74,75]. The
results of temperature testing on batteries with and without the addition
of graphene are shown in Table S3 and Fig. S5. Test results with varia­
tions in discharge current show that the NMC-G 7 % battery temperature
produces a maximum operating temperature of 40.78 ◦ C at a current of
3C. While the NMC-G 0 % battery produces a maximum operating
temperature of 42.22 ◦ C. For charging current variations, the NMC-G 7
% battery temperature produces a maximum operating temperature of
40.78 ◦ C at 3C, while the NMC-G 0 % battery produces a maximum
operating temperature of 44.08 ◦ C at 3C current. Graphene can improve
battery performance in terms of operating temperature, increasing the
safety of the battery for use, according to these test results. In addition to
being safer, lower working temperatures can increase the specific ca­
pacity of reversible batteries. This is due to the fact that at high
R.B. Setyawati et al. Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651

Fig. 7. Cycling ability test results at 0.5C charging current and 1C discharging current of (a) NMC-G 0 % and NMC-G 7 % for 100 cycles and (b) NMC-G 7 % and
commercial battery for 1000 cycles.

capacity stability and thermal stability in long cycles at high currents is

Fig. 8. Cycling ability test results at 0.5C charging current and 1C discharging
current of NMC-G 7 % for 3500 cycles.
temperatures, the presence of dissolved metals will then migrate to the
negative electrode surface, causing the SEI layer to continuously
reconstruct and discharge lithium [76], which decreases the reversible
specific capacity [77].
Lithium-ion batteries are required in various equipment that require
large power and energy density, such as in electric vehicles. Therefore,
the ability to perform at high currents is one of the important criteria for
lithium ion batteries to be used optimally [78]. The ability to maintain
necessary [79], so that with the high quality of energy density, safety is
well maintained [80]. Further tests were conducted by operating the
NMC-G 7 % battery at high charging and discharging current operations
to determine its performance capabilities for fast charge and fast
discharge. Tests were conducted with a battery that has a discharge
formation capacity of 1260 mAh. Tests were done by operating the
battery at 5C charging and 5C discharging currents for 200 cycles. The
test results are shown in Fig. 9.
Based on the test results, the NMC-G 7 % battery is able to maintain
capacity well at high charge and discharge currents. During 200 cycles,
the battery capacity tends to be constant after being applied high cur­
rent, which is 5C for charge and 5C for discharge. With a charging
current of 5C and a discharging current of 5C, it can be said that the
current is quite high for battery applications, which supports fast
charging capabilities and can be fully charged for approximately 12 min.
The battery capacity becomes constant at around 900 mAh or still
operating at a stable 75 % of initial capacity. The capacity-drop after
going through 200 cycles is 5.44 %. This capacity is relatively stable for
lithium-ion battery operation at large currents. This is proven by the
coulombic efficiency value shown by the red line which shows a rela­
tively constant value in the range of 100 %. The stable coulombic effi­
ciency value indicates the stability of ion transfer during the charging
and discharging processes. With these test results, it can be concluded
that the transfer of ions from the cathode and anode and the reverse
occurs well. This shows that the presence of graphene on the NMC
cathode is able to improve the performance stability of lithium-ion
batteries at high current usage. This shows that the presence of gra­
phene on the NMC cathode is able to improve the stability of lithium-ion

Table 3
Summary of NMC-graphene cathode performances from previous studies.
Cathode material Methods Electro-chemical Initial Specific Retention Rate Performances Ref.
Testing Capacity (mAh/g) Capacity

