Application of Image Classification in Road Infrastructure

Maintenance: A Literature Review

I. INTRODUCTION Additionally, the review examines practical

In today's rapidly evolving world, applications of image classification in
maintaining road infrastructure is crucial for real-world scenarios, such as detecting
facilitating smooth transportation networks potholes, cracks, surface defects, and
and fostering economic development. As monitoring the condition of road signs and
technology advances, image classification markings. By automating inspection
techniques have become valuable tools for processes, image classification saves time
evaluating and managing road and resources and allows for timely
infrastructure. This literature review maintenance interventions, ultimately
explores the use of image classification in improving road safety and operational
road infrastructure maintenance, examining efficiency.
methodologies, challenges, and
advancements in this field. However, despite its potential benefits, the
adoption of image classification in road
Road infrastructure includes various infrastructure maintenance faces
elements, such as pavement conditions, challenges. Concerns about data quality,
signage, markings, and roadside assets. scalability, and algorithm robustness need
Traditional inspection methods often involve to be addressed to ensure reliable
manual surveys or expensive equipment, performance across different environmental
which are labor-intensive and conditions and geographic locations.
time-consuming. Image classification offers
a compelling alternative by employing By carefully examining existing literature,
computer vision algorithms to automatically this review aims to identify gaps in current
analyze images captured by research and propose directions for future
vehicle-mounted or drone-mounted investigations. By enhancing our
cameras. understanding of the application of image
classification in road infrastructure
The review aims to provide a maintenance, we can contribute to the
comprehensive overview of research efforts development of more efficient and
in this area, highlighting different sustainable transportation systems.
approaches used for image classification in
road infrastructure maintenance. II. LITERATURE SURVEY
Researchers have explored various
methods, from basic pixel-based A. Winter Road Condition Recognition
classification to advanced deep learning Using Video Image Classification
models, to accurately identify and assess
This study focuses on classifying winter
different road features.
road conditions based on video images to
enhance maintenance decisions. The
dataset used consists of 69 color images
captured during winter and spring filming
sessions with a handheld Hi-8 camcorder,
depicting various road states such as dry,
wet, snowy, icy, and snowy with tracks. The
performance of the model developed in the
study shows promising results, with typical
rates of correct classification ranging from
40% to 50%. The neural network approach
demonstrates the potential to distinguish
between different road states using features
such as mean and standard deviation of
image colors, response to filters, and ratios
of image properties. The study showcases
the feasibility of using video images and
neural networks for winter road
maintenance decision-making. Further
enhancements such as refining feature
extraction, collecting more data, and
exploring advanced network architectures
are suggested to improve the model's
accuracy and utility in real-world
applications.
B. Image-Based Road Type Classification
The study utilized a comprehensive road
image dataset comprising 20,000 real-world
samples collected from Google Street View.
These images were extracted from GPS
trajectories and geo-located, resulting in a
dataset with two distinct classes: paved
roads and unpaved roads, each containing
10,000 images. The images were manually
extracted from road surfaces and
standardized to 32x32 pixel sub-images. In
terms of performance, the evaluation of the
classification methods revealed that the
proposed unsupervised feature learning
approach achieved a notable test accuracy
of 85.3% using 5-fold cross-validation. This
performance was comparable to the
accuracy of 84.25% achieved by a method
utilizing engineered visual features. Both of
these methods significantly outperformed a
simple baseline classifier, which achieved
an accuracy of 74.23%. The unsupervised
learning approach involved the extraction of
random patches from training images,
followed by the application of k-means
clustering to learn a dictionary of visual
features. Subsequently, features were
extracted from novel images by encoding
patches based on the learned dictionary
and pooling encoded vectors over a grid to
form final image representations. Finally, a
linear SVM classifier was trained on the
extracted features and labels to effectively
classify road images in the test set into the
two distinct classes.
C. Classification of Paved and Unpaved
Road Image Using Convolutional Neural
Network for Road Condition Inspection
System
The research focuses on developing a road
condition inspection system using
Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) for
classifying paved and unpaved road
images. The dataset comprises 16,372 road
images collected from urban and rural roads
in Timor Leste, categorized into paved and
unpaved classes. These images depict
various environmental conditions (wet,
muddy, dry, dusty, shady) and road surfaces
(ground, rocks, sands, asphalt). The dataset
