foods
Review
Sea Buckthorn Pretreatment, Drying, and Processing of
High-Quality Products: Current Status and Trends
Xuetao Zhang 1 , Mengqing Li 1 , Lichun Zhu 1 , Zhihua Geng 1 , Xinyu Liu 1 , Zheyu Cheng 1 , Mengxu Zhao 1 ,
Qian Zhang 2, * and Xuhai Yang 1,3, *
Citation: Zhang, X.; Li, M.; Zhu, L.;
Geng, Z.; Liu, X.; Cheng, Z.; Zhao, M.;
Zhang, Q.; Yang, X. Sea Buckthorn
Pretreatment, Drying, and Processing
of High-Quality Products: Current
Status and Trends. Foods 2023, 12,
4255. https://doi.org/10.3390/
foods12234255
Academic Editor: Isabel Hernando
Received: 30 September 2023
Revised: 18 November 2023
Accepted: 20 November 2023
Published: 24 November 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Foods 2023, 12, 4255. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12234255
1 College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
2 Engineering Research Center for Production Mechanization of Oasis Special Economic Crop,
Ministry of Education, Shihezi 832003, China
3 Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, Key Laboratory of Modern Agricultural Machinery,
Shihezi 832003, China
* Correspondence: zq_mac@shzu.edu.cn (Q.Z.); yxh_513@shzu.edu.cn (X.Y.)
Abstract: Sea buckthorn is a kind of berry rich in nutritional and industrial value. Due to its thin
skin, juicy pulp, and short shelf life, it is usually preserved via freezing methods or directly processed
into sea buckthorn puree after harvest. It can also be dried and processed into products such as dried
sea buckthorn fruit, freeze-dried sea buckthorn powder, and sea buckthorn oil. This review, therefore,
provides an overview of the existing state of drying and high-quality processing of sea buckthorn.
The effects of different pretreatment and drying techniques on the drying characteristics and quality
of sea buckthorn and the existing problems of superior-quality processing of sea buckthorn products
are summarised. The development trend of sea buckthorn drying methods and the ways to achieve
high-quality processing of sea buckthorn products are indicated. These ways are mainly related
to the following: (1) The application of combined pretreatment and drying techniques to find a
balance between economy, ecology, and efficiency; (2) Introducing new online measurement and
control technology into drying equipment; (3) Optimising the existing process to form a complete sea
buckthorn industrial chain and develop the sea buckthorn deep-processing industry.
Keywords: sea buckthorn; drying kinetics; drying quality; high-quality process; research progress
1. Introduction
With the Action Plan of the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, the global
promotion of returning farmland to forests and afforesting barren mountains is having
far-reaching socio-environmental effects [1,2]. Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) is
a deciduous shrub belonging to the genus sea buckthorn in the family Elaeagnaceae [3].
Sea buckthorn is a berry plant with the unique ability to endure both drought and cold
conditions [4]. In addition, it can be used as a windbreak, fixing sand and nitrogen to
promote the growth of other plants [5–8]. Sea buckthorn is known worldwide as a medicinal
and food plant that is enriched with vitamins, flavonoids, and polyphenols. Therefore, it
has substantial economic benefits and development potential [9–14]. Various products can
be processed from sea buckthorn. Not only can it be used in making dried sea buckthorn
pulp [15], sea buckthorn beverage [16], and sea buckthorn freeze-dried powder [17] but
it can also be made into sea buckthorn wine [18] and sea buckthorn oil [19], among other
products. Sea buckthorn oil contains a number of pharmacological properties, including
the ability to protect cardiovascular and cerebral vessels, improve circulation, and boost
immunity. And, it has numerous active components, one of which, SOD (superoxide
dismutase), is a key natural beauty ingredient [20–22].
Sea buckthorn pulp will ferment and deteriorate at room temperature for a short period
of time due to its high water content of 80–90%, and the thin skin of the pulp is prone to
rupture. As a consequence, it lacks the ability to store and the convenience of transporting
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 2 of 24

water [23]. That leads to its short shelf life after harvesting. If the drying of sea buckthorn
is not performed in a timely manner, it is extremely susceptible to microbial contamination
and spoilage. Currently, sea buckthorn is commonly preserved using freezing methods
before being processed [24]. However, the nutritional value of sea buckthorn decreases with
prolonged freezing time [25]. Another method of preservation is to produce sea buckthorn
beverages directly after harvesting them [26]. Drying is an efficient processing method to
extend the shelf life of berry products. It is advantageous for transportation and storage.
Moisture is swiftly removed from the material, but a considerable amount of nutrients and
active substances is still retained during drying [27–29]. Sea buckthorn pulp, after vacuum
freeze-drying, can be brewed, compounded, and fermented to make juice, wine, and other
products. Hence, the drying of sea buckthorn pulp after harvesting is a crucial step in
the process.
Agricultural product drying is a complicated, non-stationary heat and mass transport
process. It is a heat and mass transfer process that occurs between the substance and the
external medium [30,31]. At present, the traditional drying techniques for sea buckthorn
include natural drying and hot-air drying [32,33]. Natural drying uses solar or wind energy
to evaporate the internal moisture of materials. Hot-air drying works by heating the air with
thermal energy to evaporate water inside the material. However, two traditional drying
methods are inefficient and have terrible drying quality. Moreover, the wasted heat from
hot-air drying will have a negative impact on the environment [34]. Therefore, the primary
purpose of contemporary research on new drying technology is focused on reducing
drying energy consumption, cost, and other issues [35] to improve drying quality and
efficiency. New drying technique include vacuum freeze-drying, infrared-radiation drying,
spray drying, and combined drying (infrared combined with hot-air drying, etc.) [36–38].
Tian et al. [39] investigated the effects of different drying temperatures on the water content
and total flavonoid content of sea buckthorn marc under hot-air drying conditions. The
results revealed that, when the drying temperature increased, the water content and total
flavonoid content of sea buckthorn marc decreased. Consequently, in order to preserve
the nutrients in sea buckthorn, it is important to take the drying rate into account [40].
The drying kinetics and nutritional value of sea buckthorn were researched by Araya-
Farias et al. [41] at different hot-air drying and vacuum freeze-drying temperatures. They
discovered that the lower drying temperature, the better the nutrient retention. Meanwhile,
vacuum freeze-drying is more effective than hot-air drying at preserving the nutrients in
sea buckthorn. However, the substantial energy expenditure of vacuum freeze-drying
limits its utilization in the sea buckthorn drying industry [42]. For the sake of solving
the issue of energy costs. Geng et al. [43] studied the drying kinetics, physicochemical
characteristics, and microstructure of sea buckthorn using hot-air drying, infrared-radiation
drying, combined infrared and hot-air drying, pulsed vacuum-drying, and vacuum freeze-
drying methods. The results indicated that pulsed vacuum-drying retained slightly fewer
nutrients in sea buckthorn than vacuum freeze-drying. However, it is rather inexpensive
and has the potential to be unscaled for industrial production.
The surface of sea buckthorn is covered with a waxy layer [44], preventing internal
moisture from migrating to the surface during drying. The drying process will, therefore,
take longer and use more energy to remove the water. There is also a risk that the dry-
ing quality will worsen as the drying duration increases [45]. It is, therefore, necessary
to employ pretreatment techniques to reduce the hydrophobicity of the sea buckthorn
epidermis before drying begins. Enhance the diffusion of moisture during drying [46] to
speed up drying and ensure drying quality. Blanching pretreatment, ultrasonic pretreat-
ment, mechanical pretreatment, and chemical pretreatment are now prevalent pretreatment
techniques for berries before drying [47–49]. Yao et al. [50] investigated the comparative
analysis of blanching pretreatment, ultrasonic pretreatment, and chemical pretreatment
to improve the effectiveness of hot-air drying of sea buckthorn with large pulp. It was
discovered that different pretreatment procedures all accelerate the drying rate by damag-
ing the surface microstructure of the sea buckthorn. The flavonoids were damaged due to
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 3 of 24

the high temperature involved in the blanching pretreatment, resulting in a substantially

lower content compared with other preprocessing methods. Ni et al. [51] researched the
effects of ultrasonic pretreatment and chemical pretreatment on the drying characteristics
and microstructure of goji berry under electro-hydrodynamic drying (EHD) conditions.
The outcomes showed that each pretreatment method combined with EHD drying was
able to accelerate the drying speed of goji. It maintains good drying quality while saving
energy. However, the surface of chemical pretreatment may be contaminated with chemical
residual reagents, posing food-safety concerns [52].
Sea buckthorn has been the subject of much research on novel drying and pretreatment
processes all around the world as a significant natural resource. This has boosted the sea
buckthorn industry. These technological studies have demonstrated great potential for
applications in drying agricultural products. However, several challenges still exist in
the drying industry of sea buckthorn. Bugbears to date include complex drying systems,
expensive equipment, demanding technical operations, etc. The promotion and use of
innovative drying and pretreatment methods have been hampered by the aforementioned
problems. Therefore, how to strike a balance between economic cost and quality is a critical
problem to consider during the sea buckthorn drying process. Hence, the aims of this study
are outlined below:
(1) Provide an overview and analysis of different drying and pretreatment techniques
for sea buckthorn. The drying dynamics, physical and chemical characteristics, mi-
crostructure, and nutrient content of sea buckthorn are assessed using single drying,
combined drying, and pretreatment techniques. We will analyse the effects of different
drying and pretreatment techniques on drying characteristic and quality.
(2) Summarise the current problems in the field of sea buckthorn drying.
(3) Analyse the current situation of superior quality processing of sea buckthorn products
and the way to achieve it.
(4) Summarise and forecast the main trends in sea buckthorn drying, pretreatment proce-
dures, and high-quality processing.

2. Research Progress of Sea Buckthorn Pretreatment Technology

There has been a lot of research conducted on the biological components found in
sea buckthorn berries. However, the microstructure of sea buckthorn has not been well
covered. The cuticle is the outermost covering of the plant’s surface. It is made up of both
the outer and interior epidermal waxes [53]. The presence of a waxy layer is essential for
berry plants. It minimises water evaporation from the plant’s core and protects the plant
against elements such as radiation and insect infestations [54]. In reality, however, the waxy
layer must be removed to accelerate drying [55]. The structure of a sea buckthorn pulp
profile is depicted in Figure 1. The changes in the surface structure and wax-layer structure
of sea buckthorn pulp following pretreatment and drying are expressed. The breakdown
of the surface structure by physical and chemical means is referred to as pretreatment
before drying, so as to achieve the goal of increasing the drying rate, improving the colour
of the food, reducing nutrient loss, and so on. The effects of eight different pretreatment
methods, such as blanching, ultrasonic, prick holes, and alkaline solution on the drying
characteristics and quality of sea buckthorn are shown in Table 1 below.
Foods 2023, 12,
Foods2023, 12, 4255
x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 27 4 of 24

Waxy layer destruction and

epidermis dissolution

seed
Pretreatments

waxy layer
Different
drying
pulp methods
heat source
Surface wrinkling and shrinkage
steam

Final state
H2O

wind

Figure 1. Changes in the surface of sea buckthorn pulp after pretreatment and drying.
Figure 1. Changes in the surface of sea buckthorn pulp after pretreatment and drying.
2.1. Chemical Pretreatment
2.1. Chemical Pretreatment
Depending on the physical state, chemical pretreatment can be divided into liquid
andDepending
gas phases.onExamples
the physical state, hypertonic
include chemical pretreatment can be solution,
solution, alkaline divided into liquid
acidic solution,
and gas phases. Examples include hypertonic solution, alkaline solution, acidic solution,
ozone, etc. [56–59]. The alkaline solution of the chemical pretreatment of sea buckthorn
ozone, etc. [56–59]. The alkaline solution of the chemical pretreatment of sea buckthorn
before drying has received the most attention in research. These alkaline solutions comprise
before drying has received the most attention in research. These alkaline solutions com-
2% Na CO , 2% NaHCO3 , 2% drier, etc. It not only damages the microstructure of the
prise 2%2 Na23CO3, 2% NaHCO 3, 2% drier, etc. It not only damages the microstructure of
surface waxy layer but also partially disrupts intracellular binding via pectin denatura-
the surface waxy layer but also partially disrupts intracellular binding via pectin denatur-
tion [60,61]. This is why it has the ability to accelerate the drying process while reducing
ation [60,61]. This is why it has the ability to accelerate the drying process while reducing
thepossibility
the possibility of quality
of quality damage.
damage. Yao etYao et al.
al. [50] [50] discovered
discovered that 2% Na that 2% Na2 CO
2CO3 resulted
resulted
in3the
in the most significant disintegration of the waxy layer and
most significant disintegration of the waxy layer and degradation of the stomatal structure degradation of the stomatal
structure
on the fruit’son the fruit’s
surface. Withsurface.
a 62.71% With
shorter a drying
62.71%time shorter
thandrying timethis
the control, than the control, this
pretreatment
had the quickest drying time of the others. This conclusion is comparable to thatisofcomparable
pretreatment had the quickest drying time of the others. This conclusion Song
ettoal.that
[62]offor
Song
goji et al. [62]
drying andfor goji dryingThe
pretreatment. andtotal
pretreatment.
phenolic contentThe total phenolic
increased by 6% content
increased
and the totalby 6% and content
flavonoid the totalbyflavonoid
35.7% when content
comparedby 35.7%
to thewhen compared
control. The drying to the
ratescontrol.
Thedrying
and dryingquality
rates and drying
for the quality
remaining for thesolution
alkaline remaining alkaline solution
pretreatments are listedpretreatments
in detail in are
listed1 in
Table detail in Table 1 below.
below.
Thekey
The key elements
elements influencing
influencing alkaline
alkaline solution
solution pretreatment
pretreatment includeinclude
solution solution
concen-concen-
tration,pH
tration, pHvalue,
value,pretreatment
pretreatment time,
time, temperature,
temperature, solution
solution type,
type, etc.etc.
TheThe concentration of
concentration
ofthe
thealkaline
alkalinesolution
solution can influence
influencethe theorganisation
organisation ofofthe berries
the berriesas well
as wellas their nutri-
as their nutrient
ent content.
content. Highersolution
Higher solutionconcentrations
concentrations can can more
moreeffectively
effectivelymodify
modify thethe
microstruc-
microstructure
ture of berries,
of berries, resulting
resulting in in a faster
a faster drying
drying rate.Different
rate. Differentpretreatment
pretreatment timestimes may be be re-
required
quired for different materials and drying effects. However, as
for different materials and drying effects. However, as the pretreatment period increases, the pretreatment period
increases,
the greater thethe
greater
degree theofdegree of microstructural
microstructural changeschanges on the material
on the material surface,surface,
the more thesevere
more severe the tissue collapse. This is in agreement with the findings
the tissue collapse. This is in agreement with the findings of the drying study of pumpkin of the drying study
offlakes
pumpkin by Çaflakes
ğlayanby et
Çağlayan
al. [63]. etOnal.the
[63]. On the
other hand,other hand,the
raising raising the temperature
temperature of
of the chemical
the chemical pretreatment will degrade the quality of the dried
pretreatment will degrade the quality of the dried products. This is consistent with the products. This is consistent
with
findingsthe findings of the Pahlavanzadeh
of the Pahlavanzadeh et al.
et al. [64] [64] investigation.
investigation. Therefore,
Therefore, elementselements
such as such
chemical
as chemical pretreatment time, solution concentration, and temperature should be chosen
pretreatment time, solution concentration, and temperature should be chosen based on the
based on the unique material type and target product requirements. The aforementioned
unique material type and target product requirements. The aforementioned characteristics
characteristics should be considered when choosing the optimal pretreatment scheme.
should be considered when choosing the optimal pretreatment scheme.
Another chemical pretreatment currently used for berries is acid solution pretreat-
Another chemical pretreatment currently used for berries is acid solution pretreatment.
ment. The principle is to enhance drying quality through the activity of passivated en-
The principle is to enhance drying quality through the activity of passivated enzymes.
zymes. Pirone et al. [65] investigated the effects of several pretreatments on the drying
Pirone et al. [65] investigated the effects of several pretreatments on the drying character-
istics and colour of cherries. These pretreatment methods include blanching (exposure
to water vapour at 100 ◦ C during 1.5 min and subsequent immersion in cool water at
4 ◦ C for 2 min), blanching + acid solution (soak in a citric acid solution (10% w/v) for
5 min after blanching), and blanching + mixed solution (soak in a citric acid solution
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 5 of 24

