MODULE

3RD
QUARTER

Physical Science
Core Subject
Grade 12

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 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 1: HOW THE ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE UNIVERSE

WERE FORMED

CONTENT STANDARDS
The students should be able to:
1. The formation of the elements during the Big Bang and during stellar evolution
2. The distribution of the chemical elements and the isotopes in the univers

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The learners shall be able to effectively present or discuss the aspects of a scientific theory
in light of its evidence

LEARNING COMPETENCIES
The learners should be able to:
The learners give evidence for and explain the formation of the light elements in the Big
Bang theory (S11/12PS-IIIa-1)

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

The learners should be able to
1. Briefly discuss the cosmology of the Big Bang model
2. Provide an overview of the proof for the Big Bang model 3. Write reactions involving the
nucleosynthesis of the first elements

CONCEPTS
Stages of Bigbang Theory
a. The universe may have begun as an
infinitely hot and dense initial
singularity, a point with all of
space, time, matter and energy.
b. All of it then began to rapidly
expand in a process known as
inflation. Space itself expanded
faster than the speed of light.
c. The universe cooled down as it
expanded. An excess of matter
(electrons, protons, neutrons and
other particles)somehow came to be
in a highly energetic “plasma soup.”
Photons (light particles) were being
scattered everywhere in this “soup”.
Protons and neutrons came

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 together to form different types of nuclei by nucleosynthesis or nuclear
fusion.
d. Much later on, electrons started to bind to ionized protons and nuclei forming
neutral atoms in a process called recombination.
e. Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto one another to form stars and
galaxies and eventually, other matter. This still happens until today.

Nucleosynthesis or Nuclear Fusion Reaction

 Due to the rapid cooling due to expansion, nucleosynthesis ground to a halt
about three minutes after the Big Bang occurred. This left us with mostly H
isotopes (p, D and T), He isotopes and a very tiny bit of other elements like Li.
The relative abundance of He and H did not change much until today.

Reactions of nucleosynthesis by balancing proton and neutron count, given the

compositions of the nuclei:
3
D = 1 p+, 1 n T = 1 p+, 2 n He = 2 p+, 1 n
4 7 7
He = 2 p+, 2 n Be = 4 p+, 3 n Li = 3 p+, 4 n

 Example:
3
He + D = 4He + p+
3 4
He D He p+
p n p n p n p n
2 1 1 1 2 2 1 0
p=2+1=3 p=2+1=3
n=1+1=2 n=2+0=2
ACTIVITY/EXERCISES

Directions: Given the composition of each nucleus, complete the

nucleosynthesis reactions below:
a. p+ + n=____ + γ f. 7Be + n = ____+ p+
b. 3He + D=___ + p+ g. T + D=____+n

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 c. 7Li +___= 2 4He h. 7Li + p+=4He + ______
d.____ + D = T + p+ i. D + D = ____+ n
e. ___ + ____= 7Be + γ j. T + ____= 7Li + γ

ASSESSMENT
Directions: Answer the following Question according to your own
understanding.
1. Arrange the stages of the Big Bang Theory: recombination, inflation, Big
Bang singularity, and nucleosynthesis.

2. Using one to two sentences each, explain the three pieces of evidence presented
for the Big Bang Theory:
a. Redshift
b. Relative abundance
c. Cosmic microwave background

https://www.einstein-online.info/en/spotlight/bbn/

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 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 2: FORMATION OF HEAVY ELEMENTS

CONTENT STANDARDS
The students should be able to:
1. The formation of the elements during the Big Bang and during stellar evolution
2. The distribution of the chemical elements and the isotopes in the universe
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The learners shall be able to make a creative representation of the historical development of
the atom or the chemical element in a timeline
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
The learners should be able to:
The learners give evidence for and explain the formation of the light elements in the Big
Bang theory (S11/12PS-IIIa-1)
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learners should be able to
1. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution (S11/12PS-IIIa-2)
2. Write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars that lead to the formation
of new elements (S11/12PS-IIIa-3)
3. Describe how elements heavier than iron are formed (S11/12PSIIIa-b-4)
CONCEPTS
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 Hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion
reactions once hydrogen-helium stars had formed from the action of gravity.
This releases a tremendous amount of light, heat, and radioactive energy.
Fusion resulted in the formation of nuclei of new elements.