also includes diverse features commonly
found on roads, such as buildings, trees,
vehicles, and human elements. Images are
sized 1920 x 1080 pixels with three color
channels (red, green, blue), simulating
real-world road conditions for effective CNN
training. The proposed CNN model
achieved high performance in classifying
road images, with precision, recall, and
F1-score values of 98.0%, 98.4%, and
98.2%, respectively. This indicates its ability
to accurately differentiate between paved
and unpaved roads with confidence. The
CNN architecture includes a feature
extractor part with convolutional and pooling
layers, followed by fully connected layers
acting as a classifier. Leveraging deep
learning techniques, the model
outperformed conventional machine
learning algorithms like Random Forest and
Support Vector Machine (SVM). Specifically,
the technique involves utilizing deep
learning algorithms to automatically extract
features from road images, enabling
effective classification between paved and
unpaved roads. This approach capitalizes
on the CNN's capability to learn
discriminative features directly from the
images, eliminating the need for
handcrafted feature engineering and
enhancing classification accuracy.
D. Automatic Generation of Training
Data for Image Classification of Road
Scenes
This study introduces a novel technique for
automating the generation of labeled
training data for image classification of road
scenes. This approach leverages LiDAR
(light detection and ranging) data to
semantically label a 3D point cloud scene,
detect curb locations, and extract road
boundary shapes using an active contour
(snake) algorithm. The labeled 3D point
cloud is then projected into camera images,
and morphological operations are applied to
achieve dense labeling. The technique was
tested on 16 datasets recorded with a
Velodyne HDL-64e LiDAR and
high-resolution camera, covering diverse
scenes from inner city to rural areas, with
sequences ranging from 200-400m in length
and recorded at speeds between 20-50
km/h. The results demonstrate that the road
curve can be accurately extracted without
user input in under a minute for sequences
up to a minute long. Quantitative evaluation
against ground truth revealed that 50% of
the extracted road contour was within 3.5cm
of ground truth, and 88% was within 9cm.
The road labeling achieved a precision of
99% and a recall of 96%, while the curb
labeling achieved a precision of 45% and a
recall of 79%. The key technique involves
using geometric cues from LiDAR data
exclusively to semantically label the 3D
scene, thereby avoiding reliance on image
features. This ensures that the generated
labeled data is suitable for training image
classifiers without biasing them to the
generation method. Overall, the proposed
technique offers a promising solution for
automating the generation of labeled
training data for road scene image
classification, with robust performance
across diverse real-world scenarios.
E. Classification of Road Surfaces Based
on CNN Architecture and Tire Acoustical
Signals
The study utilizes a convolutional neural
network (CNN) architecture to classify road
surfaces based on tire acoustical signals.
The dataset consists of images derived from
these signals collected on various road
surfaces (asphalt and snowy) using different
types of tires (tire-A and tire-B) on both front
and rear wheels. Data preparation involves
creating balanced sets for training,
validation, and testing. In terms of
performance, the CNN-based model
demonstrates promising results in
accurately categorizing road surfaces,
showcasing the efficacy of the approach.
Specifically, the classification accuracy of
road surfaces serves as the metric for
evaluating the model's performance. To
process the data, the study employs
techniques such as transforming 1D noise
signals into 2D time-frequency
representations using Continuous Wavelet
Transform (CWT) to generate input images
for the CNN. This high-resolution CWT
facilitates capturing intricate signal
characteristics, enhancing the classification
performance of the CNN.
F. Road Detection from High and Low
Resolution Satellite Images
The study focused on road extraction from
satellite images in the western area of
Ankara, Turkey. Five satellite images with
varying resolutions were used: QUICKBIRD
(2.4m), IKONOS (4m), SPOT-PAN (10m),
ASTER (15m), and LANDSAT-ETM (30m).
Automated and semi-automated methods
were employed to detect roads from these
images. The automated extraction was
performed using the line module of PCI
Geomatica software. The study aimed to
assess the impact of resolution on road
extraction accuracy. The automated method
was most effective for extracting primary
roads in bare rural areas from
high-resolution images. In contrast, the
semi-automated method utilized
preprocessing filters and image
classification techniques. Performance and
accuracy were assessed by comparing
extracted roads with ground truth GIS road
data. Higher resolution images, such as
Quickbird and Ikonos, demonstrated
superior road network extraction results
compared to lower resolution images. For
the automated method, a line extraction
module automatically detected linear
features. In the semi-automated method,
preprocessing filters such as Prewitt and
Sobel high pass filters were applied to
enhance roads before extraction, followed
by maximum likelihood classification for
image analysis.
G. Road signs classification by ANN for
real-time implementation
This study focuses on traffic sign