(10% w/v) and calcium lactate (2.5% w/v) for 5 min after blanching). Results indicated
that blanching + acidic solution and blanching + mixed solution immersion could shorten
drying time under hot-air drying conditions of 70 ◦ C, 4 m/s wind speed, and 8% relative
humidity. It outperformed the control group in terms of colour retention. In years to come,
sea buckthorn could attempt pretreatment with an acidic solution to discover its effects on
drying properties and quality.
However, chemical pretreatment has the same limitations. This may have an impact
on the nutrient content. Vásquez-Parra et al. [66] investigated the influence of chemical and
physical pretreatments on currant convection drying. When compared to fresh samples,
pretreatment with 1.5% NaOH solution + 4.74% olive oil considerably reduces the vitamin
C content of currants by 0.14 (mg/g db). Meanwhile, after processing, its epidermis may
contain chemical residues that constitute a food safety issue.

2.2. Physical Pretreatment

Physical pretreatment is mainly divided into thermal and non-thermal treatments. They
include microwave, blanching, ultrasonic, steam blasting, and pulsed electric field [67–69].
Physical pretreatment methods for sea buckthorn currently include blanching, piercing,
ultrasonic waves, etc. The principle of action is the same as that of chemical pretreatment.
All of them are to destroy the waxy layer and microstructure of the sea buckthorn surface,
allowing moisture to readily reach the surface and hasten drying. New pretreatment tech-
nology has had tremendous development potential in recent years. High-humidity hot-air
blanching is part of the novel thermal pretreatment [70]. Non-thermal pretreatment meth-
ods include pulsed electric fields, among others. The detailed parameters and conclusions
of the specific physical pretreatment are listed in Table 1 below.
To evaluate the influence of physical pretreatment on sea buckthorn drying. Araya-
Farias et al. [71] explored the promotion of osmotic dehydration of sea buckthorn pulp
via pretreatment. They discovered that steam-scalding pretreatment increased the rate
of osmotic dehydration by raising the sugar content. Under hot-air drying conditions,
Yao et al. [50] researched the effects of blanching and ultrasonic pretreatment methods on
the drying characteristics and quality of sea buckthorn with large pulp. The results revealed
that the 70 ◦ C blanching pretreatment damaged the microstructure of the waxy layer on
the surface of the sea buckthorn and increased the drying rate significantly. The 150 W
ultrasonic pretreatment extended the drying time rather than accelerating the drying rate.
This could be because the ultrasonic time is too brief, causing the cells to become swollen
and insufficient to form microchannels. It hinders water migration and decreases the rate
of drying.
Pretreatment time, temperature, and power are all factors that influence physical
pretreatment. Under certain conditions, the drying rate will be faster with longer physical
pretreatment and higher temperatures. However, when compared to the low temperature
and control groups, the colour difference value will grow. Meanwhile, rising temperatures
promote water oscillation and the rupture of microbubbles. It causes an increase in the
cell gap and accelerates the release of flavonoid. This is in agreement with the findings of
Song et al. [72]. The higher the microwave power, the shorter the time required to reach
the same moisture content and the faster the drying. This is consistent with the findings of
Horuz et al. [73].
Other physical pretreatment techniques used on berries recently include pulsed electric
field (PEF), osmotic dehydration (OD), and others [29]. Prothon et al. [74] studied the effect
of osmotic pretreatment (sucrose) on the drying characteristics and quality of apples under
microwaves and hot-air drying. They came to the conclusion that the osmotic pretreatment
shortened the drying time. The product has improved in terms of hardness, crispness,
and rehydration. Yu et al. [75] evaluated the effect of PEF pretreatment on blueberry
drying properties and nutrient content under hot-air drying (45 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, and 75 ◦ C) and
vacuum-drying conditions. The results revealed that PEF pretreatment had no discernible
impact on the nutrient content and could reduce the drying time of blueberries. The new
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 6 of 24

physical pretreatment procedures described above have the potential to be used in the
drying pretreatment of sea buckthorn.
However, the physical pretreatment methods also have limitations. As previously
stated, strong ultrasonic power causes cellular tissue to expand, making water escape
difficult. This prolongs the drying time and reduces the rehydration rate [76,77]. Meanwhile,
hot-water blanching produces excessive waste-water and causes nutritional losses. The
findings are consistent with those of Wang et al. [78].

2.3. Combined Pretreatment

The combination of two or more single pretreatment techniques is referred to as
combined pretreatment. The common combined pretreatment methods for fruits and
vegetables are chemical + ultrasonic pretreatment, chemical + prick holes pretreatment,
chemical + physical pretreatment, and ultrasonic + ultra-high pressure [79–81].
Fewer investigations have been conducted on the combined pretreatment of sea
buckthorn before drying. Tan et al. [81] researched the effect of single pretreatment versus
combined pretreatment methods on the drying characteristics and quality of sea buckthorn
under 60 ◦ C and 2.2 m/s wind speed hot-air-drying conditions. The single pretreatment
method is to prick different numbers of holes. The combined pretreatment methods are
as follows: À 3% Na2 CO3 + 40 kHz, 200 W ultrasonic; Á 3% Na2 CO3 + 40 kHz, 200 W
ultrasonic + prick holes. The results suggested that the prick-holes pretreatment resulted
in mechanical injury to the epidermis. Although the drying time was reduced by 2.33%
to 21.82% compared to the control group, this will lead to a decrease in the sensory score
values of sea buckthorn pulp after drying. The ∆E value decreases and subsequently
rises as the number of prick holes increases. The pretreatment using the prick-three-holes
method has the lowest ∆E value. This may be related to the shorter drying time and
the fewer browning reactions. The surface waxy layer gradually melts and micropores
emerge after increasing the ultrasonic treatment period from five to fifteen minutes with
the combined drying group À. It cuts drying time by 5.08% to 6.14% when compared to
the control group, suggesting that ultrasonic time has no significant impact on drying rate.
However, with the ultrasonic time enhanced, the total flavonoid content increased by 6.88%
and 14.56%, respectively. Therefore, the combined pretreatment of ultrasonic + alkaline
solution is beneficial to increase the total flavonoid content. In the combined pretreatment
group Á, when the ultrasonic time was extended to 15 min, the destruction of the surface
stomata and only the skeleton were visible. The drying time was reduced by 30.30% to
33.05% compared to the control group. After the ultrasonic time was increased to 15 min
and the number of prick holes reached six, the sea buckthorn sample had the highest L* and
B* values and the lowest ∆E values. This phenomenon demonstrates that the combined
pretreatment group À could cause the release of phenolics. Meanwhile, accelerating the
drying speed using pricking-holes pretreatment could reduce the loss of phenolics. The
detailed drying characteristics are analysed as illustrated in Table 1 below.
It is evident that the most effective pretreatment combination could be chosen by
conducting experiments to confirm the drying qualities and characteristics under various
pretreatment parameter combinations. In this way, we can speed up the drying rate while
at the same time ensuring good drying quality. This is in line with the results of Santos
et al. [82] for carrots in the combined pretreatment study. The study of combined pretreat-
ment of sea buckthorn drying will reduce production costs while increasing product value
while accelerating drying rate and maintaining better drying quality than single drying.
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 7 of 24

Table 1. Effects of different pretreatment methods on drying characteristics and quality of sea buckthorn.

Pretreatment Methods Type Drying Characteristics and Quality Reference

The waxy layer of sea buckthorn epidermis was partially
dissolved and showed few breaks and cracks, and the drying
70 ◦ C blanching pretreatment Physical pretreatment rate increased significantly. However, the total flavonoid [50]
content was slightly lower than that of the control, and the
total phenolics content decreased by about 1.4%.
The drying time was reduced by about 3.4%, 18%, and 24.4%
when the number of prick holes was 1, 3, and 6, respectively,
Prick hole pretreatment Physical pretreatment compared to the control group. And, it will have a higher [83]
rehydration rate and a smaller colour difference value ∆E
than the colour closest to fresh sea buckthorn.
The waxy layer on the surface of the sea buckthorn had
disappeared in dissolution, and there were slight cracks near
the stomata. The water content was 22.98% higher than the
control in the first 36 h of drying. In comparison to fresh
2% drier Chemical pretreatment [50]
samples, the total flavonoid content increased by 35.7%, the
total phenolics content increased by 2%, and the brightness
value L* decreased by 38.7%. The colour difference value ∆E
added to 9.37% in comparison to the control.
The surface waxy layer structure of sea buckthorn has been
severely damaged, resulting in dissolution and a large
number of cracks. The drying rate was significantly
increased. Compared with the control group, the drying time
2% Na2 CO3 Chemical pretreatment [50]
was reduced by 62.17%, the browning index was decreased
by 54.5%, the total flavonoid content was increased by 35.7%,
and the total phenolics content was enhanced by 6% but was
lower than that of the fresh samples.
The dissolution of the waxy layer in the epidermis of sea
buckthorn was relatively slight, and stomatal disruption was
small. The drying rate significantly increased. At 36 h before
drying, the moisture content was reduced by 18.53% more
2% NaHCO3 Chemical pretreatment than the control. In comparison to the control group, the [50]
colour difference value ∆E was lowered by 13.4% and the L*
value raised by 4.6%. The total flavonoid level was
marginally greater than in fresh samples, and the total
phenolic content was 5.4% higher than in controls.
There was dissolution of the waxy layer of the sea buckthorn
epidermis, but no breaks or cracks were present. The drying
rate was lower than in the control group. At 36 h before
drying, 1.29% less water content was removed, and the total
150 W Ultrasonic Physical pretreatment colour difference value ∆E was reduced by 2.8% compared to [84]
the control. The browning index and ascorbic acid content
were slightly lower than the control, and the differences were
not significant. The total flavonoid content increased by 25%,
and the total phenol content was elevated by 2.7%.
The waxy layer on the surface gradually dissolved, and
micropores appeared at 15 min. It has accelerated the drying
rate by 1–2 min compared to the control group. The total
colour difference value ∆E decreased by 13–5.7% as the
150 W Ultrasonic + 3% Na2 CO3 Combined pretreatment [81]
ultrasonic time increased from 5 to 15 min compared to the
control group. The content of total phenolics was highest at 5
min. The total phenolics content gradually decreased with
time and was lower than the control at 15 min.
The surface stomata of sea buckthorn were destroyed, and
only the skeleton was visible. It drastically reduced drying
time. When compared to the control, the greatest drying rate
150 W Ultrasonic + 3%
Combined pretreatment can be enhanced by up to 37.5% for different duration [81]
Na2 CO3 + Prick hole
combinations. The total colour difference value ∆E can be
reduced by up to 22.9%, and the total flavonoid content can
be increased by about 6.1–14.8%.

As analysed in Table 1, all the above pretreatment methods destroyed the waxy layer
of sea buckthorn. It is convenient for the internal moisture to reach the surface quickly
and then evaporate, so as to speed up the drying rate. The researchers used blanching to
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 8 of 24

remove the waxy layer, but blanching will cause too much nutrient loss due to the extreme
surface temperature. Excessive water usage and effluent discharge are also troublesome
issues if used in the drying industry. Chemical pretreatment and physical pretreatment
are compared with convenience, economics, and other advantages. However, during
pretreatment of the material, the surface will be left with chemical reagents, posing a threat
to food safety. The later wastewater treatment problems will also pose a threat to the
environment, just like the blanching pretreatment [85]. In recent years, researchers have
begun to apply combined pretreatments to sea buckthorn drying. Their impact on the
characteristics and quality of sea buckthorn drying has been investigated to find a balance
between economics, ecology, and efficiency. The differences between laboratory and actual
production should be recognised for the pretreatment technique before sea-buckthorn
drying. The effects of new pretreatment technologies such as high-pressure processing
(HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), and acidic solution on the drying characteristics and
quality of sea buckthorn should be studied. Combining the different advantages of physical
and chemical pretreatment, the optimal pretreatment of sea buckthorn under different
drying techniques should be sought. In the future, research should focus on the application
Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWof joint pretreatment techniques. This allows us to strike a balance and apply it to large-scale
9 of 27
industrialised manufacturing, boosting the quality and efficiency of sea buckthorn drying.