Main-sequence stars
 The first fusion process occurs in the hydrogen core of stars such as the sun
with a temperature of less than 15 million K.
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Proton-Proton chain
 3He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also known as deuterium
burning. This immediately consumes all deuterium produced.
2
H + 1H → 3He + γ
 4He forms from 3He fusion.
3
He + 3He → 4He + 2 1H

Red Giant
 The core of a star becomes comprised of He as H
is depleted, while H fusion only occurs in a shell
around it. Due to this process, the temperature
and density of the core of the star increases up
to 100 million K. The star’s thermal pressure causes it to push out H gas.
Triple alpha process
 Alpha particles refer to 4He. This reaction involves the fusion of three 4He
atoms in the following steps:
4
He + 4He → 8Be
8
Be + 4He → 12C + γ
Alpha ladder
 The star can keep growing into a supergiant as it accumulates mass.
 More and more alpha particles are fused to create heavier elements all the way
to iron, making the core and star itself more massive.

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 CNO cycle
 Main-sequence stars hotter than 15 million K could facilitate the production of
helium once carbon was present from alpha processes. This happens through a
process where 12C is used as a catalyst known as the carbon fusion cycle.
p+ n Next step
12
C 6 6 Add a proton
13
N 7 6 Convert a proton
13
C 6 7 Add a proton
14
N 7 7 Add a proton
15
O 8 7 Convert a proton
15
N 7 8 Add a proton
12
C 6 6
4
He 2 2

Supernova
 Explosion that releases a tremendous amount of energy enough to synthesize
elements heavier than iron. Examples of these elements are uranium and
thorium, which are some of the heaviest known elements
 This is done through the r-process that involves rapid capture of
neutrons by the atom.
 Other heavy elements are also synthesized through s-process involving
slow neutron capture in red giants.

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES

Directions: Create an output that discusses the origin of one of the man-made
elements. In your output, you must:
 discuss the element’s basic characteristics
 give a brief timeline leading up to the element’s discovery

ASSESSMENT

I. Multiple choice: Choose the best answer for each questions. Write your
answer on the space provided.

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 1. Which of the following processes is likely to generate the heaviest element?
a. CNO cycle
b. r-process
c. triple-alpha process
d. Big Bang nucleosynthesis
2. Which of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?
a. 2412Mg + 42He 28
14Si
31 4 35
b. 15p + 2He 17Cl
36 4 40
c. 18Ar + 2He 20Ca
44 4 48
d. 22Ti + 2He 23Cr

3. If an element is used up by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning” even

though no actual combustion occurs. Which of the following processes is likely to
involve “carbon burning”?
a. alpha ladder
b. CNO cycle
c. triple-alpha process
d. s-process

II. Modified True or False: If the statement is true, write True. Else, replace the
underlined portion with the correct word or phrase.

a. A star gets lighter as time goes on.

b. Most of the heaviest elements were formed in main-sequence stars.
c. The heavy elements in a star are found in its core.
d. In stellar nucleosynthesis, heavier elements are formed from combining lighter
ones.

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 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 3: ATOMOS, ARISTOTLE AND ALCHEMY

(CHEMISTRY BEFORE MODERN HISTORY

CONTENT STANDARDS:
The students should be able to:
1. How the concept of the atom evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
2. How the concept of the element evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The learners shall be able to make a creative representation of the historical development of
the atom or the chemical element in a timeline.
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
The learners to:
1. Describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the atom (S11/12PS-IIIa-b-5)
2. Describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the elements (S11/12PS-IIIab-6)
3. Describe the contributions of the alchemists to the science of chemistry (S11/12PS-IIIb-7
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Discuss key developments in the concept of the atom and element throughout pre-
modern history
2. Discuss key developments in the practical application of chemistry throughout pre-
modern history.
3. Articulate the contributions of alchemy as a protoscience to chemistry

CONCEPTS

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Atomism, Non-atomistic views of the Greeks, The growth of alchemy across different
civilizations and Western Alchemy

Leucippus and Democritus were two of the most important theorists about the natural
and physical world. They were called physicists in Ancient Greece. They considered the idea
of atomism, or the idea that things are made up of much smaller things that cannot be
changed nor divided. Among the features of their theory were the following:
 Atoms make up most of the things in the universe; where there are no atoms, there is
a void.
 Atoms are incredibly small and cannot be divided, hence atomos (uncuttable).
 Atoms themselves are solid, homogeneous and cannot change.
 Atoms moving about and colliding in the void cause the changes we see in our
universe.
 The shapes, sizes and weights of individual atoms influence the characteristics of the
thing they make up; e.g. sharp atoms cause our tongues to tear and make bitter or
sour tastes, and atoms that compose clay are joined by flexible joints which harden
when the clay is baked.