classification and leverages a dataset
comprising 177 images captured in urban
and countryside areas in Tunisia. These
images encompass various lighting and
weather conditions, including sunny, cloudy,
rainy, and nighttime scenarios. The dataset
contains traffic signs representing four
shape classes: triangular, inverted
triangular, circular, and octagonal. Over 100
images were employed for training the
neural networks. Regarding model
performance, the Multi-Layer Perceptron
(MLP) neural network achieved an overall
shape classification rate of 94.5%. However,
the classification rate for inverted triangles
was slightly lower at 90%. For content
classification of circular and triangular signs
using the Single Layer Perceptron (SLP)
neural network, an overall classification rate
of 89% was attained, with triangular signs
exhibiting a slightly higher rate (90%)
compared to circular signs (88%).
Confusion primarily occurred between
inverted and non-inverted triangles, as well
as between circular and octagonal shapes.
Notably, confusion in circular sign content
classification was observed between speed
limit signs of 50km/h and 30km/h. The study
employed two neural networks: an MLP for
shape classification and an SLP for content
classification. Features extracted from each
traffic sign image included the number of
black pixels, distance transforms, and sizes
of lines and shapes. The MLP network
consisted of 6 input nodes, 20 hidden
nodes, and 4 output nodes for shape
classification, while the SLP network utilized
pixel values of extracted sign contents as
input and featured 5 output nodes to classify
into 32 sign classes. Both networks were
trained using the backpropagation algorithm
and Widrow-Hoff learning rule, respectively.
H. Road Damage Detection using CNN in
Machine Learning
The researchers trained their Convolutional
Neural Network (CNN) model on a publicly
available dataset of road images containing
various types of damage. The dataset
contains 6,000 images, with 4,500 images
used for training and 1,500 images used for
testing. The images show cracks, potholes,
and patches on road surfaces. Their
proposed CNN model for road damage
detection consists of six convolutional layers
followed by three fully connected layers.
Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU) activation
function is used in all layers except the
output layer, which uses softmax.
Evaluation of the CNN model on the test
dataset yielded an accuracy of 94% in
detecting and classifying different types of
road damage from images. The precision
and recall of the model were 92% and 96%
respectively. The core techniques employed
include convolutional layers for feature
extraction from road images, ReLU
activation for introducing non-linearity, max
pooling for dimensionality reduction while
retaining important information, fully
connected layers for integrating spatial
features and performing classification, and
softmax activation in the output layer for
converting logits to normalized probabilities
for different classes. Additionally, a
cross-entropy loss function was used to
measure divergence between predicted and
true distributions during training.
I. The Separation of the Unpaved Roads
and Prioritization of Paving These Roads
Using UAV Images
The study utilized high-resolution UAV
images covering a 332-hectare area in Yazd
city, Iran. These images consisted of three
bands (Red, Green, Blue) and were
employed to classify four land cover
classes: built-up land, paved roads, bare
land, and vegetation cover. Each land cover
class had over 500 training data points
collected. In terms of model performance,
five object-based classification techniques
were evaluated, with the Support Vector
Machine (SVM) achieving the highest
overall accuracy of 89% and a kappa
coefficient of 80% for classifying the land
covers. SVM outperformed other
techniques, demonstrating its suitability for
this specific dataset and analysis. The SVM
technique was then employed to classify the
land covers from the UAV images,
effectively distinguishing between paved
and unpaved roads. Unpaved roads were
prioritized for paving based on the ratio of
built-up land to bare land in each road,
resulting in the assignment of five priority
levels, with 13% of roads identified as
needing medium-high priority upgrades.
J. Road condition assessment by OBIA
and feature selection techniques using
very high-resolution WorldView-2
imagery
This study utilized Very High Spatial
Resolution (VHR) WorldView-2 (WV-2)
satellite imagery, with a 0.5m pan
sharpened multispectral resolution, acquired
over diverse locations including Universiti
Putra Malaysia (UPM), Kuala Lumpur (KL),
and Bandar Baru Bangi, Malaysia. The
objective was to extract and classify road
conditions (good vs. poor) from the imagery,
employing Object-Based Image Analysis
(OBIA) and feature selection techniques.
Several classification methods were
evaluated, including Support Vector
Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF), and
Chi-square. Chi-square emerged as the
optimal performer, identifying 19 pertinent
attributes spanning spatial, spectral, texture,
and color features. Classification using
Chi-square achieved an overall accuracy of
83.19% at the UPM training site and
maintained accuracy at new sites (83.44%
for KL and 87.80% for Bandar Baru Bangi)
without additional training data. OBIA
involved image segmentation, attribute
computation, and object-based
classification, surpassing pixel-level
analysis. Feature selection techniques