3. Research Progress of Sea Buckthorn Drying Technology

3. Research Progress of Sea Buckthorn Drying Technology
The
The evaporation
evaporation of ofwater
waterwithin
withinthethematerial
material through
through thethe migration
migration path
path to the
to the out-outside
isside
theisessence of the
the essence drying
of the process
drying process[86]. Examples
[86]. Examplesofofthetheapplication
application and andimplemen-
implementation
of high-quality
tation processing
of high-quality of seaofbuckthorn
processing sea buckthornproducts are are
products shown shownin Figure
in Figure2. 2.
InInthis
thissection,
the different
section, drying techniques
the different for seafor
drying techniques buckthorn are first
sea buckthorn areintroduced. Secondly,
first introduced. Secondly,its drying
characteristics are studied.
its drying characteristics areThe drying
studied. Thecharacteristic curve iscurve
drying characteristic used istoused
studytothe comparative
study the
analysis
comparative of drying
analysis rates underrates
of drying different
under drying
differentprocedures.
drying procedures.The energy consumption
The energy con- of
sumptiondrying
different of different drying techniques
techniques is investigated
is investigated using energyusing energy consumption
consumption meas- The
measurements.
urements. The
destruction of destruction
cell tissues of cellthe
and tissues and the establishment
establishment of water channels
of water diffusion diffusion channels
using different
using different drying techniques are studied through microstructure
drying techniques are studied through microstructure changes. The effects changes. The effects
of different
of different
drying drying techniques
techniques on the qualityon theofquality of sea buckthorn
sea buckthorn are investigated
are investigated through through
changes in
changes in
nutrient nutrient
content, content,
colour, colour,
and lustreand lustre
[87]. Finally, Finally,
[87]. the the in
trends trends in the development
the development of different
of different
drying drying techniques
techniques for sea buckthorn
for sea buckthorn are analysedare analysed
to provide to ideas
provide
forideas for the es-
the establishment of
tablishment of relevant drying models for sea buckthorn. Table 2 compares the effects of
relevant drying models for sea buckthorn. Table 2 compares the effects of several drying
several drying processes on the drying characteristics and quality of sea buckthorn.
processes on the drying characteristics and quality of sea buckthorn.

Figure Applicationexamples
Figure 2. Application examplesof of
seasea buckthorn
buckthorn high-quality
high-quality processing
processing and products.
and products.

3.1. Natural Drying

Natural drying is a traditional drying process [88] that is classified into two types:
natural sun-drying and natural shadow-drying [89]. Natural sun-drying involves placing
the material flat in a material tray or in a large field. It evaporates material moisture by
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 9 of 24

3.1. Natural Drying

Natural drying is a traditional drying process [88] that is classified into two types:
natural sun-drying and natural shadow-drying [89]. Natural sun-drying involves placing
the material flat in a material tray or in a large field. It evaporates material moisture by
utilising sun radiation and air flow. Natural shade-drying is putting the material in a cool
and ventilated place. Drying is achieved via the evaporation of water through air flow [90].
Natural drying mostly utilises solar and wind energy, which are renewable, low-cost, and
non-polluting [91–93].
Natural drying is a traditional and widely used drying technique. Current technologi-
cal studies of natural sea buckthorn drying have concentrated on drying times and quality.
Li et al. [94] studied the effects of natural drying, hot-air drying, and vacuum freeze-drying
on the flavonoids and phenolics of various Chinese sea buckthorn types. According to the
findings, the TPC (total phenolics content) content after natural drying was lower than that
after hot-air drying and vacuum freeze-drying. This is due to the fact that the detrimental
effect of temperature on sea buckthorn phenolics is weaker than that of drying time. The
difference in TFC (total flavonoids content) content was not significant, indicating that
the drying process has little effect on total flavonoid content. Lin et al. [95] researched the
effects of natural drying, hot-air drying, heat-pump drying, and vacuum freeze-drying on
the drying characteristics and quality of sea buckthorn pulp. The effects of different drying
methods on the drying properties and quality of sea buckthorn pulp are reflected in the
drying characteristic curves, colour, browning index, and nutrient content. They discovered
that prolonged exposure to air during natural shade drying and sun drying resulted in
severe colour degradation and an inadequate nutrient retention rate. Of these, natural
shade drying has the lowest drying rate. Natural sun-drying sea buckthorn pulp has higher
TFC levels than fresh pulp and other drying processes but has the highest browning index.
The main disadvantages of natural drying are long exposure to air and vulnerability to
weather and other factors. With limited drying efficiency, it cannot guarantee drying qual-
ity [96,97]. It is clear that it does not match the requirements of modern agricultural growth.

3.2. Hot-Air Drying

Hot-air drying is one of the most widely used drying techniques in the drying industry
today. It works on the basis that the air is heated by a heat source, and the hot air is
transferred to the surface of the material through thermal convection. The surface moisture
is evaporated to achieve the drying purpose [98]. The two most important parameters
influencing the drying rate of hot air are air temperature and velocity. Between them,
temperature is the main influencing factor [99]. Hot-air drying is now widely used in the
drying industry [100]. It has the advantages of low cost, mature technology, and simple
operation [101].
Most of the current research on hot-air drying of sea buckthorn focuses on quality
optimisation of the dried product. The optimal drying process of hot-air drying technology
is explored through the study of its sensory, microstructure, and nutrient content. In order
to explore the effects of different temperatures on the drying characteristics and quality
of sea buckthorn under hot-air drying conditions, Stoica-Guzun et al. [102] researched the
effects of different pretreatment processes on the drying characteristics of sea buckthorn
pomace, the extraction of sea buckthorn seed oil, and the composition of the oil under the
hot-air drying conditions (40 ◦ C, 50 ◦ C). The results suggested that the effective diffusion
coefficient increased with the thickness of the slag layer and the drying and pretreatment
temperatures. The drying temperature of the hot air had no effect on the average drying
rate. Based on the former two different drying temperatures, Guan et al. [103] studied the
effects of four different drying temperatures (50 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, 80 ◦ C, and 100 ◦ C) under hot-air
drying conditions on the total phenolics, total carotenoids, and total chlorophyll levels in
sea buckthorn leaves. The results indicated that the drying time was reduced from 250 min
to 60 min with the increase in drying temperature. For the sake of discovering the difference
between the hot-air drying method and other drying methods, Kyriakopoulou et al. [104]
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 10 of 24

researched the impact of three different drying methods (hot-air drying at 50 ◦ C ± 2 ◦ C

and 1 m/s; vacuum freeze-drying at −30 ◦ C; and accelerated solar-drying) on the quality
and antioxidant activity of sea buckthorn pulp and leaves. The data revealed that the
residual moisture content of sea buckthorn after hot-air drying was considerable due to
the presence of floating saturated air in the hot-air dryer. By analysing the drying kinetic
curves of sea buckthorn pulp, it can be concluded that hot-air drying is the most rapid and
efficient of the three methods, but it has a greater impact on the colour and microstructure
of sea buckthorn.
As a result of prolonged exposure to high temperatures and oxygenated conditions,
hot-air drying causes serious nutrient loss in the sea buckthorn pulp and more severe colour
and structural damage. However, owing to its advantages, it is still the market’s mainstream
at the moment. Hot-air drying is a great advance in drying techniques compared to natural
drying. Consequently, further exploration and innovation are still needed to improve the
drying technique.

3.3. Heat-Pump Drying

It is a well-established fact that heat can only be transferred automatically from a
source at a higher temperature to a source at a lower temperature, but not in the opposite
direction. Nonetheless, a heat pump is a mechanism that consumes some of its own energy
to assimilate heat from a low-temperature heat source and then releases heat, which can be
put to use at a higher temperature. Since the heat obtained exceeds the energy consumed,
heat-pump drying is an energy-conserving device. In comparison with traditional drying
techniques, the method offers benefits such as higher energy efficiency, reduced operational
expenses, superior product quality, and the absence of environmental pollution [105,106].
Heat pump drying, a new technology that improves on hot-air drying, is barely
studied in sea buckthorn nowadays. To assess the impacts of heat-pump drying on the
drying properties and quality of sea buckthorn pulp, Lin et al. [95] evaluated the impacts of
five different drying methods on the drying properties and quality of sea buckthorn pulp
containing larger fruits. The findings illustrated that the drying rate of the heat pump was
comparable to, but marginally slower than, that of the hot air. Heat-pump drying resulted
in a reduced colour difference value ∆E, lower browning index, and increased VC content
when compared to hot-air drying. The total phenolics and total flavonoid contents were
notably higher than that of hot-air drying and natural drying. However, further studies are
needed to understand these outcomes.
Regarding current heat-pump drying technology, it is primarily low-temperature
drying. Consequently, it takes longer to dry compared to high-temperature drying, and the
equipment investment is relatively costly. We ought to research the energy consumption
and drying process in an attempt to advance research on sea buckthorn drying. As an
enhancement over hot-air drying, it has tremendous practical production potential.

3.4. Infrared-Radiation Drying

Infrared-radiation drying is a modern, energy-efficient, and ecologically beneficial
drying process. It provides the advantages of even heating, powerful penetration ability,
a high heat-transfer rate, and a swift drying rate [107,108]. The rationale for drying is
that radiation contacts the material’s surface and resonates with inorganic and organic
macromolecules. After resonance, these molecules are accelerated and brush against one
another, generating heat, and promoting material drying [109].
On the one hand, studies on the drying of sea buckthorn using infrared radiation
techniques have focused on exploring the variation in energy consumption with different
working conditions. On the other hand, the concentration is on the search for the optimal
drying process. Geng et al. [43] investigated the influence of different drying methods
on the drying kinetics, physicochemical properties, and microstructure of sea buckthorn.
The outcome was that infrared-radiation (IR) drying (300 W, 60 ◦ C) had a faster drying
rate in the early stages than hot-air drying (60 ◦ C, 2.2 m/s), but the entire drying time
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 11 of 24

was longer. This is most likely due to the strong penetration power of infrared radiation,
which causes rapid heat generation inside the material. However, this destroys the internal
structure of the sea buckthorn and reduces the rate of rehydration. This is consistent
with the results of Zhang et al. [77]. By analysing the microstructure of the epidermis,
the epidermis after IR drying is smooth but has some holes. The same phenomenon was
observed by Huang et al. [110] in their study of the impact of far-infrared-radiation drying
on the drying characteristics and quality of stevia. Infrared-radiation drying maintained
the total flavonoid, total phenolics, and ascorbic acid content better than hot-air drying
and infrared assisted hot-air drying. It has a smaller colour difference value ∆E, browning
index, and a higher brightness L*. The above index values, however, are inferior to those of
vacuum freeze-drying and pulsed vacuum drying.
It is evident that infrared radiation drying is not applicable to the pre-drying stage
of sea buckthorn, although it has the advantages of a rapid drying rate, better retention
of nutrients and colour, and low energy consumption [111]. This is because of its strong
penetrating power, which easily causes rupture and thermal damage to sea buckthorn, and
excessive heating phenomena. In future applications of infrared drying techniques to sea
buckthorn drying, different drying techniques can be combined to achieve better drying
results by combining their respective strengths.

3.5. Spray Drying

The spray-drying method is based on an atomiser, which changes the material’s liquid
condition to a spray state (fine dispersion state). The enlarged surface area allows the
moisture in the droplet to be instantly evaporated by the hot air flow during settling, thus
completing the drying process. Compared with the liquid state, the powder state is more
stable and has more advantages in storage [112,113]. Moreover, it has the advantages of a
quick drying rate and simple process [114].
Owing to the peculiar features of spray drying, the current study on spray drying of
sea buckthorn focuses mostly on converting sea buckthorn beverages into sea buckthorn
powder or making sea buckthorn oil microencapsulated. Selvamuthukumaran et al. [115]
used the response surface methodology to optimise the spray-drying process of sea buck-
thorn pulp beverages. Moisture content, solubility, dispersion, vitamin C content, and
overall colour difference values were used as five response surface models. The optimal
spray-drying process was obtained by superimposing the contour plots: an inlet air tem-
perature of 162.5 ◦ C and 25 g of maltodextrin per 100 g of beverage. Čulina et al. [116]
optimised the spray drying microencapsulation process of sea buckthorn pulp oil in their
study. Increasing the inlet temperature during spray drying boosted product yield, encap-
sulation efficiency, and solubility, according to their studies. However, it decreased the
moisture content, total carotenoids, and antioxidant capacity of the powder. It was found
that the best conditions for the production of sea buckthorn pulp oil powder were when
the inlet temperature was 120 ◦ C, β-cyclodextrin was used as the carrier, and the ratio of
carrier to sea buckthorn pulp oil was 4.
Spray drying can dry liquid materials into a solid powder that is suitable for stor-
age. The downsides, however, are also obvious. The inlet drying temperature is high
(150–220 ◦ C), which can damage nutrients such as vitamin C [114]. Furthermore, the en-
ergy consumption is high, the equipment is large, and it is prone to problems such as
sticking to the inner wall.