 Atomism, although more a philosophical idea than a scientific one was closest to our
current thinking about matter. Despite having advocates, atomism was set aside
because more prominent philosophers opposed it. Religious groups later declared it
as heretical or blasphemous because they deemed atomistic thinking denied the
existence of God.

How the Greeks thought about matter and the world:

• The philosopher Anaxagoras argued that there was an infinite number of elementary
natural substances in the form of infinitesimally small particles that combined to comprise
the different things in the universe.
• Another theory by a philosopher named Empedocles stated that everything is made up of
four eternal and unchanging kinds of matter, fire, air (all gases), water (all liquids and
metals) and earth (all solids).
• The well-known philosopher Plato further expanded Empedocles’ theory by saying each of
the four kinds of matter is composed of geometrical solids (the “Platonic solids”) further
divisible into triangles. When rearranged, these triangles could cause the apparent
transformations between the four basic kinds of matter.
• Aristotle, on the other hand, believed that the four elements could be balanced in
substances in an infinite number of ways, and that when combined gave proportions of
“essential qualities,” hot, dry, cold and wet. Transformations between the four elements (or
changes in their balance in a substance) caused changes in the universe.

While our concept of matter didn’t advance much during this time, the practical
aspect of dealing with substances, matter and materials flourished in different
civilizations before and after the Greeks:
• The Mesopotamians had techniques to utilize metals like gold and copper. They even
assigned certain symbols to match metals with the heavenly bodies such as the Sun and
Moon. They also made use of other materials such as dyes, glass, paints, and perfumes.
• The Egyptians adapted techniques from the Mesopotamians and perfected the use of
bronze, dye and glass that the Greeks later copied.
• The Chinese also had their own processes for metalwork and ceramic materials, but they
especially focused on finding minerals, plants and substances that could prolong life. Some

10
of the substances discovered in Chinese medicine have been found to have actual positive
effects while others were found useless or even harmful, like mercury.
• The Indians, like the Chinese, had a kind of alchemy (rasayana) that looked at different
substances and practices for Vedic medicine. This is tied closely to Hindu and Buddhist
beliefs. They also perfected the use of iron and steel and were well-known manufacturers of
dyes, glass, cement, solutions for textiles, and soap.
• The Arabs and Muslims enriched not only the practice but also the literature of
chemistry. In particular, the scholar Jabir Ibn-Hayyan, also known as Geber, translated the
practices and Aristotelian thinking of the Greeks and wrote extensively on how metals can
be purified. He came up with the preparation of acids such as nitric, hydrochloric and
sulfuric acids, as well as aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid).

 Despite many of the progress being practical, much of it was shrouded in mysticism
or cultural beliefs, and was often a result of trial and error. These advances in
materials, metallurgy and medicine would often be collectively referred to in history
as alchemy, from the Arabic/Greek alkīmiyā or “the art of transmuting.”

 The field of alchemy became popular in the Western world because of Aristotle’s ideas
on the elements and the techniques developed by other civilizations. Alchemists tried
to play with the balance of the four elements (fire, water, air, earth) and three
principles (salt, sulfur and mercury) to transform or transmute substances. Among
their aims was to try and transform “impure” or “base” metals like lead or iron into
the “purer” metals of silver or gold, discover a magical “Philosopher’s Stone,” and
produce the so-called “Elixir of Life.” With a T-chart, distinguish how alchemy both
contributed to and hampered scientific thought.

