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2014, International Journal of Language and Linguistics
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International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2014; 2(3): 241-245 243

coeducational technical institute in Georgia. One objective
was to make a comparison between achievement levels of
participants who received instruction that was matched and
mismatched with their perceived learning style. 12 teachers
and 189 students participated in the study. Permission to
use the Principles of Adult Learning Scale was used to
measure the elements included in learning and teaching
styles. The data were collected by administering the PALS
instrument among the students. The teacher data were
gathered by meeting with them and asking them to
complete a demographic survey. At the outset of the study,
the students received a learning style inventory, while
teachers were given a teaching style inventory. Based on
completion of their inventories, teachers and students were
divided into congruent and incongruent groups. Statistical
analysis indicated that there was not a significant difference
between the two groups. Thus, the study failed to support
learning hypothesis.
Recently, in a well-structured study, Massa and Mayer
(2006) in three experiments examined 52 college students in
the Psychology Department at California University. The
researchers designed a computer based class on electronics.
Two distinct kinds of help screens were tailored to provide
visual and verbal learners with illustrations and printed texts,
respectively. Verbalizers and visualizers were separated from
each other by using a number of measuring instruments
assessing their learning preferences, cognitive style, and
spatial ability. The study aimed to find out whether
visualizers learn better from combined instruction that
provides help screens utilizing pictures or verbalizers learn
better from combined instruction that provides help screens
employing words. In brief, the results revealed that there was
no tendency for a better achievement for those who were
offered help screens consistent with their style preferences.
Thus, the result was not supportive of providing different
teaching methods for visual and verbal learners.
In a medical- educational setting, Cook et al (2009)
studied a population of 123 intern doctors and delivered
web-based ambulatory modules. They aimed at testing the
hypothesis that learners with a sensory style of learning
would perform better when provided with instruction in
which a problem was first introduced before the content
information utilized to tackle the problem. On the other
hand, learners with an intuitive style of learning would
perform better in the opposite way. Participants were asked
to complete two modules employing the two mentioned
formats of instruction. At the end of each module, a test
was used to determine the knowledge and the main
outcome. Over time and in the middle of the two formats, a
comparison was made between the two test scores.
Statistical analysis of the results showed no significant
relation between the two instruction formats. Thus, the
study was not successful in validating the hypothesis.
In a similar study, Constantinidou and Baker (2002)
examined the impact of presentation modalities on the oral
learning of 52 younger and older adults (an equal proportion
from both genders). A laboratory task was used to find out if
the learners’ preferences in the uptake of information
predicted their ability to comprehend and save information in
various modalities. A Visualizer-Verbalizer Questionnaire
(VVQ) was used to examine the relation between the scores
of the adults and their performance in verbal free-recall on a
task that showed words via visual modality, auditory
modality or both. The VVQ contained a number of questions
which required the learners to indicate their preferences via
oral versus visual methods. The results indicated that there
was not a strong relation between the VVQ scores and the
performance of free-recall levels for various input modalities.
It was also found that the visual presentation yielded better
free-recall in comparison with the oral presentations. Thus,
the researchers found no significant relation between the
visual and oral presentation of the items.
These four studies did not provide support for the
learning or meshing hypothesis. However, these negative
results cannot be deemed as a complete refutation of the
hypothesis. Sternberg et al (1999) undertook a study to
determine whether learners whose style matches the
instruction they receive perform better than their
mismatched counterparts do. A group of 324 proficient and
gifted high school students were the study sample. A
selection procedure was made on the basis of the students’
performance on the Sternberg Triarchic Abilities (STA).
The test determined the score of each student’s creative,
analytical and practical ability. Based on the test scores, the
researchers selected a group of 112 students who had a
higher rating for one of the tree mentioned abilities than the
other two. Based on their skilled areas, the students were
divided into three groups: high creative, high analytical and
high practical. Another group of 87 students were divided
into two other sub-groups, and the rest of the subjects were
not included in the study. The participant students then
registered for a psychology course at the University of Yale,
and each subject was arbitrary chosen to participate in class
meetings that focused on creative, analytical and practical
instruction or memory instruction. An assessment of the
course performance was made by using various measures.
Finally, the researchers analyzed the data and made a
comparison between the performance of matched subjects
and the mismatched ones. The results showed that matched
subjects outperformed their mismatched peers on two of the
three types of assessments.
Peacock (2001) carried out a study to test Reid’s (1987)
hypothesis that incongruence between learning and
teaching styles leads to learning failure, demotivation, and
frustration. Reid’s questionnaire, tests and interviews were
used for the data collection utilizing 46 EFL teachers and
206 EFL students at a university in Hong Kong. It was
discovered that the teachers preferred auditory, kinesthetic
and group styles and disliked individual and tactile styles
while the students preferred auditory and kinesthetic styles
and disliked group and individual styles. Thus,
incongruence was noticed concerning auditory and group
styles. The interview results indicated that 70% of the
learners were discouraged by incongruence between