played a crucial role in identifying attributes
critical for classification accuracy. The
Chi-square technique particularly stood out
for selecting attributes essential for the
OBIA classification model, highlighting its
pivotal role in the process.
K. Multi-Resolution Transformer Network
for Building and Road Segmentation of
Remote Sensing Image
This study focuses on semantic
segmentation of remote sensing images in
the Potsdam region. It utilizes two main
datasets: the aerial image segmentation
dataset (AISD) and the ISPRS 2D Semantic
Labeling Contest dataset. The AISD, known
as Potsdam-A, consists of 24 original
images, later cropped into 512x512 patches
and augmented to a total of 4307 images.
The ISPRS dataset, Potsdam-B, comprises
38 accurately labeled images,
encompassing five foreground classes:
impervious surfaces, buildings, low
vegetation, trees, and cars. The study
introduces the Hybrid Multi-resolution and
Transformer semantic extraction Network
(HMRT), which outperforms existing models
like FCN-8S, U-Net, PSPNet, and
DeeplabV3+. On the Potsdam-A dataset,
HMRT achieves an 85.32% recall, 84.88%
F1 score, 85.99% overall accuracy, and a
mean intersection-over-union (IoU) of
74.19%. Moreover, HMRT demonstrates its
effectiveness in generalization testing on
the Potsdam-B dataset, achieving a recall of
91.29%, an F1 score of 90.41%, an overall
accuracy of 91.32%, and a mean IoU of
84%. To enhance semantic segmentation,
the study employs several innovative
techniques. It introduces a multi-resolution
semantic extraction branch to maintain
resolution during downsampling, preserving
crucial feature information. Additionally, a
Transformer sequence feature extraction
network is integrated to obtain a global
receptive field for each pixel, enhancing
contextual understanding. Transformer
encoding and decoding are applied post
convolutional feature extraction to facilitate
global context understanding. Furthermore,
the fusion of feature maps from different
resolutions and network branches enriches
semantic information, contributing to the
superior performance of the HMRT model.
L. Near Real-time Map Building with
Multi-class Image Set Labeling and
Classification of Road Conditions Using
Convolutional Neural Networks
This study focuses on the classification of
road conditions using Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNNs) in near real-time. The
dataset used consisted of 47,000 images
captured by street and highway cameras
across North America. These images were
manually labeled with five classes: dry, wet,
snow/ice, poor, and offline road conditions.
The dataset was meticulously curated to
include a variety of road conditions,
ensuring the effectiveness of the
classification models. Various configurations
of CNNs were evaluated in the study, with
the EfficientNet-B4 framework achieving the
highest validation accuracy of 90.6%.
Despite its slightly lower accuracy,
EfficientNet-B0 performed well with an
accuracy of 90.3% and faster execution
time. The results demonstrated the
effectiveness of CNNs in classifying road
conditions when trained on a diverse and
well-labeled dataset. Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNNs) served as the primary
technique for classifying road conditions.
Different CNN architectures, including
VGG-16, ResNet50, Xception,
InceptionResNetV2, and EfficientNet-B0,
were employed and trained with specific
hyperparameters and optimization
techniques. Additionally, data augmentation
and regularization methods were utilized to
enhance model performance and
generalization.
M. Improving the transfer learning
performances in the classification of the
automotive traffic roads signs
This study focuses on the classification of
traffic road signs using Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNNs) and transfer learning
techniques. The dataset utilized in the study
consists of images depicting various traffic
signs collected from diverse locations,
ensuring the model's robustness by
exposing it to signs in different
environments and conditions. These images
are carefully preprocessed and divided into
training, validation, and test sets, with
respective proportions of 60%, 20%, and
20%. Transfer learning is employed to adapt
pre-trained CNN models, specifically
VGG-16 and ResNet-34 architectures, for
the task of classifying traffic sign images.
Among these architectures, ResNet-34
emerges as the top performer, achieving an
impressive accuracy of 99.74% on the test
set, indicating strong generalization
capabilities. Additionally, the Confusion
Matrix and Kappa coefficient demonstrate
the model's ability to accurately identify
images with excellent agreement between
predicted and actual classes. The study
further examines the model's performance
on new images, revealing high accuracy
rates for predicting various types of traffic
signs. It suggests potential improvements
by exploring deeper models such as
ResNet-101/150. Transfer learning serves
as the primary technique for leveraging
pre-trained CNNs, fine-tuning the top layers
on the target dataset. To optimize model
training, various optimizers including SGD,
Adam, and RMSProp are explored, with
SGD with Momentum identified as the most
effective for ResNet-34, achieving
convergence in 50 epochs with 97%
accuracy. The study employs
comprehensive methodologies including
data preprocessing, model architecture
selection, hyperparameter tuning, and
evaluation metrics to develop and analyze
the best-performing model for traffic sign
classification.