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS UNSCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS

refined how to crystallize, condense, distill,
evaporate and dissolve metals and materials
took lots of notes and information about
what they did
developed step-by-step procedures and
specialized set-ups or equipment
discovered and investigated the properties of
many now-useful substances such as
phosphorus, sulfur and potash
used incantations, magic spells and symbol
used esoteric symbols connected to astrology
and religion
concerned with riches, purity, immortality,
and spirits
promoted the Aristotelian concept of the
elements

The pre-modern era, the understanding of chemistry was distinct from the practice of
chemistry. While alchemists had the wrong understanding of matter, much of what they
did set the stage for much of modern chemistry. For this reason, alchemy is considered a
protoscience, a precursor that allowed the field of chemistry to be what it is today.

Protoscience - An unscientific field of study which later developed into real science (e.g.
astrology toward astronomy and alchemy toward chemistry).

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
Create a concept map beginning from each of the words below. Each map should contain at
least 30 connected concepts each.
a. atomism
b. alchemy

ASSESSMENT
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 A. Short Essay (maximum of 3 sentences)

1. What did physicist mean in Ancient Greece?

2. How is a protoscience like alchemy similar or different from a pseudoscience like
astrology or homeopathy?

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 4: THE STRUCTURE OF ATOM

CONTENT STANDARDS:
The students should be able to:
1. How the concept of the atom evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
2. How the concept of the element evolved from Ancient Greek to the present
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The learners shall be able to make a creative representation of the historical development of
the atom or the chemical element in a timeline.
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
The learners to:
1. Point out the main ideas in the discovery of the structure of the atom and its subatomic
particles (S11/12PS-IIIb-8)
2. Cite the contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels
Bohr to the understanding of the structure of the atom (S11/12PS-IIIb-9)
3. Describe the nuclear model of the atom and the location of its major components
(protons, neutrons, and electrons) (S11/12PS-IIIb-10)
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Discuss key` developments in the concept of the atomic structure
2. Give brief explanations of each of the models of atomic structure

CONCEPTS
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Before Dalton, most atomists like Democritus and advocates of atomic theory believed that
the atom was a fundamental, indestructible, indivisible particle. This is sometimes known
as the billiard ball concept of the atom, wherein the atom is an incredibly small but smooth
and whole object.

Robert Brown, a Botanist observed, under a microscope, that pollen suspended in water
ejected particles that caused a jittery, irr egular motion. This would later be called
Brownian motion. Later on in the 20th century, this observation would be used by Albert
Einstein and a French physicist, Jean Perrin, to mathematically and experimentally
confirm John Dalton’s Chemical Atomic Theory. This made the atom an undeniable part of
how we thought about the universe. The atom is no longer debatable, the way it was in the
time of the Greeks, the alchemists and Lavoisier.
The Structure of Atom
1. Joseph John Thomson, 1897 published the idea that electricity was in particles
that were part of the atom. Experimenting with cathode rays, he established the
mass and charge properties of these particles. These particles were named electrons.
In 1904, he came up with the plum-pudding model, which was an idea of what the
atom looked like based on his experiments. He would later conclude that the electron
was not the only source of mass in the atom. This implied that the atom was
composed of other particles.

Figure 1. Thomson’s plum-pudding model a sphere with a

uniformly distributed positive charge and enough embedded
electrons to neutralize the positive charge. A plum pudding is a
sort of cake with raisins embedded in it.

2. Ernest Rutherford, a student of Thomson’s, who was among many who studied
radioactivity. He concluded that radioactivity occurred due to changes on a subatomic level,
or changes within the atom itself. In 1902, he worked in Thomson’s laboratory where he
distinguished two kinds of radiation based on their penetrating power: α (alpha) and β
(beta). He studied these types of radiation and noticed, from his experiments, that alpha
particles would sometimes bounce off at a high angle when made to penetrate a very thin
gold foil.

Figure 2. Diagram of the Rutherford atomic model.

Physicist Ernest Rutherford envisioned the atom as like a

miniature solar system, with electrons orbiting around a
massive nucleus, and as mostly empty space, with the
nucleus occupying only a very small part of the atom.

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In 1911, Rutherford theorized that the model proposed by Thomson did not explain the
deflection of alpha particles. Therefore, he devised his own model with a positive nucleus at
the center and electrons revolving like planets at a distance around it. The incredibly dense
nucleus explained the occasional deflection experienced by the alpha particles, while the
amounts of empty space in between explained why most particles were able to pass
through. Rutherford later concluded that the nucleus was composed of positive particles
known as protons, which were then thought to be hydrogen nuclei found in other atoms.
He suggested the possibility of finding a composite particle (proton + electron) with a
negligible electric field that composed the nucleus.