3.6. Pulsed Vacuum Drying

Vacuum drying is a drying technique that involves placing materials under negative
pressure and heating them to reach the boiling point under a negative pressure state, or
cooling them to solidify the materials, and then drying them. As the material is located in a
closed vacuum environment, it can effectively isolate the air to avoid oxidation reactions.
Ensuring better drying quality of the material than traditional drying methods [117,118].
Pulsed vacuum drying functions on the basis of vacuum drying, through the control of
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 12 of 24

vacuum and atmospheric pressure environment pulsed cycle, so that the material inside
the microscopic pores are constantly squeezed and expanded. As a result, micro-channels
are formed. It can significantly improve the moisture migration rate.
As the air is isolated under negative pressure, the material is better able to maintain its
original character. Therefore, research on vacuum-drying techniques for sea buckthorn pulp
has mainly focused on energy consumption and drying quality. Araya-Farias et al. [71]
studied the drying kinetics and nutrient content of sea buckthorn pulp under the conditions
of vacuum drying (50 ◦ C, 25 in Hg) and hot-air drying (1 m/s, 50 ◦ C) following liquid nitro-
gen pretreatment and osmotic dehydration with sucrose solution. The results indicated that
vacuum drying was approximately 43% slower and reduced total carotene by 0.24 mg/100 g
compared to hot-air drying but increased total phenolics and VC by 24.4 mg/100 g and
2.24 mg/100 g, respectively. On the basis of vacuum drying. Geng et al. [43] investigated
the effects of hot-air drying, infrared drying, infrared-assisted hot-air drying, pulsed vac-
uum drying, and vacuum freeze-drying on the drying kinetics, physicochemical properties,
and microstructure of sea buckthorn. They found that both pulsed vacuum drying and
vacuum freeze-drying could maintain high ascorbic acid and total phenol contents, as well
as superior rehydration capacity and colour. However, pulsed vacuum drying was more
cost-effective in comparison and has more potential for industrial applications.
Pulsed vacuum-drying techniques are normally combined with microwave or infrared
drying and other drying methods because of the slow drying rate. To improve drying
efficiency and acquire a preferred drying quality, the drying time should be shortened to
improve drying efficiency. Future developments in vacuum drying, similar to infrared
drying, need to be applied in combination with other drying techniques to seek the optimal
drying process.

3.7. Vacuum Freeze Drying

Vacuum freeze drying has been a modern technology applied to sea buckthorn drying
in recent years. The drying process is divided into three stages based on the three-state
shift in water [119,120]. The first stage is pre-freezing. That is, freezing the material below
the eutectic point temperature transforms the free water inside the material from a liquid
state to solid state. The second stage is the sublimation drying stage. The frozen free water
inside the material is converted to the gaseous state via sublimation under a vacuum [121].
The third stage is the resolution drying stage. The bound water in the material is removed
via resolution drying, so that the water completes the migration and then completes the
drying process.
Vacuum freeze-drying technique is effective in maintaining the quality of products
and nutrients after drying. Presently, research on vacuum freeze drying of sea buckthorn
has evolved from drying rates, quality, and energy consumption to nutrient and active-
component extraction. Li et al. [94] studied the effects of natural drying, hot-air drying,
and vacuum freeze-drying on the phenolics content and antioxidant activity of different
varieties of sea buckthorn in China. The data suggested that vacuum freeze drying had a
1.56–2.97-times-higher total phenolics content than the other drying processes. Furthermore,
overall flavonoid retention was superior to the other drying procedures. In an attempt to
determine the impact of drying methods on the extraction rate and quality of sea buckthorn
oil from sea buckthorn seeds and fruits in Quebec, Gutierrez et al. [33] conducted 24 h of
vacuum freeze-drying, utilizing both hot air drying (50 ◦ C, 1.0 m/s) and vacuum freeze
drying (using a vacuum pressure of 0.0145 kPa at a constant temperature of 50 ◦ C in the
freeze dryer and a condenser temperature of −48 ◦ C). The results of the study indicated that
the extraction rate of sea buckthorn seed oil was similar after hot-air drying and vacuum
freeze-drying. But, there was a significant difference in the extraction rate of sea buckthorn
pulp oil. The vacuum freeze-drying rate was 23.8% lower than the hot-air drying extraction
rate. Notably, the oil extracted from sea buckthorn pulp after vacuum freeze-drying had a
lower peroxide value. This phenomenon demonstrates that vacuum freeze drying enhances
the quality of sea buckthorn oil.
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 13 of 24

The vacuum freeze-drying technique consumes a lot of energy and has a long pro-
duction cycle [122]. This is due to the fact that there is no heat convection in a vacuum
environment, and heat and mass transfer are extremely slow, causing energy consumption
and costs to rise and drying rates to fall. From the point of view of industrial large-
Foods 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW scale production, the long drying time leading to high costs is the major disadvantage14 of 27
of the sea buckthorn vacuum freeze-drying technique. In the future, this problem can
be optimized via pretreatment or intelligent, new online-measurement and control tech-
niques
[123]. [123]. Accelerated
Accelerated drying
drying rates ratesthe
by finding by optimal
findingpretreatment
the optimal pretreatment
process under process
vacuum under
vacuum freeze-drying
freeze-drying conditions.conditions.
Through theThrough thenew
intelligent, intelligent, new online-measurement
online-measurement and control and
control technology,
technology, we can
we can grasp grasp themigration
the moisture moisturesituation
migration situation
and make anand makejudge-
accurate an accurate
judgement
ment of the end
of the drying drying end point.
point.

3.8.Combined
3.8. Combined Drying
Drying
Combineddrying
Combined dryingisisaadrying
dryingtechnique
techniquethat
thatcombines
combinestwo twooror more
more single
single drying
drying meth-
ods. Under
methods. the the
Under premise
premiseof ensuring thethe
of ensuring quality of sea
quality buckthorn
of sea buckthorndrying,
drying,thethe
advantages
ad-
vantages
complementcomplement each shorten
each other, other, shorten the drying
the drying time time and save
and save the cost.
the cost. Until
Until now,now,
the only
the only combined
combined dryingdrying technique
technique thatbeen
that has has been applied
applied to seato sea buckthorn
buckthorn is infrared-
is infrared-assisted
assisted
hot-air hot-air
drying.drying. The two-dimensional
The two-dimensional structure
structure of the
of the infrared-radiation-assistedhot-air
infrared-radiation-assisted
hot-air
dryer dryer is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 3 [43].
3 [43].

Figure
Figure3.3.The
Thetwo-dimensional structure
two-dimensional of the
structure of infrared-radiation-assisted hot-airhot-air
the infrared-radiation-assisted dryer [43].
dryer [43].

Infrared-assisted
Infrared-assisted hot-air
hot-air drying
drying is aiscombined
a combined drying
drying method
method withwith
quickquick heating
heating ef- effi-
ciency and energy
ficiency energysavings.
savings.TheTheapproach
approach effectively
effectively enhances
enhances thethe drying
drying raterate
andand
prod-product
uct quality
quality ofof agriculturalproduce
agricultural produceandand foodstuffs,
foodstuffs, specifically
specificallyininthe case
the of of
case seasea
buckthorn.
buckthorn. At
Atthethe moment,
moment, infrared-assistedhot-air
infrared-assisted hot-airdrying
dryingforforsea buckthornisismostly
seabuckthorn mostlyfocused
focusedon ondrying
drying
rate andratequality
and quality research,
research, as as
as well well
theasdevelopment
the development of drying
of drying equipment.
equipment. GengGeng
et al. [43]
etinvestigated
al. [43] investigated the of
the effects effects of hot
hot air air drying,
drying, infrared
infrared drying,drying, infrared-assisted
infrared-assisted hot-drying,
hot-air
air drying, pulsed vacuum drying, and vacuum freeze-drying on the
pulsed vacuum drying, and vacuum freeze-drying on the drying kinetics, physicochemical drying kinetics,
physicochemical
properties, and properties,
microstructureand of
microstructure
sea buckthorn. Thebuckthorn.
of sea The obtained data
obtained experimental experi-
revealed
mental
that, among the above drying techniques, infrared-assisted hot-air drying hadhot-air
data revealed that, among the above drying techniques, infrared-assisted the shortest
drying
time tohad the shortest
complete time toprocess.
the drying completeThis the is
drying
becauseprocess. Thisradiation
infrared is becauseisinfrared ra-
able to penetrate
diation is able to penetrate the surface of the material and remove moisture
the surface of the material and remove moisture from sea buckthorn that is difficult to from sea buck-
thorn that is difficult to remove via heat conduction. Microcracks and pores are observed
remove via heat conduction. Microcracks and pores are observed on the surface of sea buck-
on the surface of sea buckthorn after infrared-assisted hot-air drying. As a result, the total
thorn after infrared-assisted hot-air drying. As a result, the total phenolics content, total
phenolics content, total flavonoid content, and rehydration of sea buckthorn were higher
flavonoid content, and rehydration of sea buckthorn were higher than that of hot-air drying.
than that of hot-air drying. This is proof that it improves the quality of drying. This aligns
This is proof that it improves the quality of drying. This aligns with Vishwanathan et al.’s
with Vishwanathan et al.’s research [124], which found that the use of infrared-assisted
research [124], which found that the use of infrared-assisted hot-air drying reduced drying
hot-air drying reduced drying time by approximately 48% when compared to single hot
time
air by approximately
drying. However, the48% when
energy compared to
consumption of single hot air drying.
infrared-assisted However,
hot-air the energy
drying tech-
consumption of infrared-assisted hot-air drying technique used
nique used in sea buckthorn requires further exploration. Motevali et al. [111] have in sea buckthorn requires
demonstrated that the infrared assisted hot air drying of mushroom slices consumes less
energy than single drying methods such as infrared drying and hot-air drying.
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 14 of 24

further exploration. Motevali et al. [111] have demonstrated that the infrared assisted hot
air drying of mushroom slices consumes less energy than single drying methods such as
infrared drying and hot-air drying.
Although infrared-assisted hot-air drying has the potential to accelerate drying rates
and reduce costs, it can also lead to crusting on the material’s surface [125], thereby
hindering moisture transfer and extending drying time. Other combined drying methods
for berries, such as microwave-assisted hot-air drying, microwave-assisted vacuum drying,
and vacuum–freeze hot-air drying are also available for sea buckthorn drying [126,127].
Combining hot-air and microwave drying can speed up the drying process and effectively
preserve nutrients. To compensate for the low drying rate during the final stage of vacuum
freeze-drying, vacuum–freeze hot-air drying can be used for high-quality drying. These
combined drying methods demonstrate great potential for the drying of sea buckthorn.
Future combined drying techniques for sea buckthorn could be centred around the above
drying methods. The balance between the drying kinetics, quality, and cost is explored to
find the optimal drying process.

Table 2. Comparison of drying and quality characteristics of different drying methods for sea buckthorn.

Different Drying Methods Drying Characteristics and Quality Reference

The drying rate was slow. Compared to hot-air drying, drying time increased 3.4 times
for natural sun-drying and 8.4 times for natural shade-drying. The total colour
Natural drying [94,95]
difference value ∆E was reduced by about 13% and the total flavonoid content by
4–29.3% compared to hot-air drying.
The hot-air drying rate increased with the rise in temperature. The damage to the
microstructure was severe, resulting in a serious loss of nutrients. The total phenolics
Hot air drying [102–104]
content decreased by 22.7–42.3%, and the total carotenoid content decreased by
42.6–64.6% compared to the control group.
The drying time was prolonged by about 7% compared with the hot-air drying at 60 ◦ C
and 2.2 m/s, the total flavonoid content was enhanced by 17.6%, and the total phenolics
Infrared radiation drying content was increased by 33%. The holes left behind could be observed on the surface of [43]
sea buckthorn pulp due to the high capacity of infrared radiation, which could directly
penetrate the surface of sea buckthorn pulp.
The drying rate of heat-pump drying was slightly slower than that of hot-air drying.
Compared to hot-air drying, heat-pump drying reduced the total colour difference value
∆E by 7.6% and the browning index by 16.7%. The increase in VC content was slightly
Heat pump drying [95]
but significantly lower than vacuum freeze-drying and fresh samples. The total
flavonoid content increased by about 83% and the total phenolic content decreased by
about 66% compared to fresh samples.
Since the liquid is in the form of mist, the contact area with hot air is expanded, which
Spray drying increases the drying rate significantly. The temperature at the inlet can reach 150–220 ◦ C, [115,116]
causing nutrients like VC in sea buckthorn to be lost.
Its drying rate was higher than HAD (hot air drying), IRD (infrared radiation), and
IR-HAD (infrared assisted hot air drying) in the initial stage, and the drying rate
decreased in the later stage. The time was extended by 15.99% and 7.83% compared to
Pulsed vacuum drying hot-air drying and IR drying, respectively. The total colour difference value ∆E was [43,71]
similar to that of vacuum freeze-drying and 87.7% lower compared with hot-air drying,
which could better retain the nutrients and active ingredients and reduce the loss
of nutrients.
In comparison to the other drying techniques mentioned above, vacuum freeze-drying
Vacuum freeze
has the longest drying duration and consumes the most energy. However, it also has the [33,94]
drying
best retention of nutrients and the lowest total colour difference ∆E and browning index.
The drying rate was obviously increased; compared with hot-air drying and infrared
drying, the drying rate increased by 11.2% and 19.6%, respectively. Compared with
Infrared assisted hot air drying [43]
hot-air drying, the browning index was 40.4% higher, the total flavonoid content was
6.6% higher, and the total phenolics content was 33.3% higher.

4. Different Methods to Achieve High-Quality Processing of Sea Buckthorn Products

The small sea buckthorn berry is a valuable resource. Its pulps can be used to make
beverages, the skin has medicinal uses, and the seeds can be extracted for oil. Sea buckthorn
pulp is both sweet and sour, and it is abundant in vitamin C, flavonoids, and other nutrients.
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 15 of 24

Currently, there are two main areas of focus for the sea buckthorn industry: fresh food and
frozen-fruit processing [128]. Sea buckthorn products include dried pulp, beverages, freeze-
dried powder, wine, flavonoid, and oil. The range of product types is extensive. Therefore,
achieving high-quality processing and improving product quality is a particularly crucial
issue. This section provides a comprehensive analysis of the processing status of the
aforementioned products, highlighting current issues in their development, proposing
methods for achieving high-quality processing, and exploring future development trends.