N. Pothole Classification Model Using
Edge Detection in Road Image
This study investigates the detection and
classification of road damages, specifically
potholes, leveraging data from the Global
Road Damage Detection Challenge 2020.
The dataset encompasses 13,376
pre-processed road damage images
collected from Japan, India, and the Czech
Republic. To enhance model accuracy,
various preprocessing techniques are
employed, including grayscale conversion
and YOLO object detection to remove
non-pothole objects. The dataset is divided
into training (70%), validation (10%), and
test (20%) sets for evaluation. Performance
evaluation of the model involves metrics
such as Mean Squared Error (MSE), Peak
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR), and
Structural Similarity Index (SSIM) to
measure image distortion and restoration
rates. Pothole classification accuracy on the
test data ranges from 60.5% to 96.2%, with
an Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.9 for
single potholes and 0.733 for multiple
potholes. The proposed model exhibits
promising results, achieving a precision of
83.45% and an accuracy of 77.86%,
surpassing existing methods in pothole
detection. Techniques such as
pre-processing, object detection, and edge
detection contribute to the model's
effectiveness in detecting and classifying
road damages.
O. Classification of Road Damage from
Digital Image Using Backpropagation
Neural Network
The research aims to reduce traffic
accidents caused by road damage through
early detection. By utilizing image
processing techniques and
Backpropagation Neural Network, the study
explores the classification of road conditions
into good road and damaged road
categories. The dataset comprises images
representing good road conditions, including
unmarked good road and good road
markings, as well as damaged road
conditions. A total of 30 data points were
used for testing the model's performance.
The developed model achieved an accuracy
rate of 83%, surpassing the results obtained
using other algorithms such as region
split-merger and fractal dimension. The
Backpropagation Neural Network algorithm
effectively recognized unmarked good road
conditions but showed partial success in
distinguishing between good road markings
and damaged road. The research employed
a systematic process divided into training
and testing subprocesses. The training
process involved resizing, grayscaling, edge
detection, thresholding, and training with
Backpropagation Neural Network. Similarly,
the testing process included preprocessing
steps followed by testing with the neural
network.
P. An integrated machine learning model
for automatic road crack detection and
classification in urban areas
This study presents an integrated machine
learning model designed for the automatic
detection and classification of road cracks
from image data. The model aims to provide
a comprehensive and accurate system for
timely pavement inspection, ultimately
reducing maintenance costs compared to
manual methods. The dataset used for
testing the proposed model consists of 400
images of asphalt pavement collected from
urban areas in Tehran, Iran. These images
were captured using smartphone cameras
and depict various types of cracks, including
transverse, longitudinal, diagonal, and block
cracks. The proposed model involves seven
stages, including image acquisition,
segmentation, denoising, enhancement, line
detection using Hough transform, feature
extraction, and classification. Heuristic
algorithms are developed for the
segmentation and denoising stages to
improve noise removal. The Hough
transform and equations are utilized to
extract features representing crack
structural details. The model's performance
was evaluated using six classification
models: neural network, SVM, decision tree,
KNN, Bagged Trees, and a proposed hybrid
model combining Bagged Trees and SVM.
The hybrid model achieved the best
performance, with an overall accuracy of
93.86% for classifying cracks into the four
types.
Q. Robust Road Marking Detection and
Recognition Using Density-Based
Grouping and Machine Learning
Techniques
This study evaluates an algorithm for road
marking detection and classification,
utilizing a publicly available dataset
comprising 1443 road images. These
images were manually labeled and
categorized into 11 classes, encompassing
various road marking types,
underrepresented markings, negative
images, and a "NULL" class. The algorithm
demonstrated remarkable performance,
achieving classifier accuracies ranging from
94.7% to 99.1% and detection/recognition
accuracies between 90.8% and 93.1%,
surpassing existing baseline methods. To
achieve these results, the algorithm
employed a blend of computer vision and
machine learning techniques. These
techniques included inverse perspective
mapping for generating bird's-eye views,
contrast enhancement, and texture removal
using bilateral filtering for illumination
robustness. Additionally, the algorithm
utilized MSER for detecting regions of
interest, density-based clustering for
merging closely grouped regions, and deep
learning models such as PCANet and
shallow CNNs for classification. The
algorithm also incorporated iterative
refinement of regions and parallel
processing of image pairs to enhance
robustness under varying lighting
conditions. Overall, this study underscores
the effectiveness of machine learning
approaches in achieving accurate and
reliable road marking detection and
classification.
R. Capsule-Based Networks for Road
Marking Extraction and Classification
From Mobile LiDAR Point Clouds
This study investigates road marking
extraction and classification using mobile
LiDAR point cloud data collected from urban
roads, highways, and underground garages.
The dataset, comprising over 7,000
samples annotated at the pixel level on
intensity images, covers seven road
marking categories. The data was
partitioned into training, validation, and test
sets. For road marking extraction, the study
employs a U-shaped
convolution-deconvolution capsule network
guided by Intersection over Union (IoU)
loss, achieving an average precision of
94.11%, recall of 90.52%, and F1-score of
92.43%. For classification, a hybrid capsule
network is utilized, incorporating a revised
dynamic routing algorithm and large-margin
Softmax loss, achieving an average
misclassification rate of 3.42%. Notably, the
models demonstrate robust performance
even on low-quality data from underground
garages, addressing challenges such as low
point density, poor illumination, and low
intensity contrast. Leveraging capsule
networks, the models effectively capture
pose and spatial information, providing a
reliable solution for road marking extraction
and classification from Mobile LiDAR
Scanning (MLS) point clouds.
S. Classification and Segmentation of
Longitudinal Road Marking using
Convolutional Neural Networks for
Dynamic Retroreflection Estimation
The study utilized a dataset comprising
29,635 luminance images captured by a
vehicle-installed camera, with 4958 positive
images containing road markings and
reference plates, and 24,677 negative
images. The dataset was split into training
(24,270 images) and evaluation (5365
images) sets. The Resnet-18 model
achieved the highest accuracy of 96.96%
and the lowest Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
of 0.0230 for regression in the classification
and regression model. In the segmentation
model, Intersection over Union (IoU) scores
for background, reference plate, and
longitudinal road marking were 0.9860,
0.9349, and 0.9495, respectively, with an
average of 0.9568, indicating high
performance and close alignment with
ground truths. Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNNs) served as the primary
technique, utilizing pretrained models like
Resnet-18, VGG-16, AlexNet, MobileNet,
and ShuffleNet as backbones.
A classification and regression CNN model
detected longitudinal road markings, while a
U-Net architecture-based segmentation
model accurately delineated regions if
present. Optimization was achieved using
the Adaptive Moment Estimation (Adam)
technique, with mean squared error
employed as the loss function.
T. Road Vehicle Classification using
Support Vector Machines
This study presents an approach for vehicle
classification using support vector machines
(SVMs) and simple features. The study
utilized vehicle images from two distinct
sources: the COIL database, providing
controlled test data with color images of
various vehicle types and colors, and real
video data captured from road-side
cameras, offering more challenging
real-world test data. The techniques
employed included foreground
segmentation using a Gaussian mixture
model (GMM) based background
subtraction method, feature extraction
involving shape and color features, and
classification using SVMs with various
kernels. The performance evaluation
revealed that the approach achieved 100%
recognition for common vehicle colors on
the COIL database and an overall accuracy
exceeding 80% for classifying vehicles into
different types and colors on real video
data, despite some confusion between
specific vehicle types. This pragmatic
approach demonstrated promising
performance on both controlled and
real-world data, showcasing the potential of
SVMs and simple features for vehicle
classification.

