INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
traced back to the capacity of human beings to be
Introduction
We do not live in a vacuum. Everyday our
existence is bombarded with the realities of what
it takes to be human. Endowed with the ability to
think and search for reasons for our actions led to
the birth of philosophical thoughts.
Philosophy - is the discipline in which we attempt
to answer the deepest, basic questions about key
areas or subject matters of our lives and about
the significant aspects of our existence.
This broad field of study is divided
into:
Logic - the study of correct reasoning
Metaphysics - the study of fundamental nature
of reality
Epistemology - the study of knowledge
Ethics - the study of morality
Etymologically, Ethics is derived from the
Greek word ethos means “a characteristic way of
acting”. Ethos includes politics, law, religion and
norms of society or group of people.
In our study “ethos” would refer to the
characteristics belonging to man as a thinking
and rational animal gifted with intellect and
freewill.
Characteristic of the Ethos of Man
1. That within us is the feeling that tells us that we
must do what is good and avoid what is evil.
2. That within us is the ability to distinguish
between good and evil, right and wrong, moral
and immoral.
3. That within us is the feeling that whatever we
do, we are accountable and responsible for,
irrespective of whether the consequence of our
action is a reward or punishment.
Ethics, also known as Moral Philosophy is the
study of morality. Morality pertains to beliefs
about right and wrong, good and evil.
Belief refer to the set of values, rules,
principles and theories of morality that guide our
actions, define our values and give us reasons for
being.
The success of human evolution can be
moral.
Nature endowed us with a moral sense.
This means that we have the capacity to be self-
aware of our dignity and adhere to the duty of
doing good and avoiding what is evil.
But what is exactly the right way of living?
According to Socrates, a Greek moralist,
the answer is an examined life. Examined life is
a life guided and enriched by self-awareness or
self-knowledge.
Self-examination means that we should
know what we desire and find out if it is morally
acceptable.
Thus, to know thyself is the first ethical
imperative according to Socrates. This is the
nature of studying Ethics. It is a tool that can help
us investigate anything and everything about
what we assume to know of ourselves as moral
beings.
MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Moral Standards and Non-Moral Standards
A moral-standard guides us in distinguishing
between which behavior is good or bad, right or
wrong including how we and others value what is
morally good or bad.
There are no gray areas in moral
standards, for if there are then the standard would
be biased and would lead to conflict and
confusion.
The following are the FIVE characteristics of
moral standards:
1. It deals with issues which involve significant
injuries or benefits.
2. Its validity rests on the adequacy of reasons for
the act of the behavior.
3. It is based on impartial considerations. The
standard should apply equally to all.
4. It is preferred compared to other standards that
include self-interest.
5. It is associated with special mentions. When
we act in violation of our moral standard, we
experience feelings of guilt, shame or remorse.
Standards which involve self-serving bias is not a
moral standard at all.
Moral standard are ingrained in
our psyche that going against them impacts our
peace of mind resulting in feelings of regret that
impels us to seek for atonement.
Non-moral standards on the
other hand, are sets of criteria by which
something is judged as good or bad, right or
wrong in a non-moral way.
Non-moral standards are
created or established by a person or a group to
serve as a measure by which to gauge how good
something or someone is based on some criteria.
MORAL DILLEMMA
Moral Dilemmas
Life is full of choices.
As humans, we are creatures of habit and
to relieve ourselves of constantly making choices,
we usually fall back to routines making each day
a replica of the one before.
In reality, however, life cannot be all
routines. For oftentimes, we find ourselves face-
to-face situations that call for a reflection of the
kind of person we are and what we consider to be
important.
Situations that prod us to make a difficult
choice, to look deeper into ourselves before we
decide or consider what possible outcome our
choice and actions will have is called a dilemma.
In the context of moral philosophy in which we are
to make a choice between two options, where
neither one completely resolves the situation is
known as moral dilemma.
These dilemmas are characterized by
conflict for even if there are two possible actions
that can be done, doing both actions is not
possible. There are three conditions that
characterize moral dilemmas:
1. It occurs in situations when a person is required
to make a decision about which of two or more
action is best.
You, as a leader of a class group project, will have
to choose between lying and telling the truth to
your teacher about what happened to your group
projects.
2. The person can only choose to act on one but
not both or all of the actions.
OPTION 1: If you choose to lie, your teacher may
give you considerations and the groupmates who
caused the problem will be happy because they
will be absolved from their irresponsibility.
OPTION 2: If you tell the truth, your group gets a
failing grade for the project. You may still have the
chance to pass the subject but your group mates
because of their poor performance in the subject
won't and they will hate you for what you did.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
Moral dilemma may vary based on the
level in which they occur. Moral issues may be
present at the macro level which influence groups
and organizations to the individual or personal
level.
1. Systematic/Structural Level (Macro)
Moral dilemmas at this level involve the
social, political, legal and economic systems that
are in place at a given time. Choices made at this
level are affected by political pressures,
economic conditions and societal atmospheres
and attitude.
Moral dilemmas at the level of
government or the ruling party has great impact
on a large number of people. It is never easy for
people in power to make moral choices and be
burdened with irreparable consequences. (war
against drugs, transport modernization, mining
law)
2. Organizational Level
This involves moral dilemmas in relation
to particular groups or organizations. It consists
of the policies of particular groups, institutions or
professions and its impact on the choices and
actions of its members.
Organization recognized by law or by
established institutions are also expected to have
their own charter/constitution which contain the
set of policies that would serve as a guide for the
decisions and actions of its leaders and
members. (Code of Ethics for Practitioners of
Medicine, Psychologist, Social Worker, Teachers
and Journalist)
3. Individual/Personal Level
This include dilemmas concerning
individual decisions, behavior or character when