244 Hawkar Akram Awla: Learning Styles and Their Relation to Teaching Styles

learning and teaching styles; 76% stated that it had a
negative impact on their learning; and 81% of the teachers
were content with Reid’s’ hypothesis. In conclusion,
Peacock proposed a balanced style for teachers to adjust to
various learning styles.
In a recent study, Naimie et al (2010) investigated the
influence of matching or mismatching learning and
teaching styles on the achievement of learners. 310 students
were randomly selected from the faculty of foreign
languages at the University of Azad in Iran. The Felder and
Solomon’s (1997) Learning Style Index (LSI) plus
observations, survey questionnaire and interviews were
employed for the data collection. The LSI included four
dimensions: Active/ Reflective, Sensing/Intuition,
Visual/Verbal, Global/ Sequential. A comparison was made
between learning style preferences and achievement scores
of matched-learning–teaching styles with mismatched
learning-teaching styles across all of these four dimensions.
The results of the study revealed that Active, Sensing,
Visual, and Global, respectively, were the main learning
styles of the students. To find out the influence of match
and mismatch of learning and teaching styles, the students
were classified into five groups on a rating scale (0-4), 0
indicating a complete mismatch and 4 indicating a perfect
match. The analysis of the results showed that matching
learning and teaching styles positively influenced the
students’ achievement.
In a similar study, Naimie et al (2010) attempted to
identify: first, the extent to which the accommodation of
learning style preferences is addressed by EFL classroom
teachers, second, the effect of match and mismatch between
learning and teaching styles on the attainment of the
learners. The sample of the study was 100 English major
undergraduates and two experienced teachers at a
university in Iran. Interview and observation were used as
instruments for the data collection. A survey questionnaire
was also used to identify the teachers’ and students’
learning styles. The results indicated that the dominant
learning style were active, sensing, and global respectively,
while the teachers frequent learning styles were active,
sensing, visual, and an equal distribution of global and
sequential at the last dimension. The authors concluded that
the students showed a positive attitude and higher
attainment when their teachers accommodated their needs
and preferences.
More recently, Tuan (2011) conducted a study to
identify how teachers understand their students learning
preferences as well as the extent of mismatch between
students’ and teachers’ styles which has led to students’
low performance and frustration. The sample was 12
teachers and 168 students from eight EFL classes in
Vietnam. A questionnaire survey consisted of 44 close-
ended questions was distributed among the students of
low upper intermediate and intermediate classes. Student-
teacher style matching was measured by class observation.
The results showed that the Vietnamese learners were
more visual than verbal, more intuitive than sensing, more
sequential than global, and more active than reflective.
There was also some mismatch between the students’
learning styles and the teachers’ teaching styles. After
matching learning styles, the Felder’s (1993) and the
Kolb’s (1984) multiple teaching strategies were applied
to stretch the learners’ style. While the teachers’ role was
to guide students to particular learning styles, they had to
familiarize themselves with new teaching styles. Despite
the failure of style stretching by some students and
teachers, the study confirmed the advantages of style
stretching and matching.
In my experience, as a learner I have always gained
higher scores in those lessons where my learning style has
been consistent with my teacher’s teaching style. This
congruence has helped me to predict the teacher’s
expectations for the required answers. I am an analytic
learner and I prefer analyzing and thinking in exams.
Therefore, I have to consider the teachers style before
answering the questions. However, I have, sometimes,
found a mismatch between my learning style and my
teacher’s teaching style useful as it helps me to bring and
adopt more styles into my learning style repertoire.
6. Conclusion
In the light of what has been discussed so for, it can be
concluded that learning styles play an important role in the
lives of learners. When students recognize their own
learning style, they will be able to integrate it into their
learning process. As a result, learning process will be
enjoyable, faster, and more effective. Moreover, teachers
should try to adjust their teaching styles so that they match
their students’ learning styles. However, a mismatch might
sometimes be important especially with low level students
as they feel disappointed at the early stages of learning but
it should be done with caution. In addition, Peacock
(2001:15) proposes that “teachers should strive for a
balanced teaching style that does not excessively favor any
one learning style― rather that tries to accommodate
multiple learning styles”.
References
[1] Biggs.J. (2001) Enhancing Learning: A Matter of Style or
Approach? In R.J. Sternberg, L.F
[2] Zhang,( Eds), Perspectives on Thinking, Learning and
Cognitive Styles. Mahwah, NJ: [3] Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers.
[3] Cassidy, S. (2004) Learning styles: An overview of theories,
models, and measures. Educational Psychology, 24 (4), 419-
441.
[4] Cohen, A.D. and Weaver, S.J. (2005) Styles and strategies-
based instruction: a teachers’ guide Minneapolis, MN:
Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition,
University of Minnesota. Retrived on April,20, 2012, from
http://elechina.super-red.es/cohen-weaver.pdf.