NMC811-PTCDA/ Solid state Full cell (coin cell 194.1 (2.8–4.3 V) 92.8 % after 100 122 mAh/g at 10C (62 % initial [49]
Graphene CR2032) cycles capacity)
NMC811- graphene Grounding + ultrasonication Half cell (coin cell 212.9 (2.7–4.3 V) 92.2 % after 150 163.8 mAh/g at 5C (76 % initial [38]
nanosheet with ethanol CR2032) cycles capacity)
NMC811-graphene Mixed conducting interlayer Half cell (coin cell 184.9 (3.0–4.3 V) 94.3 % after 150 129 mAh/g at 10C (70 % initial [37]
CR2032) cycles capacity)
NMC811-CB/rGO Direct mixing method Half cell (coin cell 216.48 (2.5–4.5V) 85 % after 88 93.20 mAh/g at 3C (43 % initial [35]
CR2032) cycles capacity) and <50 mAh/g at 5C
NMC811-graphene Simple solid-state mixing 18650 cylindrical 158.1 (2.6–4.2 V) 95.83 % after 100 75 % initial capacity at 5C This
cell cycles study

7
R.B. Setyawati et al.
Fig. 9. Cycle life profile on fast charging and fast discharging currents (5C
charging current and discharging current).
battery performance at high current usage.
In addition to its ability in capacity and performance stability, the
addition of graphene to the NMC cathode is proven to be able to improve
the operating temperature stability of lithium-ion batteries at high
currents. Besides in terms of capacity, battery temperature testing at
high currents needs to be carried out because battery power can
decrease at high temperatures [81]. Temperature testing was conducted
during performance testing at 5C charging and 5C discharging currents.
The test results are shown in Figs. 10 and 11.
Temperature is one of the important factors affecting the durability
of lithium-ion batteries. LiPF6 salt which is commonly used as an elec­
trolyte in lithium-ion based batteries will decompose at temperatures
above 60 ◦ C, thus reducing battery life [78]. In addition, the degradation
of all components in Li-ion battery including the effectiveness of the
cathode and anode and the presence of side reactions that can occur
faster in the presence of high temperatures are problems in the devel­
opment of fast charging technology [82].
Based on the test results, the NMC-G 7 % battery is able to maintain
temperature stability while operating at high currents. As can be seen
from Fig. 10, which depicts the temperature and capacity profiles during
the test with a charging and discharging current of 5 C for 1 cycle, the
temperature rises during the charging process and reaches a peak to­
wards the end of the charging phase. It can be predicted that the final
process of the charging phase is a phase that must be monitored at the
battery security to avoid the possibility of overheating which can be
dangerous and resulting a safety risk so that the design of the battery for
fast charging capability must be seriously considered [83]. Then the
Fig. 10. 1 cycle profile of battery temperature on fast charging and fast dis­
charging currents (5C charging current and discharging current).
8
Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651
Fig. 11. 200 cycle profile of battery temperature on fast charging and fast
discharging currents (5C charging current and discharging current).
temperature tends to decrease again in the resting and discharging
phases.
In continuous battery temperature testing for 200 cycles, shown in
Fig. 11, the battery temperature tends to show a constant value between
36 and 46 ◦ C. The highest temperature peak is at 46.52 ◦ C. This tem­
perature can still be said to be safe for the operation of lithium ion-based
batteries in the use of charging and discharging at high temperatures
because the safe limit for thermal runaway is when the temperature
reaches 60 ◦ C [84]. This result is good enough, considering that the
separator used is a PP separator that is already widely found on the
market, not the type of tri-layer PP/PE/PP separator that helps prevent
thermal runaway of lithium-ion batteries [85]. Further research using a
tri-layer PP/PE/PP separator needs to be done to produce batteries with
the best performance and a better level of safety. This result supports the
ability of lithium-ion battery applications to be used in fast-charging and
fast-discharging-based technologies that only require about 12 min for
each step. The results of this study show that lithium-ion batteries with
an NMC811-type cathode with graphene addition modification on the
cathode with the right composition, which is 7 % (NMC-G 7 %), produce
batteries with good capacity, which are equipped with the ability to
maintain capacity stability and temperature stability in operations with
high currents up to 5C in the charging and discharging process. It is
shown that a graphene-modified NMC811 cathode with a simple
solid-state method can produce a high-power, thermally stable
lithium-ion battery with fast charging capability. The ability of
graphene-modified NMC batteries can be one of the solutions to the need
for lithium ion-based batteries that require the ability to charge with
high currents.
Battery testing is carried out for actual applications in electronic