Author/s
Title Dataset used Techniques used Performance of the
Model

Kuehnle, Winter Road It comprises 69 color Feature Extraction The developed neural
A., & Condition images showing network model shows
Burghout Recognition various road Neural Network promising results,
, W. Using Video conditions like dry, Architecture through achieving correct
Image wet, snowy, icy, and Feature Combination classification rates
Classification snowy with tracks, between 40% to 50%.
providing diverse It can distinguish
training and testing between different road
samples. states, except for
certain combinations
like ice/wet and
ice/tracks.

Slavkovi Image-Based Utilized a Manual Extraction This performance was

kj, V., Road Type comprehensive comparable to the
Verstockt Classification dataset of 20,000 Standardization to accuracy of 84.25%
, S., De real-world road 32x32 pixels achieved by a method
Neve, images sourced from utilizing engineered
W., Van Google Street View, Comparison: visual features. Both of
Hoecke, containing two Unsupervised vs. these methods
S., & classes: paved Engineered Features significantly
Van De roads and unpaved outperformed a simple
Walle, R. roads, each Unsupervised baseline classifier,
comprising 10,000 Learning: Patch which achieved an
images. Extraction, K-means accuracy of 74.23%.
Clustering

Feature Extraction
from Novel Images

Classifier Training
(Linear SVM)
 V.
Pereira, Classification The dataset includes CNN Architecture The proposed CNN
S. of Paved and 16,372 road images model achieved high
Tamura, Unpaved from urban and rural Feature Extractor performance in
S. Road Image areas in Timor Leste, classifying road
Hayamiz Using categorized into Support Vector images, with precision,
u, & H. Convolutiona paved and unpaved Machine recall, and F1-score
Fukai. l Neural classes. It values of 98.0%,
Network for showcases various Pooling 98.4%, and 98.2%,
Road environmental respectively.
Condition conditions (wet,
Inspection muddy, dry, dusty,
System shady) and road
surfaces (ground,
rocks, sands,
asphalt), along with
common road
features like
buildings, trees,
vehicles, and
humans. Images are
1920x1080 pixels
with RGB channels.
Kühner,
T., Automatic The technique was LiDAR Semantic The road labeling
Wirges, Generation of tested on 16 Labeling achieved a precision of
S., & Training Data datasets recorded 99% and a recall of
Lauer, for Image with a Velodyne Curb Detection & 96%, while the curb
M. Classification HDL-64 LiDAR and Road Boundary labeling achieved a
of Road high-resolution Extraction precision of 45% and a
Scenes camera, covering recall of 79%.
diverse scenes from Point Cloud
inner city to rural Projection for Dense
areas, with Labeling
sequences ranging
from 200-400m in Geometric Cue
length and recorded Utilization
at speeds between
20-50 km/h.
 Yoo, J.,
Lee, Classification The dataset consists CNN for Road The CNN-based model
C.-H., of Road of images derived Surface demonstrates
Jea, Surfaces from these signals Classification promising results in
H.-M., Based on collected on various accurately categorizing
Lee, CNN road surfaces Balanced Data Sets road surfaces,
S.-K., Architecture (asphalt and snowy) Preparation showcasing the
Yoon, Y., and Tire using different types efficacy of the
Lee, J., Acoustical of tires (tire-A and Promising Results in approach. Specifically,
Yum, K., Signals tire-B) on both front Categorization the classification
& and rear wheels. accuracy of road
Hwang, Continuous Wavelet surfaces serves as the
S.-U. Transform (CWT) for metric for evaluating
Signal the model's
Transformation performance.

High-Resolution
CWT for Detailed
Signal Analysis
Gecen,
R., & ROAD The study focused Automated & Performance and
Sarp, G DETECTION on road extraction Semi-Automated accuracy were
FROM HIGH from satellite images Road Extraction assessed by
AND LOW in the western area comparing extracted
RESOLUTIO of Ankara, Turkey. PCI Geomatica's roads with ground truth
N SATELLITE Five satellite images Line Module GIS road data. Higher
IMAGES with varying resolution images,
resolutions were Preprocessing such as Quickbird and
used: QUICKBIRD Filters: Prewitt, Sobel Ikonos, demonstrated
(2.4m), IKONOS superior road network
(4m), SPOT-PAN Accuracy Evaluation extraction results
(10m), ASTER with Ground Truth compared to lower
(15m), and GIS Data resolution images.
LANDSAT-ETM
(30m).
 Hamdi,
S., Road signs Traffic sign CNN architecture for The MLP neural
Faiedh, classification classification using a road surface network achieved
H., by ANN for dataset of 177 classification 94.5% shape
Souani, real-time images from urban classification accuracy,
C., & implementati and rural areas in Balanced datasets with slightly lower
Besbes, on Tunisia. Images for training, accuracy (90%) for
K. cover diverse validation, testing inverted triangles. The
lighting and weather SLP neural network
conditions: sunny, Accurate attained an 89%
cloudy, rainy, and categorization of overall classification
nighttime. Dataset road surfaces rate for content
includes traffic signs classification, with
of four shape Utilization of triangular signs slightly
classes: triangular, Continuous Wavelet outperforming circular
inverted triangular, Transform (CWT) signs (90% vs. 88%).
circular, and
octagonal. Enhanced CNN
classification with
high-resolution CWT
Shinde,
A., Road Publicly available CNN model with: Evaluation of the CNN
Borgave, Damage dataset of road model on the test
H., Detection damage images, Architecture: Six dataset yielded an
Anand, using CNN in comprising 6,000 convolutional layers, accuracy of 94% in
A., & Machine images. 4,500 three fully connected detecting and
Thigale, Learning images for training layers classifying different
S. S. and 1,500 for types of road damage
testing. Images Activation: ReLU in from images. The
depict cracks, all layers, softmax in precision and recall of
potholes, and output the model were 92%
patches on road and 96% respectively.
surfaces. Loss: Cross-entropy
for training
 The
Mansour Separation of These images High-resolution UAV In terms of model
moghad the Unpaved consisted of three image usage performance, five
dam, M., Roads and bands (Red, Green, object-based
Ghafaria Prioritization Blue) and were RGB band extraction classification
n of Paving employed to classify techniques were
Malamiri, These Roads four land cover Four land cover class evaluated, with the
H. R., Using UAV classes: built-up classification Support Vector
Arabi Images land, paved roads, Machine (SVM)
Aliabad, bare land, and Evaluation of five achieving the highest
F., Fallah vegetation cover. classification overall accuracy of
Tafti, M., Each land cover techniques 89% and a kappa
Haghani, class had over 500 coefficient of 80% for
M., & training data points Support Vector classifying the land
Shojaei, collected Machine (SVM) for covers.
S. road classification