3. Niels Bohr. He tackled one of the big issues with the Rutherford model in 1913. The
system proposed by Rutherford was unstable because, under classical physics, the spinning
electrons would tend to be attracted to the positive nucleus and lose energy until they
collapse into the center. Bohr proposed that the electrons existed only at fixed distances
from the nucleus at set “energy levels,” or quanta. Quanta was first conceptualized
mathematically by Max Planck. Bohr also proposed that the electrons “jumped” between
energy levels by absorbing or releasing discrete amounts of energy. However, the Bohr
model of the atom was still unable to explain why atoms bonded in certain ways to form
compounds. For example, carbon formed compounds of CH4 while oxygen formed H2O.

Figure 3. In the Bohr model of the atom, electrons travel in

defined circular orbits around the nucleus. The orbits are
labeled by an integer, the quantum number n. Electrons can
jump from one orbit to another by emitting or absorbing
energy.

4. Quantum Models of Atom

The model is based on mathematical equations by several scientists, including Werner

Heisenberg and Ernest Schrödinger. • Instead of electrons being particles in the model,
electrons have characteristics of both waves and particles.

• Instead of orbits, there were orbitals or regions of space with high probability of finding
electrons. These are sometimes known as electron clouds or electron subshells whose
shapes are described by complex wave equations. • There is no real “empty space,” but
there are regions with a high or low probability of finding an electron. The quantum model
more accurately explains properties of elements such as the way that atoms bond with one
another. However, it made Rutherford’s proposal of composite protonelectron particles
unworkable. This is because the equations would predict that there was a zero probability
of electrons being found in the nucleus. The mass unaccounted for by the protons had to
come from another particle entirely.

5. James Chadwick was a student of Rutherford’s who built on this possibility in 1926. He
worked on radiation emitted by beryllium that took the form of particles heavy enough to
displace protons. These particles were as heavy as protons, but they needed to have a
neutral charge that would allow them to smash into the nucleus without being repelled by
electrons or protons. He confirmed their existence by measuring their mass and called
them neutrons. He determined that they were single particles instead of composite ones
14
that Rutherford had hypothesized. The neutron was able to explain the mass unaccounted
for by a system of protons and electrons only. It also allowed for more far-reaching
advancements in nuclear physics and chemistry. It gave an understanding of isotopes and
radioactive decay, and provided the tools to synthesize new elements and radioactive
materials. These advancements, for better or for worse, changed the landscape of science
because they gave us the ability to derive large amounts of energy from splitting the atom
(nuclear fission)

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
Direction: Draw the four models of Thomson/plum-pudding, Rutherford, Bohr, and quantum model
on a matrix below. Label these models with relevant concepts.

Plum-Pudding / Thomson’s Model Rutherford’s Model

Bohr’s Model Quantum Model

Attribution of aspects and concepts to correct models A. Check which model applies to each
attribute. There may be more than one applicable model per item.
Plumpudding Rutherford Bohr Quantum
or Thomson
Conceptualized following cathode
ray experiments
Has a nucleus
Has energy levels or quanta
Conceptualized following
αparticle experiments
Explains why electrons don’t fall
into the nucleus
Has idea of orbitals
First model to use idea of
subatomic particles

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 6: HENRY MOSELY, THE ATOMIC NUMBER, AND

SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS

15
LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:
a. Explain how Moseley discovered the correlation between the atomic number of an
element and the wavelengths of x-rays emitted by the element;
b. Discuss how new elements are synthesized.

CONCEPTS
Henry Moseley
 A researcher at Rutherford’s laboratory. In 1913
Moseley used Rutherford’s work to advance the
understanding of the elements and solve the problem
with Mendeleev’s periodic table.
 Moseley noticed that shooting electrons at elements
caused them to release x-rays at unique frequencies.
He also noticed that the frequency increased by a
certain amount when the “positive charge” of the
chosen element was higher. By arranging the
elements according to the square root of the frequency they emitted, he was
able to draw out an arrangement of elements that more correctly predicted
periodic trends.
 His method of identifying elements by shooting electrons and looking at x-rays
became a very useful tool in characterizing elements, and is now called x-ray
spectroscopy.