4.1. Sea Buckthorn Beverages

The utilisation of fruits and vegetables for manufacturing functional foods has been
widely acknowledged globally, owing to the beneficial health effects of their bioactive
constituents [129]. Sea buckthorn drinks can be classified into two categories: sea buck-
thorn puree and sea buckthorn complex beverages. It is worth noting that sea buckthorn
compound drinks are highly preferred as they offer improved taste and nutrition compared
to sea buckthorn puree. Sterilisation is a crucial process when producing sea buckthorn
beverages and can be categorised as thermal or non-thermal [26]. Traditional thermal
sterilisation eliminates microorganisms and enzyme activity but simultaneously impairs
the heat-sensitive components and nutrients present in the juice. At present, the prevailing
sterilisation technique used in sea buckthorn beverage manufacturing is traditional thermal
sterilisation. The non-thermal sterilisation technique can provide the same sterilising effect
as thermal sterilisation, ensuring food safety while better retaining the nutritional content
of the juice. Therefore, the industry’s future sterilisation technology development should
concentrate on non-thermal techniques with the aim of enhancing the nutritional content
of sea buckthorn beverages.
In addition to the use of freshly-squeezed fruit, a sea buckthorn beverage is also partly
made by using sea buckthorn powder which is compounded and re-brewed. Therefore, the
drying process mentioned in the previous section will affect its quality to a great extent.
Research on a suitable drying process can not only improve product quality but also reduce
production cost.
Sea buckthorn pulp is frequently blended with other ingredients to create composite
beverages that improve taste due to its sour flavour. Moreover, it enhances the nutritional
value. Maftei et al. [16] conducted research on the probiotic activity and sensory acceptabil-
ity of sea buckthorn, soya milk, and inulin composite beverages. The findings demonstrate
that sea buckthorn, soya milk, and inulin composite beverages are nutrient-dense and more
flavourful, serving as a viable substitute for dairy or soya drinks.
Consequently, the future development of sea buckthorn beverages should mainly
focus on sea buckthorn composite beverages. New non-thermal sterilisation technologies,
including ultra-high static pressure, pulsed electric field, and oscillating magnetic field [130],
should be implemented. Research should be undertaken to optimise the process conditions
concerning colony count, enzymes, and biological activity in order to manufacture a safer,
more delicious, and more nutritious sea buckthorn beverage. Meanwhile, the development
of drying techniques in the sea buckthorn beverage industry in the future can be researched
for different combinations of drying and pretreatment technique. Through the optimal
drying process, the sea buckthorn can be dried and powdered to form a new type of sea
buckthorn compound beverage with other fruit powders.

4.2. Sea Buckthorn Freeze-Dried Powder

Sea buckthorn freeze-dried powder is made by grinding sea buckthorn pulp into
powder after vacuum freeze-drying, which can retain more nutrients in sea buckthorn. It
can be turned into sea buckthorn pulp, sea buckthorn wine, and other products by brewing,
fermentation, and compounding. It can also be combined with other materials to make
new products, such as sea buckthorn milk tablets and sea buckthorn fruit peel, etc. It is
expected to be an alternative to ordinary milk tablets and hawthorn rolls because of its
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 16 of 24

high levels of VC and flavonoid, immunity-boosting and beauty-enhancing properties, and

abundant nutritional value.
The high-quality processing of sea buckthorn freeze-dried powder is mainly aimed
at optimising the vacuum freeze-drying process. Since vacuum freeze-drying is costly.
Therefore, determining the precision of controlling the temperature, controlling the drying
endpoint, and improving the drying efficiency is a very critical issue. It can ensure that
the process used can maximise the quality of sea buckthorn. In this regard, intelligent new
measurement and control techniques [123] such as low-field nuclear magnetic resonance
(LF-NMR) technology can be introduced. This method can monitor moisture data (content
and migration) in the sea buckthorn pulp drying process, forecast the end of sea buckthorn
fruit vacuum freeze-drying, and fully guarantee the excellence quality of sea buckthorn
freeze-dried powder, achieving outstanding processing quality while reducing costs.
In the future, the high-quality processing of sea buckthorn freeze dried powder neces-
sitates starting with the drying process and implementing LF-NMR technology. Following
that, the high-quality sea buckthorn freeze-dried powder produced can be combined with
other products to improve their nutritional content and achieve high-quality development.

4.3. Sea Buckthorn Alcohol

Sea buckthorn alcohol refers to two types: sea buckthorn baijiu and sea buckthorn
fruit wine. Sea buckthorn baijiu can be made by soaking sea buckthorn pulp or adding
freeze-dried powder. Sea buckthorn fruit wine is a low-alcohol beverage derived from sea
buckthorn pulp via a number of steps including crushing, enzymolysis, clarifying, acid
reduction, and fermentation [131,132]. Sea buckthorn alcohol has both its own nutrients and
nutrients from fermentation, which is one of the sea buckthorn industry’s most important
development directions.
The fragrance of alcohol is a crucial indication of its organoleptic properties. It is
produced by the metabolic processes of several microorganisms, including yeasts and lactic
acid bacteria. An essential pathway towards achieving high-quality sea buckthorn alcohol
production is to comprehend the influence of these microorganisms on its fragrance [131].
Ma [133] demonstrated that the primary aroma compounds present in sea buckthorn alco-
hol at high concentrations were 3-methyl-1-butanol (15.38%), ethyl 2-hydroxypropionate
(15.193%), and phenyl ethanol (7.365%). The alcohols that gave sea buckthorn fruit wine its
flavour were higher alcohols, mostly normal by-products of the yeast during the fermenta-
tion process. Sea buckthorn alcohol is murky because it is made from newly squeezed sea
buckthorn beverages. Clarification is, therefore, necessary to improve the flavour and stabil-
ity of sea buckthorn alcohol [134]. Liu [131] has researched the influence of the clarification
process of sea buckthorn juice on the scent profile of sea buckthorn alcohol. The findings
indicated a 16.45% increase in the contents of 3-methyl-1-butanol and a 5.32% increase in
ethyl caprylate in sea buckthorn alcohol that underwent clarification treatment followed by
fermentation, compared to those fermented from raw juice without clarification treatment.
The study also highlights that clarifying the sea buckthorn juice before fermentation was
more effective in promoting the formation of the alcohol’s aroma.
Apart from fragrance, colour and nutrients serve as crucial physicochemical indicators
of fruit wines. Moreover, defatted sea buckthorn juice can be used as an additive to wheat
beer to enhance its taste, nutrition, and colour. In the new study, Belcar et al. [135] explored
the possibility of adding defatted sea buckthorn juice to wheat beer as an enhancer. The
reported results indicated that the addition of 5% defatted sea buckthorn juice resulted in
wheat beer with better colour, higher polyphenol content, and antioxidant capacity.
Improving the organoleptic indices and physicochemical properties of sea buckthorn
alcohol is critical for the sea buckthorn alcohol industry to achieve high-quality process-
ing. This can be achieved by analyzing scent, colour, and nutrient contents. Analysis
of microbial metabolic activity during the fermentation process to better understand the
mechanisms involved. Moreover, the aroma of sea buckthorn alcohol can be enhanced
through the utilisation of clarification treatment technology. Skimmed sea buckthorn bev-
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 17 of 24

erages can be added to improve the colour, nutrient content, and antioxidant activity of
sea buckthorn alcohol. All of these methods can achieve superior quality processing of sea
buckthorn alcohol.

4.4. Sea Buckthorn Oil

As a functional oil, sea buckthorn oil is rich in bioactive components. Sea buckthorn
oil can be divided into sea buckthorn pulp oil and sea buckthorn seed oil according to the
different extraction sites. Sea buckthorn pulp oil, as a kind of functional fat, is extracted
along with the processing of sea buckthorn pulp and has unique fatty acids. Not only is it
rich in oleic acid and linoleic acid, but its palmitoleic acid content is significantly higher
than that of general vegetable oils [136]. Sea buckthorn seed oil has a higher grease content
than sea buckthorn pulp oil. Linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and oleic acid are the primary
components in sea buckthorn oil. Unsaturated fatty acids in sea buckthorn oil are helpful
in alleviating cardiovascular disease and lowering blood cholesterol levels.
Although sea buckthorn oil is rich in nutritional value, the problem of low oil yield
has profoundly limited the industrial development of sea buckthorn oil [137]. Up to now,
the extraction methods of sea buckthorn oil include pressing, organic solvent extraction,
supercritical CO2 extraction, water substitution, the water enzyme method, and ultrasonic
and microwave-assisted extraction [19,138,139].
However, these methods are not the best way to achieve superior quality in sea
buckthorn oil products. The pressing method reduces the quality of sea buckthorn oil
due to the increase in internal friction and temperature caused by squeezing. The organic
solvent extraction method has the problem of solvent residuals. Although supercritical CO2
extraction has a high extraction rate and can efficiently retain bioactive components, the
equipment space is limited, the cost is high, and the energy consumption is high. Hence, it
is not appropriate for large-scale industrial applications. The water-generation method will
destroy the unsaturated fatty acids in sea buckthorn oil. The water enzyme approach causes
emulsification during the extraction process, and the cost is high, making it difficult to
utilise in industrial production. Organic solvent extraction and supercritical CO2 extraction
are frequently coupled with ultrasonic and microwave-assisted extraction methods [140].
It can reduce the extraction time and enhance the quality of oil, but it is not widely used
in industry.
In this context, producing high-quality sea buckthorn oil involves exploring new
extraction processes or optimising existing methods while taking cost into account. While
researchers have utilised subcritical extraction techniques to obtain rice bran oil [141], no
relevant studies have been conducted on sea buckthorn oil. The subcritical extraction
technique is environmentally friendly, with a low extraction temperature and pressure
and a short time, which protects the extracted compounds better. It can draw on other
substances’ subcritical extraction techniques to extract sea buckthorn oil and accomplish
high-quality processing.

4.5. Sea Buckthorn Pomace

The pomace of sea buckthorn is the residue of the beverage used for juice extraction
and processing, accounting for 20% of the entire fruit weight. It contains abundant nutrients,
including carotenoids, polyphenols, and fatty acids [142], etc. As a by-product of sea
buckthorn pulp, it is generally wasted during processing and is underutilised.
The use of sea buckthorn pomace is diverse. It can be ground into a powder and
mixed into other foods, or the flavonoid can be extracted to maximise resource utilisation.
Stanciu et al. [143] added different concentrations of sea buckthorn pomace powder to flour
to explore its effect on the structural, nutritional, and organoleptic properties of bread. The
findings suggested that the addition of 8% powdered sea buckthorn pomace yielded the
finest organoleptic qualities. It contains large amounts of fibre, protein, and lipids. It has
strong antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Tian et al. [144] optimised the extraction
process of total flavonoid from sea buckthorn using the pectinase synergistic ultrasonic
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 18 of 24

method. The optimal extraction technique was as follows: pectinase addition of 5.1%,
liquid-to-feed ratio of 41:1, ultrasonic extraction period of 81 min, and total flavonoid
extraction of 8.91 mg/g. Meanwhile, sea buckthorn oil can be extracted from the pomace of
sea buckthorn. The product quality of sea buckthorn seed oil from sea buckthorn pomace
would be affected by different pretreatment and drying techniques.
Two factors must be considered when attempting to achieve high-quality processing
of sea buckthorn pomace. To begin, businesses should use sea buckthorn pomace to create
a complete industrial chain and maximise resource utilisation. The second is to explore new
process routes or improve the current process to achieve large-scale production according
to the different processing techniques of sea buckthorn dregs.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the current state of sea buckthorn
drying and high-quality processing. It provides an overview of the effects of various
pretreatment and drying processes on the drying properties and quality of sea buckthorn,
as well as the current issues with high-quality sea buckthorn processing. It also indicates
the approaches to attaining high-quality processing of sea buckthorn products. In view of
the current problems of sea buckthorn drying and high-quality processing, the following
three directions of development can be considered for the future:
(1) Throughout the drying process of sea buckthorn, the drying rate plays a crucial role
in reducing product quality maintainance and energy consumption. The application
of pretreatment technology prior to sea buckthorn drying is a significant step to
enhance the drying rate and quality and decrease energy consumption. According
to the research, combined pretreatment can integrate the advantages of the two
pretreatments, while reducing costs and improving drying quality and efficiency. In
the future, we should concentrate on the use of integrated pretreatment methods in
conjunction with the actual sea buckthorn drying requirements. A balance between
economy, ecology, and efficiency should be found after recognising the gap between
laboratory research and practical manufacturing.
(2) When processing dried sea buckthorn pulp, some small- and medium-sized enter-
prises (SMEs) prefer natural drying as a cost-effective processing method. Although
this process is advantageous to businesses, it has significantly reduced the nutrients
in sea buckthorn pulp and cannot bring forth the true worth of sea buckthorn pulp.
While hot-air drying and infrared-radiation drying are faster than natural drying, they
can cause greater deterioration in quality. Pulsed vacuum drying and vacuum freeze-
drying are considered to have superior drying quality but suffer from slow drying
rates and excessive energy consumption. In the actual production of sea buckthorn
pulp drying, except for vacuum freeze-drying for the processing of sea buckthorn
freeze-dried powder and natural sun-drying for the production of sea buckthorn
dried fruit, the rest of the drying technology is not widely used. In this situation, it is
very necessary for us to start with the research and development of drying equipment
or sea buckthorn itself. Firstly, new online-measurement and control technology is
introduced into the drying equipment. LF-NMR technology is used to monitor the
moisture migration information, predict the drying endpoint to speed up the drying
rate, and save energy consumption. The second is to study the best pretreatment tech-
nology in the early stage under different drying methods. Pretreatment technology
is used to speed up the drying rate, saving energy consumption and reducing the
quality deterioration at the same time. Thirdly, research on new drying technology of
sea buckthorn is carried out. Through the basic theoretical research on sea buckthorn
drying, the macroscopic changes in quality were investigated from the microscopic
level. The effects of different drying methods and pretreatment methods on the drying
characteristics and quality change mechanism of sea buckthorn were investigated. It is
important to investigate the effect of different drying methods and pretreatment meth-
ods on the drying characteristics and quality change mechanism of sea buckthorn,
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 19 of 24