International Journal of Language and Linguistics 2014; 2(3): 241-245 245

[5] Constantinidou, F., & Baker, S. (2002) Stimulus modality
and verbal learning performance in normal aging. Brain and
Language, 82, 296–311.
[6] Cook, D.A., Thompson, W.G., Thomas, K.G., & Thomas,
M.R. (2009) Lack of interaction between sensing-intuitive
learning styles and problem-first versus information-first
[15] Naimie, Z., Siraj, S., Shagholi, R., Abuzaid, R.A. (2010)
Did you cook your lesson based on right recipe?
(Accommodating the Students Preferences in Class) Social
Behavioral Sciences, 2, 383-387.
[16] Oxford, R. (2001) Language learning styles and strategies.
In. M. Celce-Murcia,
rd Ed.Teaching English as a second or

instruction: A randomized crossover trial. Advances in
Health Science Education, 14, 79– 90.
[7] Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner:
Individual differences in second language acquisition.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Associates, Publishers.
[8] Felder. R. (1993). Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and
Teaching Styles in College Science Education. J.College
Science Teaching, 23(5), 286-290.
[9] Gilakjani A.P, Ahmadi, S.M. (2011). Paper title: The Effect
of Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Learning Styles on
Language Teaching. International Conference on Social
Science and Humanity, 5, 496-472
[10] James, W. B., and Gardner, D. L. (1995) Learning Styles:
Implications for Distance Learning. New Directions for
Adult and Continuing Education no. 67, 19-32.
[11] LdPride.(n.d.),What are learning styles? Retrieved on
March, 29, 2012 from
http://www.ldpride.net/learningstyles.MI.htm.
[12] Massa, L.J., & Mayer, R.E. (2006) Testing the ATI
hypothesis: Should multimedia instruction accommodate
verbalizer-visualizer cognitive style? Learning and
Individual Differences, 16, 321–336.
[13] Mortimore, T. (2003) Dyslexia and Learning Style. A
Practitioner’s Handbook. London: Whurr Publishers Ltd.
[14] Naimie, Z., Siraj, S., Piaw, C. Y., Shagholi, R., Abuzaid,
R.A. (2010) Do you think your match is made in heaven?
Teaching styles/ learning styles match and mismatch
revisited. Procedia Social Behavioral Sciences, 2, 349-353.
foreign language (3 ed.). US A: Heinle & Heinle.
[17] Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2009)
Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological
Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105-119.
[18] Peacock, M. (2001) Match or mismatch? Learning styles
and teaching styles in EFL. International Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 11(1), 1-20.
[19] Reid, J.M. (1987) The learning style preferences of ESL
students. TESOL Quarterly,21(1), 87–111.
[20] Reid, J.M. (1995) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL
Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
[21] Felder, R. M., & Soloman, B. A. (1997) Index of
Learning Styles Questionnaire. Retrieved on June, 9,
2006 from
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[22] Spoon.J. C, Schell, J .W. (1998) Aligning Student Learning
Styles with Instructor Teaching. Journal of Industrial
Teacher Education, 35(2), 41-56
[23] Sternberg, R.J., Grigorenko, E.L., Ferrari, M., &
Clinkenbeard, P.(1999) A triarchic analysis of an aptitude–
treatment interaction. European Journal of Psychological
Assessment, 15, 1–11.
[24] Tuan.L.T. (2011) Matching and Stretching Learners’
Learning Styles. Journal of Language Teaching and
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