Unpaved road
prioritization based
on land cover ratios

Identification of roads
needing upgrades

Shahi,
K., Road The dataset used in Object-Based Image Classification using
Shafri, condition this study included Analysis (OBIA) Chi-square achieved
H. Z. M., assessment Very High Spatial an overall accuracy of
& by OBIA and Resolution (VHR) Feature Selection 83.19% at the UPM
Hamedia feature WorldView-2 (WV-2) Techniques training site and
nfar, A. selection satellite imagery with maintained accuracy at
techniques 0.5m pansharpened Classification new sites (83.44% for
using very multispectral Methods: Support KL and 87.80% for
high-resoluti resolution. It covered Vector Machine Bandar Baru Bangi)
on diverse locations (SVM), Random without additional
WorldView-2 such as Universiti Forest (RF), training data. OBIA
imagery Putra Malaysia Chi-square involved image
(UPM), Kuala segmentation, attribute
Lumpur (KL), and computation, and
Bandar Baru Bangi, object-based
Malaysia. classification,
surpassing pixel-level
analysis.
Sun, Z.,
Wangpin Multi-Resolut It uses two datasets: Hybrid The study introduces
g, Z., ion aerial image Multi-resolution the Hybrid
Chen, Transformer segmentation Transformer Network Multi-resolution and
D., & Network for dataset (AISD) and (HMRT) Transformer semantic
Min, X. Building and ISPRS 2D Semantic extraction Network
Road Labeling Contest Aerial Image (HMRT), which
Segmentatio dataset. AISD Segmentation outperforms existing
n of Remote (Potsdam-A) has 24 Dataset (AISD) models like FCN-8S,
Sensing original images U-Net, PSPNet, and
Image cropped into ISPRS 2D Semantic DeeplabV3+. On the
512x512 patches, Labeling Contest Potsdam-A dataset,
augmented to 4307 Dataset HMRT achieves an
images. ISPRS 85.32% recall, 84.88%
dataset (Potsdam-B) Outperforms existing F1 score, 85.99%
contains 38 labeled models like FCN-8S, overall accuracy, and a
images with five U-Net, PSPNet, and mean
classes: impervious DeeplabV3+ intersection-over-union
surfaces, buildings, (IoU) of 74.19%.
low vegetation, Multi-resolution Moreover, HMRT
trees, and cars. The semantic extraction demonstrates its
study introduces branch effectiveness in
Hybrid generalization testing
Multi-resolution and Transformer on the Potsdam-B
Transformer sequence feature dataset, achieving a
semantic extraction extraction network recall of 91.29%, an F1
Network (HMRT), score of 90.41%, an
surpassing FCN-8S Transformer overall accuracy of
U-Net, PSPNet, and encoding and 91.32%, and a mean
DeeplabV3+. decoding IoU of 84%.

Fusion of feature
maps

Semantic
segmentation of
remote sensing
images

Ramann Near The dataset used CNNs for road EfficientNet-B4

a, S., Real-time consisted of 47,000 condition achieved the highest
Sengoz, Map Building images captured by classification validation accuracy of
C., with street and highway 90.6%
Kehler, Multi-class cameras across Evaluation: VGG-16,
S., & Image Set North America. ResNet50, Xception, EfficientNet-B0
Pham, Labeling and These images were InceptionResNetV2, exhibited an accuracy
D. Classification manually labeled EfficientNet-B0 of 90.3% with faster
of Road with five classes: dry, execution time
Conditions wet, snow/ice, poor, Data augmentation,
Using and offline road regularization for
Convolutiona conditions. performance
l Neural
Network
 Barodi,
A., Bajit, Improving Images depicting Convolutional Neural Dataset preprocessed,
A., the transfer various traffic signs Networks (CNNs) split into
Benbrahi learning collected from used for train/validation/test
m, M., & performance diverse locations classification sets (60%, 20%, 20%).
Tamtaoui s in the Transfer learning on
, A. classification Carefully Transfer learning VGG-16 and
of the preprocessed and employed to adapt ResNet-34 for traffic
automotive divided into training, pre-trained CNN sign classification.
traffic roads validation, and test models (VGG-16 and ResNet-34 achieves
signs sets ResNet-34 99.74% accuracy on
architectures) test set, demonstrating
strong generalization.
Optimizers explored Confusion Matrix and
include SGD, Adam, Kappa coefficient
and RMSProp confirm accuracy and
agreement between
Model architecture predicted and actual
selection, classes.
hyperparameter
tuning, and
evaluation metrics
employed for model
development and
analysis
Baek,
J.-W., & Pothole The dataset Leveraged The proposed model
Chung, Classification encompasses pre-processing, exhibits promising
K. Model Using 13,376 object detection, and results, achieving a
Edge pre-processed road edge detection precision of 83.45%
Detection in damage images techniques. and an accuracy of
Road Image collected from 77.86%, surpassing
Japan, India, and the existing methods in
Czech Republic. pothole detection.
 Sutikno,
H. A. W., Classification The dataset Backpropagation The developed model
& of Road comprises images Neural Network for achieved an accuracy
Budiarto, Damage from representing good road condition rate of 83%,
P. Y. Digital Image road conditions, classification. surpassing the results
Using including unmarked obtained using other
Backpropaga good road and good Systematic training algorithms such as
tion Neural road markings, as and testing region split-merger and
Network well as damaged subprocesses. fractal dimension.
road conditions. A
total of 30 data Training: Resize,
points were used for grayscale, edge
testing the model's detection,
performance. thresholding,
Backpropagation
Neural Network.