which will be useful for the research of new pretreatment technologies such as high-
pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF) and new drying technologies
such as low-pressure superheated steam drying (SSD), far-infrared-radiation-heating-
assisted pulsed vacuum drying. Radiation heating combined with pulsed vacuum
drying (FIR-PVD), hot-air combined with vacuum freeze-drying (HAD-VFD), and
far-infrared-radiation heating combined with pulsed vacuum drying (FIR-PVD) were
applied to sea buckthorn pulp drying with significant promotion.
(3) To fully maximise the product value of sea buckthorn pulp, high-quality processing
of sea buckthorn goods must begin at the front end of processing. From beverage
to pomace, a complete industrial chain needs to be formed to maximise the use of
resources. On this basis, new process routes should be explored or existing processes
optimised in combination with the actual situation. It is also necessary to develop
the deep-processing industry for sea buckthorn and improve the added value of
sea buckthorn processing products. Using the above methods, the sea buckthorn
processing industry will realise high-quality production.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.Z. and M.L.; methodology, L.Z.; validation, Z.G.; formal
analysis, Z.G.; resources, X.Y.; data curation, Z.C. and X.L.; writing—original draft preparation, X.Z.;
writing—review and editing, Q.Z. and M.L.; visualization, M.Z.; funding acquisition, X.Y. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Bingtuan Science and Technology Program (2023AB076,
2023CB016) and Bingtuan Core Technology Program (NYHXGG, 2023AA503).
Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated for this study are available upon request from
the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Chazdon, R.; Brancalion, P. Restoring forests as a means to many ends. Science 2019, 365, 24–25. [CrossRef]
2. Hua, F.Y.; Bruijnzeel, L.A.; Meli, P. The biodiversity and ecosystem service contributions and trade-offs of forest restoration
approaches. Science 2022, 376, 839–844. [CrossRef]
3. Tudor, C.; Bohn, T.; Iddir, M.; Dulf, F.V.; Focsan, M.R.; Dumitrita, O.; Pintea, A. Sea Buckthorn Oil as a Valuable Source of
Bioaccessible Xanthophylls. Nutrients 2020, 12, 76. [CrossRef]
4. Gao, G.R.; Lv, Z.R.; Zhang, G.Y.; Li, J.Y.; Zhang, J.G.; He, C.Y. An ABA-flavonoid relationship contributes to the differences in
drought resistance between different sea buckthorn subspecies. Tree Physiol. 2021, 41, 744–755. [CrossRef]
5. Min, Z.R.; Zhang, J.X.; Fan, W.B.; Yang, H.H.; Xu, Z.Y. Soil Moisture Distribution and Dynamic Growth of Hippophae rhamnoides
Under Different Site Conditions. J. Soil. Water Conserv. 2022, 36, 204–210. [CrossRef]
6. Kanayama, Y.; Ohkawa, W.; Chiba, E.; Sato, K.; Kanahama, K.; Ofosu-Anim, J. Nutritional components and nitrogen fixation in
seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.). Acta Hortic. 2009, 806, 309–314. [CrossRef]
7. Wang, J.; Fu, B.J.; Lu, N.; Wang, S.; Zhang, L. Water use characteristics of native and exotic shrub species in the semi-arid Loess
Plateau using an isotope technique. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2019, 276, 55–63. [CrossRef]
8. Zhang, K.; Xu, M.Z.; Wang, Z.Y.; Bi, C.F. Ecological impacts of seabuckthorn in the pisha sandstone. In Proceedings of the
16th Asia and Pacific Division Congress of the International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research/3rd IAHR
International Symposium on Hydraulic Structures, Nanjing, China, 20–23 October 2008.
9. Cui, L.Z.; Fu, Y.Y.; Liu, S.W.; Xia, K.; Tan, Z.C.; Wang, Y.X. Nutritional Value and Industry Development of Sea Buckthorn. Food
Res. Dev. 2021, 42, 218–224.
10. Bal, L.M.; Meda, V.; Naik, S.N.; Satya, S. Sea buckthorn berries: A potential source of valuable nutrients for nutraceuticals and
cosmoceuticals. Food Res. Int. 2011, 44, 1718–1727. [CrossRef]
11. Yu, L.Y.; Diao, S.F.; Zhang, G.Y.; Yu, J.G.; Zhang, T.; Luo, H.M.; Duan, A.G.; Wang, J.P.; He, C.Y.; Zhang, J.G. Genome sequence
and population genomics provide insights into chromosomal evolution and phytochemical innovation of Hippophae rhamnoides.
Plant Biotechnol. J. 2022, 20, 1257–1273. [CrossRef]
12. Criste, A.; Urcan, A.C.; Bunea, A.; Furtuna, F.R.P.; Olah, N.K.; Madden, R.H.; Corcionivoschi, N. Phytochemical Composition and
Biological Activity of Berries and Leaves from Four Romanian Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) Varieties. Molecules 2020,
25, 1170. [CrossRef]
13. Guo, R.X.; Guo, X.B.; Li, T.; Fu, X.; Liu, R.H. Comparative assessment of phytochemical profiles, antioxidant and antiproliferative
activities of Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) berries. Food Chem. 2017, 221, 997–1003. [CrossRef]
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 20 of 24

14. Osborn, J.L.; Claesen, J.; Brown, J.M. Microbial Flavonoid Metabolism: A Cardiometabolic Disease Perspective. Annu. Rev. Nutr.
2021, 41, 433–454. [CrossRef]
15. Rybicka, I.; Kiewlicz, J.; Kowalczewski, P.; Kowalczewski, P.L.; Swigto, G. Selected dried fruits as a source of nutrients. Eur. Food
Res. Technol. 2021, 247, 2409–2419. [CrossRef]
16. Maftei, N.M.; Iancu, A.V.; Bogdan, R.E.G.; Gural, T.V.; Villarroel, A.R.; Pelin, A.M. A Novel Symbiotic Beverage Based on Sea
Buckthorn, Soy Milk and Inulin: Production, Characterization, Probiotic Viability, and Sensory Acceptance. Microorganisms 2023,
11, 736. [CrossRef]
17. Guo, C.X.; Han, L.; Li, M.P.; Yu, L.G. Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) Freeze-Dried Powder Protects against High-Fat
Diet-Induced Obesity, Lipid Metabolism Disorders by Modulating the Gut Microbiota of Mice. Nutrients 2020, 12, 265. [CrossRef]
18. Xia, Y.N.; Zha, M.S.; Liu, H.; Shuang, Q.; Chen, Y.F.; Yang, X.J. Novel Insight into the Formation of Odour-Active Compounds in
Sea Buckthorn Wine and Distilled Liquor Based on GC-MS and E-Nose Analysis. Foods 2022, 11, 3273. [CrossRef]
19. Sanwal, N.; Mishra, S.; Sahu, J.K.; Naik, S.N. Effect of ultrasound-assisted extraction on efficiency, antioxidant activity, and
physicochemical properties of sea buckthorn (Hippophae salicipholia) seed oil. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 153, 112386. [CrossRef]
20. Cui, Q.; Liu, J.Z.; Wang, L.T.; Kang, Y.F.; Meng, Y.; Jiao, J.; Fu, Y.J. Sustainable deep eutectic solvents preparation and their
efficiency in extraction and enrichment of main bioactive flavonoids from sea buckthorn leaves. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 184, 826–835.
[CrossRef]
21. Ma, X.Y.; Yang, W.; Kallio, H.; Yang, B.R. Health promoting properties and sensory characteristics of phytochemicals in berries
and leaves of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides). Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2022, 62, 3798–3816. [CrossRef]
22. Shi, J.; Wang, L.; Lu, Y.; Ji, Y.; Wang, Y.Q.; Dong, K.; Kong, X.Q.; Sun, W. Protective effects of seabuckthorn pulp and seed oils
against radiation-induced acute intestinal injury. J. Radiat. Res. 2017, 58, 24–32. [CrossRef]
23. Zhang, Q.G.; Zhao, J.; Shao, J.; Zhao, Y.; Yang, M.M.; Ji, A.M.; Yu, S.M. Research on the freeze-drying technology of Hippophae
rhamnoides L. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2009, 34, 39–41.
24. Geng, Z.H.; Wang, J.; Zhu, L.C.; Yu, X.L.; Zhang, Q.; Li, M.Q.; Hu, B.; Yang, X.H. Metabolomics provide a novel interpretation of
the changes in flavonoids during sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) drying. Food Chem. 2023, 413, 135598. [CrossRef]
25. Li, M.R.; Hu, J.M.; Yang, M.; Yang, J.F.; Zubarey, Y.A.A. Quality Attributes and Dielectric Properties of Sea Buckthorn Berries
under Differing Freezing Regimes and Their Interrelationships. Foods 2022, 11, 3825. [CrossRef]
26. Feng, X.R.; Hou, Y.N.; Zhang, X.X.; He, M.L.; Zhu, Y.; Sun, A.D.; Gan, Z.L. Research advances on processing and functional
components of berry juice. Sci. Technol. Food Ind. 2018, 39, 334–340. [CrossRef]
27. Marcal, S.; Sousa, A.S.; Taofiq, O.; Antunes, F.; Antunes, F.M.; Alcina, M.M.B.; Freitas, A.C.; Barros, L.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R.; Pintado, M.
Impact of postharvest preservation methods on nutritional value and bioactive properties of mushrooms. Trends Food Sci. Technol.
2021, 110, 418–431. [CrossRef]
28. Ju, H.Y.; Vidyarthi, S.K.; Karim, M.A.; Yu, X.L.; Zhang, W.P.; Xiao, H.W. Drying quality and energy consumption efficient
improvements in hot air drying of papaya slices by step-down relative humidity based on heat and mass transfer characteristics
and 3D simulation. Dry. Technol. 2023, 41, 460–476. [CrossRef]
29. Sun, Y.N.; Zhang, M.; Mujumdar, A. Berry Drying: Mechanism, Pretreatment, Drying Technology, Nutrient Preservation, and
Mathematical Models. Food Eng. Rev. 2019, 11, 61–77. [CrossRef]
30. Guimarães, B.E.; Viana, M.E.; Laviola, A.C.; Aredes, M. Thermal energy storage systems applied to solar dryers: Classification,
performance, and numerical modeling: An updated review. Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2023, 45, 102986. [CrossRef]
31. Selimefendigil, F.; Oztop, H.F. Three dimensional unsteady heat and mass transport from six porous moist objects in a channel
under laminar forced convection. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2021, 183, 116100. [CrossRef]
32. Pateiro, M.; Vargas-Ramella, M.; Franco, D.; da Cruz, A.G.; Zengin, G.; Kumar, M.; Dhama, K.; Lorenzo, J.M. The role of emerging
technologies in the dehydration of berries: Quality, bioactive compounds, and shelf life. Food Chem. X 2022, 16, 100465. [CrossRef]
33. Gutierrez, L.F.; Ratti, C.; Belkacemi, K. Effects of drying method on the extraction yields and quality of oils from quebec sea
buckthorn (Hippophaee rhamnoides L.) seeds and pulp. Food Chem. 2008, 106, 896–904. [CrossRef]
34. Canan, A.; Ibrahim, D.; Arun, M. A comprehensive review of recent advances in renewable-based drying technologies for a
sustainable future. Dry. Technol. 2022, 40, 1029–1050. [CrossRef]
35. Adnouni, M.; Jiang, L.; Zhang, X.J.; Zhang, L.Z.; Pathare, P.B.; Roskilly, A.P. Computational modelling for decarbonised drying
of agricultural products: Sustainable processes, energy efficiency, and quality improvement. J. Food Eng. 2023, 338, 111247.
[CrossRef]
36. Capar, T.D.; Dedebas, T.; Kavuncuoglu, H.; Karatas, S.M.; Ekici, L.; Yalcin, H. Phenolic Components, Mineral Composition,
Physicochemical, and Bioactive Properties of Opuntia ficus-indica with Different Drying Methods. Erwerbs-Obstbau 2023,
65, 347–353. [CrossRef]
37. Liu, Z.L.; Staniszewska, I.; Zielinska, D.; Zhou, Y.H.; Nowak, K.W.; Xiao, H.W.; Pan, Z.L.; Zielinska, M. Combined Hot Air
and Microwave-Vacuum Drying of Cranberries: Effects of Pretreatments and Pulsed Vacuum Osmotic Dehydration on Drying
Kinetics and Physicochemical Properties. Food Bioprocess. Technol. An. Int. J. 2020, 13, 1848–1856. [CrossRef]
38. Zielinska, M.; Sadowski, P.; Błaszczak, W. Combined hot air convective drying and microwave-vacuum drying of blueberries
(Vaccinium corymbosum L.): Drying kinetics and quality characteristics. Dry. Technol. 2016, 34, 665–684. [CrossRef]
39. Tian, J.H. Effect of drying temperature on the content of Vc , VE and total flavonoids in seabuckthorn fruit residue. Food Eng. 2020,
4, 30–32. [CrossRef]
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 21 of 24