devices in addition to testing battery cell performance. The device used
for testing is an assembled propeller drone. This test is carried out
because the drone requires a large current to be able to move and fly
upward. The results and details of the test are presented in supporting
information Figs. S6, S7, S8, and Table S4. According to test results, the
battery with an NMC cathode enhanced with graphene can deliver good
performance. Thus, a battery with a graphene-modified NMC cathode is
proven to be capable of being used in electronic equipment that requires
high current. Because of this, the battery with a graphene-modified NMC
cathode performs well and maintains a stable temperature in both
single-cell testing and in actual use with electrical devices.
In this study, the use of a simple solid-state method is proven to be
able to produce lithium-ion batteries with superior performance. Based
on the results of material testing, electrochemical testing, and thermal
stability testing that have been carried out, the addition of conductive
material in the form of graphene to the NMC811 cathode with the right
R.B. Setyawati et al.
composition is able to improve the ability of lithium-ion batteries for
real applications in various equipment. With a simple solid-state
method, the resulting cathode material is able to produce better per­
formance compared to the NMC cathode without the addition of gra­
phene material. This research method proves to be better than existing
research, especially for use in large-scale production, which offers
convenience in terms of cathode preparation capable of producing high-
performance cathodes.
4. Conclusions
Today, battery technology is more important than ever. There is a
demand for batteries with high energy density, high rate and cycle
capability, and operational safety. Battery performance is significantly
affected by the cathode, a component of lithium-ion batteries. Despite
having a high specific capacity, NMC cathodes, especially in the
composition of LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811), have low thermal sta­
bility and electrical conductivity. In this study, a simple solid-state
method is used that allows for effective production on an industrial
scale. According to the material characterization results, the addition of
graphene-conductive material by this simple method can improve the
performance of lithium-ion batteries. With a typical current of 1C, the
capacity retention after 100 cycles is 95.83 % in the graphene-modified
NMC cathode material, which is an improvement over NMC without
graphene of only 92.27 %. Moreover, this capability is comparable to
that of industrially produced commercial batteries. After 3500 cycles,
there is also a capacity retention of 64.75 %. With a capacity loss of 5.44
% over 200 cycles at a charge and discharge current of 5C, the ability to
operate under fast charge and discharge conditions was also established.
It has also been demonstrated that the use of graphene improves the safe
use of NMC batteries, with the largest temperature recorded during
charge and discharge at a current of 5C, which is 46.52 ◦ C. In addition,
with application testing on real devices, like drones, batteries with
graphene-modified NMC cathodes by this simple method are able to
produce good performance. Because of this, the battery with a graphene-
modified NMC cathode performs well and maintains a stable tempera­
ture in both single-cell testing and in actual use with electrical devices.
This research method is proven to be better than existing research,
especially for use in large-scale production, which offers ease in terms of
cathode preparation that can produce high-performance cathodes. Thus,
this simple method for producing lithium-ion batteries with graphene-
modified NMC cathodes can be one of the solutions to the need for
batteries for electric vehicles and other equipment that require high
capability, as well as to meet its increasing needs for production on an
industrial scale. Further research still needs to be developed, related to
optimizing the use of separators and the type of material on the cathode
or anode, also the investigation about the material characteristics, to be
able to produce batteries with better performance.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Rosana Budi Setyawati: Writing - original draft, Visualization,
Methodology. Khikmah Nur Rikhy Stulasti: Software, Formal analysis.
Yazid Rijal Azinuddin: Resources, Methodology. Windhu Griyasti
Suci: Investigation, Project administration. Harry Kasuma (Kiwi) Ali­
warga: Validation, Funding acquisition. Endah Retno Dyartanti: Su­
pervision, Writing - review & editing. Agus Purwanto:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
9
Results in Engineering 21 (2024) 101651
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This paper is supported by Penelitian Fundamental Regular (Grant
Numbers : 1280.1/UN27.22/PT.01.03/2023) and UMG Idealab.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101651.
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