such is influenced by peer pressure, personal
financial position and socio-economic status. At
this level, difficulties in making choices are
strongly influenced by the person's culture,
beliefs and values.
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY:
FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY
FREEDOM
When we were born, we had no idea of the
concepts of right and wrong, good and bad. Our
whole world was dependent on the love and care
we received from our parents and other member
of our family.
As we grow-up, armed with the values
that define us as a person, the field is now open
for us to use these as guides in making life
choices.
Essential to accomplishing this is the
freedom for us to make these choices.
When we were born, we had no idea of the
concepts of right and wrong, good and bad. Our
whole world was dependent on the love and care
we received from our parents and other member
of our family.
As we grow-up, armed with the values
that define us as a person, the field is now open
for us to use these as guides in making life
choices.
Essential to accomplishing this is the
freedom for us to make these choices.
Freedom is a necessary component of human
existence at all levels of morality. Moral freedom
is not the right to do what you want but rather the
strength to do what is right.
• Freedom is important to existence
because it develops our morality
• We should be free to make our own
choices
• Mistakes will be made along the way, but
such errors in judgment serve as
important jewels of learning which we
need in order to be considered as truly
mature human beings.
According to Vaughn (2008), to not
exercise the freedom to choose has the
following drawbacks:
1. It deprives the person the right to make
choices.
2. His responses to moral dilemmas will be
incomplete, confused or mistaken. He will be
deprived of the knowledge of the consequences
of his choices.
3. The person will be deprived of intellectual
moral growth. Maintaining neutrality or blindly
accepting moral beliefs may end up in denying all
morality.
• When we are dominated by others, we
fail to realize our dignity as a person
which prevents us from attaining full
potential and creativity.
• Freedom provides the opportunities to
make possible activities and projects that
enable us to live comfortably with one
another.
• When we are given the freedom to
choose, we attain dignity as human
beings and provided with the chance to
achieve our full potential.
• To be considered a grown-up and to have
the freedom to choose means being
responsible for the choices made.
Responsibility is accountability for the
task or duty that we are required or expected to
do.
Responsibility is the price of freedom and
freedom cannot be separated from responsibility.
This is the reason why we would
sometimes refuse to make the choice. We would
rather not take responsibility for the negative
consequences of our choices.
• Oftentimes, we would opt to take refuge
in the ready-made values of religion or
society and hide behind supposedly
eternal principles to rid ourselves of the
burden of responsibility.
• But such is the proce of moral freedom
• This is why some of us do not like to be
free, for freedom entails responsibility
and some cannot endure the burden of
 responsibility. However, moral freedom
comes with moral responsibility.
MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR MORALITY:
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
REASON is a statement that explains why
something is the way it is, why someone does
thinks, or says something or why someone
behaves in certain way.
A reason may also be a fact, condition or
situation that makes it proper or appropriate to do
something or feel something. It is also the mind's
power to think and understanding a logical way.
Thus, in the context of morality, actions
and choices undertaken must be supported by
good reasons.
As individuals, capable of emotions, most
of our reasons for choices of actions are
subjective.
The decisions we make should be guided by
reasons and the morally right thing to do is always
the one best supported by the arguments.
Good arguments have the facts straight
and is guided by the moral principles.
Moral principles are the general
guidelines for right conduct.
The decisions we make should be guided by
reasons and the morally right thing to do is always
the one best supported by the arguments.
Good arguments have the facts straight
and is guided by the moral principles.
Moral principles are the general
guidelines for right conduct.
Characteristics of Moral Principles
1. PRESCRIPTIVITY
This is the action-guiding principle of
morality posed as injuctions and imperatives.
Injunctions are granted by a court of equity
wherein one is required to do or to refrain from
doing a specified act. Imperatives are
commands, rules or duty that is very important or
necessary.
Example: 'Do not steal', 'Do not kill', 'Love
one another'
2. UNIVERSALIZABILITY
What is right for one person is right also
for another in a relatively similar situation. It
pertains to a rule that forbids us from treating
ones person differently from another when there
is no good reason to do so.
Example: 'Do unto others what you would
have them do unto you'
3. OVERRIDINGNESS
Moral principles take precedence over other
kinds of considerations, including aesthetic,
prudential and legal ones.
Example: 'When so much injustice results from a
bad law, then this situation may call for an illegal
but moral defiance'
4. PUBLICITY
Moral principles must be public. This is
the only way it can be known
Example: Senate and Congressional
hearings are made public for the people to be
aware that the government is not tolerating graft
and corruption.
5. PRACTICABILITY
Moral systems must be workable. Ethical
systems take human limitations into
consideration. Moral principles consider the
nature of human beings.
Example: Work schedules should be
made in such a way as it considers the basic need
of employees for rest and nourishment. Shifting
schedules should benefit both the employee and
the organization.
IMPARTIALITY is defined as equal treatment for
all people and all groups. Morality requires the
impartial consideration for everyone's interests.
This interest of each individual, therefore,
is equally important and no one should get any
special treatment.
Discriminating certain groups of people is
unacceptable if there is no good reason from
them to be treated differently.
 Morality is the effort to guide one's action
by reason while by giving equal weight to the
interest of everyone affected by one's decision.

FREEWILL

Free will is a "subject based" means that

you have an absolute freedom to make decision
by your own self and you also have a freedom to
follow through with those decision.

This is the philosophical concept that

individuals have the ability to make choices
and decisions independent of deterministic
forces or external constraints. In other words,
it suggests that people have the capacity to
act according to their own intentions, desires,
and values, and that their actions are not
solely predetermined by factors such as
genetics, environment, or divine will.