40. Yang, W.R.; Peng, J.; Zhang, X.M.; Yu, Y.S.; Bo, Z.B.; Xu, Y.J.; Chen, S.P. Drying kinetics and quality characteristics of wampee
(Clausena lansium L.): Based on different hot air-drying temperatures. Food Ferment. Ind. 2021, 47, 214–220. [CrossRef]
41. Araya-Farias, M.; Makhlouf, J.; Ratti, C. Drying of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) Berry: Impact of Dehydration Methods
on Kinetics and Quality. Dry. Technol. 2011, 29, 351–359. [CrossRef]
42. Jin, X.; Duan, X.; Ren, G.Y.; Chen, J.L.; Li, L.L.; Cao, W.W.; Liu, W.C. Effects of different drying methods on drying characteristics and
quality of figs. Food and Fermentation Industries. Available online: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=vCcGnC-OR2
16aLLH9DwufCmNaJCNlabPi68-sWULS4WvzR0oI0kSxRiMgZWjXrn_tUXgDh8iktj0w9cooMaludCf1YpXBD9Fpnefy2Ej5hrq5
lnrSKnTiCnRG2lRgIHQluUXQiHzoSQ=&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 19 November 2023).
43. Geng, Z.H.; Zhu, L.C.; Wang, J.; Yu, X.L.; Li, M.Q.; Yang, W.X.; Hu, B.; Zhang, Q.; Yang, X.H. Drying sea buckthorn berries
(Hippophae rhamnoides L.): Effects of different drying methods on drying kinetics, physicochemical properties, and microstructure.
Front. Nutr. 2023, 10, 1106009. [CrossRef]
44. Liu, Q.Q.; Ma, Y.H.; Dong, J.W.; Ye, G.S.; Zhang, D.; Yang, K.Y. Temporal and Spatial Expression Patterns and Protein Structure
Prediction of Seabuckthorn CMO Gene under Drought Stress. Journal of Northwest Forestry University. Available online:
https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=vCcGnC-OR22og15fXEP0ktNjh7elFKCGXhU_5a3UuaPQLK7LYkHk7eVN2
FRQKji7XSdfLaO7EccYVtUxQUC4lHGt6Gr5pDVB7N891b4vINzMxU4vbMLZM7tGRC-798zwJH8CXBpm6Jc=&uniplatform=
NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 19 November 2023).
45. Pawar, D.A.; Giri, S.K.; Sharma, A.K. Novel alternative pretreatment approaches for production of quality raisins from grapes:
Opportunities and future prospects. J. Food Process Eng. 2023, 46, e14305. [CrossRef]
46. Tan, S.D.; Zhang, Q.; Xu, Y.; Liu, X.L.; Zhu, C.Y.; Yang, X.H. Research Progress of Berry Drying Pretreatment Technology. Food Sci.
Technol. 2022, 47, 46–51. [CrossRef]
47. Liu, Z.L.; Xie, L.; Zielinska, M.; Pan, Z.L.; Deng, L.Z.; Zhang, J.S.; Gao, L.; Wang, S.Y.; Zheng, Z.A.; Xiao, H.W. Improvement of
drying efficiency and quality attributes of blueberries using innovative far-infrared radiation heating assisted pulsed vacuum
drying (FIR-PVD). Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. 2022, 77, 102948. [CrossRef]
48. Kostaropoulos, A.E.; Saravacos, G.D. Microwave Pretreatment for Sun-Dried Raisins. J. Food Sci. 1995, 60, 344–347. [CrossRef]
49. Ni, J.B.; Ding, C.J.; Zhang, Y.M.; Song, Z.Q.; Xu, W.Q. Influence of ultrasonic pretreatment on electrohydrodynamic drying process
of goji berry. J. Food Process Pres. 2020, 44, e14600. [CrossRef]
50. Yao, N.N.; Che, F.B.; Zhang, T.; Li, Y.H.; Zhang, Q.; Zhang, H.; Zhou, J.J.; Wu, X. Comparative Analysis of Different Pretreatment
on lmproving Hot Air Drying Effect of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.). Mod. Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 36, 211–219.
[CrossRef]
51. Ni, J.B.; Ding, C.J.; Zhang, Y.M.; Song, Z.Q. Impact of different pretreatment methods on drying characteristics and microstructure
of goji berry under electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying process. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. 2020, 61, 102318. [CrossRef]
52. Bao, T.; Hao, X.; Shishir, M.R.I.; Karim, N.; Chen, W. Green alternative methods for pretreatment of whole jujube before the drying
process. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2022, 102, 1030–1039. [CrossRef]
53. Klavins, L.; Klavins, M. Cuticular Wax Composition of Wild and Cultivated Northern Berries. Foods. 2020, 9, 587. [CrossRef]
54. Wang, Z.K.; Ren, G.Y.; Duan, X.; Xu, Y.M.; Chu, Q.Q.; Zhao, M.Y. Research progress on the influence of pretreatment and drying
methods on the drying characteristics and quality of Goji. Food and Fermentation Industries 2023, 49, 367–375. [CrossRef]
55. Adiletta, G.; Alam, M.R.; Cinquanta, L.; Russo, P.; Albanese, D.; Di Matteo, M. Effect of Abrasive Pretreatment on Hot Dried Goji
Berry. Chem. Eng. Trans. 2015, 44, 127–132. [CrossRef]
56. Ciurzyńska, A.; Kowalska, H.; Czajkowska, K.; Lenart, A. Osmotic dehydration in production of sustainable and healthy food.
Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 186–192. [CrossRef]
57. Hiranvarachat, B.; Devahastin, S.; Chiewchan, N. Effects of acid pretreatments on some physicochemical properties of carrot
undergoing hot air drying. Food Bioprod. Process 2010, 89, 116–127. [CrossRef]
58. Antos, P.; Kurdziel, A.; Sadło, S.; Maciej, B. Preliminary Study on the Use of Ozonation for the Degradation of Dithiocarbamate
Residues in the Fruit Drying Process: Mancozeb Residue in Blackcurrant is the Example Used. J. Plant Prot. Res. 2013, 53, 48–52.
[CrossRef]
59. Issis, F.Q.; Elsa, U.U.; Antonio, G.V.; Jacqueline, P.G.; Antu, O.C.; Alexis, P.C. Solar drying of flame seedless (Vitis vinifera L.) grape
after different pretreatments: Characterization of raisin’s physicochemical and functional properties. J. Food Meas. Charact. 2023,
17, 2755–2766. [CrossRef]
60. Bingol, G.; Roberts, S.J.; Balaban, O.M.; Onur, D.Y. Effect of Dipping Temperature and Dipping Time on Drying Rate and Colour
Change of Grapes. Dry. Technol. 2012, 30, 597–606. [CrossRef]
61. Esmaiili, M.; Sotudeh-Gharebagh, R.; Cronin, K.; Mousavi, M.E.; Rezazadeh, G. Grape Drying: A Review. Food Rev. Int. 2007,
23, 257–280. [CrossRef]
62. Song, H.H.; Bi, J.F.; Chen, Q.Q.; Zhou, M.; Wu, X.; Song, J.X. Combined effects of sodium carbonate pretreatment and hybrid
drying methods on the nutritional and antioxidant properties of dried Goji berries. In Proceedings of the 21st International
Drying Symposium, Valencia, Spain, 11–14 September 2018. [CrossRef]
63. Çağlayan, D.; Mazı, B.I. Effects of ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration as a pretreatment and finish drying methods on the
quality of pumpkin slices. J. Food Process Pres. 2018, 42, e13679. [CrossRef]
64. Pahlavanzadeh, H.; Basiri, A.; Zarrabi, M. Determination of Parameters and Pretreatment Solution for Grape Drying. Dry. Technol.
2001, 19, 217–226. [CrossRef]
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 22 of 24

65. Pirone, B.; De Michelis, A.; Salvatori, D.M. Pretreatments Effect in Drying Behaviour and Colour of Mature and Immature
‘Napolitana’ Sweet Cherries. Food Bioprocess. Technol. 2014, 7, 1640–1655. [CrossRef]
66. Vásquez-Parra, J.E.; Ochoa-Martinez, C.I.; Bustos-Parra, M. Effect of chemical and physical pretreatments on the convective
drying of cape gooseberry fruits (Physalis peruviana). J. Food Eng. 2013, 119, 648–654. [CrossRef]
67. Polatci, H.; Tasova, M.; Sin, B. Effects of pre-treatments on drying kinetics and energy consumption, heat-mass transfer coefficients,
micro-structure of jujube (Zizyphus jujuba L.) fruit. Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 42, 15721. [CrossRef]
68. Huang, D.; Yang, P.; Qin, Y.T.; Gong, G.L.; Tang, X.H.; Luo, W.S.; Luo, L.; Sunden, B. Infrared Drying Characteristics and Quality
Variations of Lily Bulbs Under Blanching Pretreatment. J. Therm. Sci. Eng. Appl. 2022, 14, 091005. [CrossRef]
69. Jiang, S.T.; Guo, N. The steam explosion pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of wheat bran. Energ. Source Part A 2016,
38, 295–299. [CrossRef]
70. Joseph, E.B.; Jun-Hu, C.; Da-Wen, S. Novel nonthermal and thermal pretreatments for enhancing drying performance and
improving quality of fruits and vegetables. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 112, 137–148. [CrossRef]
71. Araya-Farias, M.; Macaigne, O.; Ratti, C. On the Development of Osmotically Dehydrated Seabuckthorn Fruits: Pretreatments,
Osmotic Dehydration, Postdrying Techniques, and Nutritional Quality. Dry. Technol. 2014, 32, 813–819. [CrossRef]
72. Song, C.F.; Ma, X.T.; Wang, J.L.; Ding, T.H.; Song, W.D. Effects of ultrasound and blanching pretreatments on mass transfer and
qualities of hot-air drying of perilla (Perilla frutescens L.) leaves. J. Food Process Pres. 2021, 45, e15947. [CrossRef]
73. Horuz, E.; Jaafar, J.H.; Maskan, M. Ultrasonication as pretreatment for drying of tomato slices in a hot air-microwave hybrid oven.
Dry. Technol. 2017, 35, 849–859. [CrossRef]
74. Prothon, F.; Ahrne, L.M.; Funebo, T.; Kidman, S.; Langton, M.; Sjoholm, I. Effects of combined osmotic and microwave dehydration
of apple on texture, microstructure and rehydration characteristics. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2001, 34, 95–101. [CrossRef]
75. Yu, Y.S.; Jin, T.Z.; Xiao, G.S. Effects of pulsed electric fields pretreatment and drying method on drying characteristics and
nutritive quality of blueberries. J. Food Process Pres. 2017, 41, e13303. [CrossRef]
76. Ricce, C.; Rojas, L.M.; Miano, C.A.; Siche, R.; Duarte Augusto, P.E. Ultrasound pre-treatment enhances the carrot drying and
rehydration. Food Res. Int. 2016, 89, 701–708. [CrossRef]
77. Zhang, D.Y.; Huang, D.; Zhang, Y.X.; Liu, Y.J.; Huang, S.; Gong, G.L.; Li, L.J. Ultrasonic assisted far infrared drying characteristics
and energy consumption of ginger slices. Ultrason. Sonochemistry 2023, 92, 106287. [CrossRef]
78. Wang, H.; Karim, M.A.; Sriram, K.; Xie, L.; Liu, Z.L.; Gao, L.; Zhang, J.S.; Xiao, H.W. Vacuum-steam pulsed blanching (VSPB)
softens texture and enhances drying rate of carrot by altering cellular structure, pectin polysaccharides and water state. Innov.
Food Sci. Emerg. 2021, 74, 102801. [CrossRef]
79. Wang, X.L.; Feng, Y.B.; Zhou, C.S.; Sun, Y.H.; Wu, B.G.; Yagoub, A.E.A.; Aboagarib, E.A.A. Effect of vacuum and ethanol
pretreatment on infrared-hot air drying of scallion (Allium fistulosum). Food Chem. 2019, 295, 432–440. [CrossRef]
80. Rojas, L.M.; Silveira, I.; Augusto, D.E.P. Ultrasound and ethanol pre-treatments to improve convective drying: Drying, rehydration
and carotenoid content of pumpkin. Food Bioprod. Process 2020, 119, 20–30. [CrossRef]
81. Tan, S.D.; Xu, Y.; Zhu, L.C.; Geng, Z.H.; Zhang, Q.; Yang, X.H. Hot Air Drying of Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) Berries:
Effects of Different Pretreatment Methods on Drying Characteristics and Quality Attributes. Foods 2022, 11, 3675. [CrossRef]
82. Santos, C.K.; Guedes, S.J.; Rojas, L.M.; Carvalho, G.R.; Agusto, D.P.E. Enhancing carrot convective drying by combining ethanol
and ultrasound as pre-treatments: Effect on product structure, quality, energy consumption, drying and rehydration kinetics.
Ultrason. Sonochemistry 2021, 70, 105304. [CrossRef]
83. Yang, X.H.; Tan, S.D.; Xie, S.Q.; Kou, J.M.; Zhang, Q.; Liu, X.J.; Yue, Y.M.; Zhu, C.Y.; Wang, M.; Wang, J.L. A pretreatment method
for hot air drying of sea buckthorn. Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region: CN114601131A, 6–10 June 2022. Available online:
https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=vCcGnC-OR22HsSTDNKcOXrs-xqG6HwVzIUtraJuuP4oIMe4V0i8KJpb8_hq6
y7YspPx4fpDG0OiaZa3aUOS0K1dLo2SbDx_C_uThTUR-LKhqNl8RiOU5YM0Ykw7Mo3Em9BjPZN0aRLM=&uniplatform=
NZKPT&language=CHS (accessed on 23 November 2023).
84. Yao, N.N. Effects of Pretreatment and Drying Methods on Drying Characteristics and Quality of Hippophae rhamnoides L. Master’s
Thesis, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China, 2020.
85. Deng, L.Z.; Mujumdar, A.S.; Zhang, Q.; Yang, X.H.; Wang, J.; Zheng, Z.A.; Gao, Z.J.; Xiao, H.W. Chemical and physical
pretreatments of fruits and vegetables: Effects on drying characteristics and quality attributes-a comprehensive review. Crit. Rev.
Food Sci. 2019, 59, 1408–1432. [CrossRef]
86. Zhu, W.X.; Zhao, Y.T.; Wu, J.Z.; Chen, P.X.; Jiang, M.M.; Chen, N.; Bao, H.; Wang, W.N. Research progress on drying technology
and equipment of Rhizome Traditional Chinese Medicines. J. China Agric. Univ. 2023, 28, 153–171. [CrossRef]
87. López, J.; Ah-Hen, S.K.; Vega-Gálvez, A.; Morales, A.; Garcia-Segovia, P.; Uribe, E. Effects of drying methods on quality attributes
of murta (ugni molinae turcz) berries: Bioactivity, nutritional aspects, texture profile, microstructure and functional properties.
J. Food Process Eng. 2017, 40, e12511. [CrossRef]
88. İnci, T.T.; Dursun, P. Modelling of thin layer drying kinetics of some fruits under open-air sun dryingprocess. J. Food Eng. 2004,
65, 413–425. [CrossRef]
89. Mazlum, İ.; Nizamlioglu, N.M. The effects of different drying methods on some physical and chemical properties of ‘Eksikara’
grape cultivar grown in Karaman region. J. Berry Res. 2021, 11, 395–418. [CrossRef]
90. Hunashikatti, P.T.; Ramaswwamyreddy, S.; Sethia, P.M.; Goya, S.; Rohan, S.K.; Raj, S. Experimental studies on thin-layer drying
of mint leaves in a solar dryer and under open sun. Curr. Sci. 2022, 122, 1066–1071. [CrossRef]
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 23 of 24