Testing:
Preprocessing,
neural network
testing.
Ahmadi,
A., An integrated The dataset used for Integrated machine The proposed model
Khalesi, machine testing the proposed learning model involves seven stages,
S., & learning model consists of including image
Golroo, model for 400 images of Seven-stage acquisition,
A. automatic asphalt pavement process: image segmentation,
road crack collected from urban acquisition, denoising,
detection and areas in Tehran, segmentation, enhancement, line
classification Iran. These images denoising, detection using Hough
in urban were captured using enhancement, line transform, feature
areas smartphone detection (Hough extraction, and
cameras and depict transform), feature classification. Heuristic
various types of extraction, algorithms are
cracks, including classification developed for the
transverse, segmentation and
longitudinal, Heuristic algorithms denoising stages to
diagonal, and block for segmentation and improve noise removal.
cracks. denoising

Hough transform for

feature extraction

Evaluation of six
classification models
Bailo, O.,
Lee, S., Robust Road Publicly available Road marking The algorithm
Rameau, Marking dataset comprising detection & demonstrated
F., Yoon, Detection 1443 road images. classification remarkable
J. S., & and These images were algorithm performance, achieving
Kweon, Recognition manually labeled classifier accuracies
I. Using and categorized into Computer vision & ranging from 94.7% to
Density-Base 11 classes, machine learning 99.1% and
d Grouping encompassing detection/recognition
and Machine various road marking Inverse perspective accuracies between
Learning types, mapping, contrast 90.8% and 93.1%,
Techniques underrepresented enhancement, surpassing existing
markings, negative texture removal baseline methods. To
images, and a (bilateral filtering) achieve these results,
"NULL" class. the algorithm employed
MSER region a blend of computer
detection, vision and machine
density-based learning techniques.
clustering, deep
learning classification

Iterative refinement,
parallel processing
Ma, L., Capsule-Bas
Li, Y., Li, ed Networks The dataset, U-shaped capsule For road marking
J., Yu, for Road comprising over network: Road extraction, the study
Y., Marking 7,000 samples marking extraction employs a U-shaped
Junior, J. Extraction annotated at the convolution-deconvolut
M., and pixel level on Hybrid capsule ion capsule network
Gonçalv Classification intensity images, network: Road guided by Intersection
es, W. From Mobile covers seven road marking classification over Union (IoU) loss,
N., & LiDAR Point marking categories. achieving an average
Chapma Clouds The IoU loss: Extraction precision of 94.11%,
n, M. A. model recall of 90.52%, and
F1-score of 92.43%.
Revised routing,
Softmax loss:
Classification model

Robust on diverse
datasets: Urban
roads, highways

Effective pose
capture: Capsule
networks
Chun,
C., Lee, Classification The dataset was Density-based In the segmentation
T., Kwon, and split into training separation model, Intersection
S., & Segmentatio (24,270 images) and techniques Chemical over Union (IoU)
Ryu, S. n of evaluation (5365 analysis Microscopy scores for background,
Longitudinal images) sets. The Pyrolysis-GC reference plate, and
Road techniques longitudinal road
Marking marking were 0.9860,
using 0.9349, and 0.9495,
Convolutiona respectively, with an
l Neural average of 0.9568,
Networks for indicating high
Dynamic performance and close
Retroreflectio alignment with ground
n Estimation truths.

Chen, Z.,
Pears, Road Vehicle The dataset merges Foreground
Classification Achieved 100%
N., vehicle images from Segmentation: recognition on the
Freeman using two sources: the GMM-based vehicle
Support COIL database, even
, M., & COIL (Columbia segmentation. with added noise.
Austin, J. Vector Object Image
Machines Library) database, Feature Extraction:
comprising color Attained an overall
Shape (size, aspect
images of 100 accuracy of over 80%
ratio, width, solidity)
objects, including on real video for
and color (8-bin 3D
various vehicle types classifying vehicles into
color histogram in
and colors (source different types and
YCbCr space).
1), and real video colors, with some
footage from confusion between
Classification: SVMs
roadside cameras types like van and
with linear, RBF,
(source 2). This HGV.
polynomial kernels.
amalgamation Explored OVO, OVA
provides diverse test strategies.
data for vehicle Parameters
classification optimized via grid
algorithms, search.
encompassing both
controlled
environments and
real-world scenarios,
thus facilitating
comprehensive
testing and
evaluation.
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