91. Doymaz, I. Pretreatment effect on sun drying of mulberry fruits (Morus alba L.). J. Food Eng. 2004, 65, 205–209. [CrossRef]
92. López-Vidaña, C.E.; Figueroa, P.I.; Marcos, A.G.E.; Navarro-Ocana, A.; Hernandez-Vazquez, L.; Santiago-Urbina, J.A. Solar
drying kinetics and bioactive compounds of blackberry (Rubus fruticosus). J. Food Process Eng. 2019, 42, e13018. [CrossRef]
93. Sri, K.R.; Kiruba, K. Sustainable food processing of selected North American native berries to support agroforestry. Crit. Rev. Food
Sci. Nutr. 2021, 63, 4235–4260. [CrossRef]
94. Li, Y.; Li, P.; Yang, K.L.; He, Q.; Wang, Y.; Sun, Y.H.; He, C.N.; Xiao, P.G. Impact of Drying Methods on Phenolic Components and
Antioxidant Activity of Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) Berries from Different Varieties in China. Molecules 2021, 26, 7189.
[CrossRef]
95. Lin, P.; Yao, N.N.; Che, F.B.; Ma, Y.; Zhang, T. Effects of Five Different Drying Methods on Drying Characteristic and Quality of
Hippophae rhamnoides. Sci. Technol. Food Ind. 2022, 43, 41–48. [CrossRef]
96. Guo, Z.M.; Ren, Z.C.; Chen, T. Effect of Drying Methods on Polyphenols Content and Antioxidant Activity of Grape Skin. Food
Sci. 2013, 34, 117–121.
97. Qin, D.D.; Zhang, S.W.; Guo, M.; Guo, C.X.; Li, M.P. Effect of Drying Methods on Polyphenol Composition and Antioxidant
Activities of Figs (Ficus carica L.). Food Sci. 2018, 39, 102–107.
98. Cui, C.J.; Zhao, D.D.; Huang, J.; Hao, J.X. Progress on research and development of goji berry drying: A review. Int. J. Food Prop.
2022, 25, 435–449. [CrossRef]
99. Liu, C.S.; Wu, W.F.; Song, J.; Zhang, Y.Q.; Li, J.X.; Li, Y.Q. Characteristics and Process Optimization of Hot-Air Drying Pepper.
Adv. Mater. Res. 2012, 1700, 3074–3078. [CrossRef]
100. Cao, Z.Z.; Zhou, L.Y.; Bi, J.F.; Yi, J.Y.; Chen, Q.Q.; Wu, X.Y.; Zheng, J.K.; Li, S.R. Effect of different drying technologies on drying
characteristics and quality of red pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.): A comparative study. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2016, 96, 3596–3603.
[CrossRef]
101. Jia, Y.Y.; Khalifa, I.; Hu, L.L.; Zhu, W.; Li, J.; Li, K.K.; Li, C.M. Influence of three different drying techniques on persimmon
chips’characteristics: A comparison study among hot-air, combined hot-air-microwave, and vacuum-freeze drying techniques.
Food Bioprod. Process 2019, 118, 67–76. [CrossRef]
102. Stoica-Guzun, A.; Parvulescu, O.C.; Brosteanu, A.; Chira, N.; Stroescu, M.; Dobre, T. Influence of sea buckthorn pomace
pre-treatment and drying conditions on the drying kinetics, quantity and quality of seed oil. J. Food Nutr. Res.-Slov. 2018,
57, 363–372.
103. Guan, T.; Cenkowski, S.; Hydamaka, A. Effect of drying on the nutraceutical quality of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L. ssp.
sinensis) leaves. J. Food Sci. 2005, 70, 514–518. [CrossRef]
104. Kyriakopoulou, K.; Pappa, A.; Krokida, M.; Detsi, A.; Kefalas, P. Effects of Drying and Extraction Methods on the Quality and
Antioxidant Activity of Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) Berries and Leaves. Dry. Technol. 2013, 31, 1063–1076. [CrossRef]
105. Menon, A.; Stojceska, V.; Tassou, S. A systematic review on the recent advances of the energy efficiency improvements in
non-conventional food drying technologies. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 100, 67–76. [CrossRef]
106. Goh, L.J.; Othman, M.Y.; Mat, S.; Ruslan, H.; Sopian, K. Review of heat pump systems for drying application. Renew. Sust. Energ
Rev. 2011, 15, 4788–4796. [CrossRef]
107. Salehi, F. Recent Applications and Potential of Infrared Dryer Systems for Drying Various Agricultural Products: A Review. Int. J.
Fruit. Sci. 2020, 20, 586–602. [CrossRef]
108. Huang, D.; Yang, P.; Tang, X.H.; Luo, L.; Sunden, B. Application of infrared radiation in the drying of food products. Trends Food
Sci. Technol. 2021, 110, 765–777. [CrossRef]
109. Zhu, Y.; Pan, Z.L. Processing and quality characteristics of apple slices under simultaneous infrared dry-blanching and dehydra-
tion with continuous heating. J. Food Eng. 2009, 90, 441–452. [CrossRef]
110. Huang, X.P.; Li, W.Q.; Wang, Y.M.; Wan, F.X. Drying characteristics and quality of Stevia rebaudiana leaves by far-infrared
radiation. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 140, 110638. [CrossRef]
111. Motevali, A.; Minaei, S.; Khoshtaghaza, M.H.; Amirnejat, H. Comparison of energy consumption and specific energy requirements
of different methods for drying mushroom slices. Energy 2011, 36, 6433–6441. [CrossRef]
112. Chauhan, A.K.; Patil, V. Effect of packaging material on storage ability of mango milk powder and the quality of reconstituted
mango milk drink. Power Technol. 2013, 239, 86–93. [CrossRef]
113. Walkling-Ribeiro, M.; Noci, F.; Cronin, D.A.; Lyng, J.G.; Morgan, D.J. Shelf life and sensory evaluation of orange juice after
exposure to thermosonication and pulsed electric fields. Food Bioprod. Process 2009, 87, 102–107. [CrossRef]
114. Shishir, M.R.I.; Chen, W. Trends of spray drying: A critical review on drying of fruit and vegetable juices. Trends Food Sci. Technol.
2017, 65, 49–67. [CrossRef]
115. Selvamuthukumaran, M.; Khanum, F. Optimization of spray drying process for developing seabuckthorn fruit juice powder
using response surface methodology. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 51, 3731–3739. [CrossRef]
116. Čulina, P.; Zorić, Z.; Garofulić, I.E.; Repajic, M.; Dragovic-Uzelac, V.; Pedisic, S. Optimization of the Spray-Drying Encapsulation
of Sea Buckthorn Berry Oil. Foods 2023, 12, 2448. [CrossRef]
117. Chen, Z.G.; Guo, X.Y.; Wu, T. A novel dehydration technique for carrot slices implementing ultrasound and vacuum drying
methods. Ultrason. Sonochemistry 2016, 30, 28–34. [CrossRef]
118. Zhao, L.J.; Li, Y.H.; Xie, H.; Zhang, J.L.; Wu, Z.H. Drying characteristics and product quality of whole blueberry pulp in vacuum
drying process. Int. J. Food Eng. 2021, 17, 755–769. [CrossRef]
Foods 2023, 12, 4255 24 of 24

119. Liu, Y.; Zhang, Z.Y.; Hu, L.D. High efficient freeze-drying technology in food industry. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. 2022, 62, 3370–3388.
[CrossRef]
120. Sundaramurthi, P.; Suryanarayanan, R. Calorimetry and complementary techniques to characterize frozen and freeze-dried
systems. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2012, 64, 384–395. [CrossRef]
121. Tse, C.H.; Bao, L.L.; Zhang, H. Freeze-Drying of Pharmaceutical and Food Products; Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2010; pp. 18–67.
122. Wang, R.; Zhang, M.; Mujumdar, A.S.; Sun, J.C. Microwave Freeze-Drying Characteristics and Sensory Quality of Instant
Vegetable Soup. Dry. Technol. 2009, 27, 962–968. [CrossRef]
123. Wang, D.Y.; Zhang, M.; Mujumdar, A.S.; Yu, D.X. Advanced Detection Techniques Using Artificial Intelligence in Processing of
Berries. Food Eng. Rev. 2022, 14, 176–199. [CrossRef]
124. Vishwanathan, K.H.; Hebbar, H.U.; Raghavarao, K.S.M.S. Hot Air Assisted Infrared Drying of Vegetables and Its Quality. Food
Sci. Technol. Res. 2010, 16, 381–388. [CrossRef]
125. Geng, Z.H.; Li, M.Q.; Zhu, L.C.; Zhang, X.Q.; Zhu, H.B.; Yang, X.H.; Yu, X.L.; Zhang, Q.; Hu, B. Design and Experiment of
Combined Infrared and Hot-Air Dryer Based on Temperature and Humidity Control with Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.).
Foods 2023, 12, 2299. [CrossRef]
126. Zhao, G.H.; Zhang, R.F.; Liu, L.; Deng, Y.Y.; Wei, Z.C.; Zhang, Y.; Ma, Y.X.; Zhang, M.W. Different thermal drying methods affect
the phenolic profiles, their bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity in Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk berries. LWT-Food Sci.
Technol. 2017, 79, 260–266. [CrossRef]
127. Wray, D.; Ramaswamy, H.S. Quality Attributes of Microwave Vacuum Finish-Dried Fresh and Microwave-Osmotic Pretreated
Cranberries. J. Food Process Pres. 2015, 39, 3067–3079. [CrossRef]
128. Zhong, X.; You, F.; Zhou, Z.Y.; Hu, J.Z.; Zhang, B.; Yu, J. Analysis and Suggestions on the Seabuckthorn Industry Development in
China. World For. Res. 2021, 34, 102–106. [CrossRef]
129. Das, A.; Raychaudhuri, U.; Chakraborty, R. Cereal based functional food of Indian subcontinent: A review. J. Food Sci. Technol.
2012, 49, 665–672. [CrossRef]
130. Gomez-Lopez, V.M.; Pataro, G.; Tiwari, B.; Gozzi, M.; Meireles, M.A.A.; Wang, S.J.; Guamis, B.; Pan, Z.L.; Ramaswamy, H.;
Sastry, S.; et al. Guidelines on reporting treatment conditions for emerging technologies in food processing. Crit. Rev. Food Sci.
2022, 62, 5925–5949. [CrossRef]
131. Liu, X.N.; Han, J.C.; Li, L.Y. Effect of sea-buckthorn original juice clarification on the aroma components of wine. Sci. Technol. Food
Ind. 2012, 33, 292–295. [CrossRef]
132. Chen, X.J.; Ma, Y.; Diao, T.W.; Leng, Y.J.; Lai, X.Q.; Wei, X. Pulsed electric field technology for the manufacturing processes of
wine: A review. J. Food Process Pres. 2022, 46, e16750. [CrossRef]
133. Ma, N.A. Comparative Analysis of Nutritional Components and Flavoring Components of Seabuckthorn Wine & Grape Wine.
Liquor. Mak. Sci. Technol. 2014, 2, 92–97. [CrossRef]
134. Silva-Barbieri, D.; Salazar, F.N.; Lopez, F.; Brossard, N.; Escalona, N.; Perez-Correa, J.R. Advances in White Wine Protein
Stabilization Technologies. Molecules 2022, 27, 1251. [CrossRef]
135. Belcar, J.; Gorzelany, J. Feasibility of Defatted Juice from Sea-Buckthorn Berries (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) as a Wheat Beer Enhancer.
Molecules 2022, 27, 3916. [CrossRef]
136. Gao, J.J.; Li, D.; Su, D.; Wu, T.Q.; Zhao, J.M.; Zhang, W.X.; Song, Y.; Gao, S. Research Progress on the Extraction Technology of
Seabuckthorn Fruit Oil and the Application of Nutritional Factors. Sci. Technol. Food Ind. 2022, 43, 400–407. [CrossRef]
137. Vilas-Franquesa, A.; Juan, B.; Saldo, J. Targeted analysis of sea buckthorn oil extracted by accelerated solvent extraction technique
using green and conventional solvents. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 164, 113643. [CrossRef]
138. Dong, K.; Fernando, W.M.B.; Durham, R.; Stockmann, R.; Jayasena, V. Nutritional Value, Health-promoting Benefits and Food
Application of Sea Buckthorn. Food Rev. Int. 2023, 39, 2122–2137. [CrossRef]
139. Vilas-Franquesa, A.; Saldo, J.; Juan, B. Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) oil extracted with hexane, ethanol, diethyl ether and
2-MTHF at different temperatures-An individual assessment. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2022, 114, 104752. [CrossRef]
140. Zhang, Y.; Huang, F.H.; Ma, F.L.; Zang, Q.Q.; Chen, P.; Wei, X.S.; Deng, Q.C. Progress of extraction methods of oil from sea
buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.). China Oils Fats 2016, 41, 16–20.
141. Modupalli, N.; Krisshnan, A.; Sunil, C.K.; Chidanand, D.V.; Natarajan, V.; Koidis, A.; Rawson, A. Effect of novel combination
processing technologies on extraction and quality of rice bran oil. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. 2022, 2022, 1–23. [CrossRef]
142. Nour, V.; Panaite, T.D.; Corbu, A.R.; Ropota, M.; Turcu, R.P. Nutritional and Bioactive Compounds in Dried Sea-Buckthorn
Pomace. Erwerbs-Obstbau 2021, 63, 91–98. [CrossRef]
143. Stanciu, I.; Ungureanu, E.L.; Popa, E.E.; Geicu-Cristea, M.; Draghici, M.; Mitelut, A.C.; Mustatea, G.; Popa, M.E. The Experimental
Development of Bread with Enriched Nutritional Properties Using Organic Sea Buckthorn Pomace. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 6513.
[CrossRef]
144. Tian, J.H.; Zhang, C.Y.; Wei, L. Study on the extraction technology and antioxidant activity of total flavonoids from the pomace of
sea buckthorn. Nat. Product. Res. Dev. 2021, 33, 65–72. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.