Synthesis of Elements
 The invention of the device called cyclotron paved the way for transmuting one
element into another artificially. The high-energy particles that are produced
from the cyclotron upon hitting heavy target nuclei produce heavier nuclei.
 The bombarding of Mo with deuteron formed technetium which is the first
artificially made element. Its name is derived from the Greek word technetos
which means artificial.
96 2 97 1
42Mo + 1H —> 43Tc + 0n

The Transuranic Elements

 Transuranic elements are synthetic elements with atomic numbers higher than
that of Uranium (Z = 92).
 Neptunium (Z = 93) – synthesized by E.M. MacMillan in 1940

238 1 239 0
U+
92 0n —> Np +
93 ß
-1

 Plutonium (Z = 94)
238
U + 21H —> 23893Np + 2 10n
92
238 238 0
93Np —> 94Np+ -1ß

The Superheavy Elements

 Superheavy elements are elements with atomic numbers beyond 103. These
are produced by bombarding heavy nuclear targets with accelerated heavy
projectiles.
 Bohrium (Z = 107) – projectile used was Cr

209 54 261 21
83 Bi + 24 Cr —> 107 Bh + n
0

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
16
 Directions: Write the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of each of the
following new elements.

a) Curium (Z = 96) was formed by reacting Pu – 239 with alpha particles 42He. It
has a half-life of 162 days.

b) Mendelevium (Z = 101) was formed by reacting En – 253 with alpha particles.

c) Meitnerium (Z = 109) was formed by cold fusion which involves the combination
of Bi and Fe nuclides at ordinary temperature.

ASSESSMENT
A. Short Essay (maximum of 3 sentences)

1) Dmitri Mendeleev is often regarded as the Father of the Periodic Table. Would
you say that Henry Moseley deserves the recognition more than him?
2) Explain why the atomic number is called the “fingerprint” of elements.
3) How would you relate alchemy to synthesis of new elements?

B. Choose the letter of the correct answer, and then write the nuclear reaction.
Identify the element.
An isotope of element 102, with a mass number of 253 was produced by
bombarding 24096Cm with a projectile, which was absorbed by the target
nucleus. This projectile should be ___
5 13 12 16
a) He
2 b) C
6 c) C
6 d) O
8

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 4: CHEMICAL BOND

17
LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:
a. Determine if a molecule is polar or non-polar given its structure.

CONCEPTS
 Electronegativity (EN) – Measure of the relative tendency of an atom to attract
electrons to itself when chemically combined with another atom. The higher the value
of electronegativity, the more it tends to attract electrons toward itself.
 Polar covalent bonds – occur when electron pairs are unequally shared. The
difference in electronegativity between atoms is significant. Examples of compounds
having polar covalent bonds are:
HCl EN of H = 2.1 EN of Cl = 3.0 ΔEN = 0.9

HF EN of H = 2.1 EN of F = 4.0 ΔEN = 1.9

The separation of charges makes the bond polar. It creates an electric dipole. Dipole
refers to “two poles,” meaning there is a positive and a negative pole within a molecule.
Elements with the higher EN value become the partial negative pole while elements with
the lower EN value become the partial positive pole. This makes the molecule a polar
molecule.

 Non-polar covalent – bonds occur when electron pairs are shared equally or the
difference in electronegativity between atoms is less than 0.5. Examples of
substances having non-polar covalent bonds are:
H2 EN of H = 2.1 ΔEN = 0.0 NON-POLAR MOLECULE; not a dipole

Cl2 EN of Cl = 3.0 ΔEN = 0.0 NON-POLAR MOLECULE; not a dipole

F2 EN of F = 4.0 ΔEN = 0.0 NON-POLAR MOLECULE; not a dipole

HI EN of H = 2.1 EN of I = 2.5 ΔEN = 0.4 POLAR MOLECULE; a dipole

NOTE: Use periodic table to find its Electronegativity (EN)

Image source: www.f.u- tokyo.ac.jp

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
Determine if the bond between elements are polar covalent or non-polar covalent.

1. CH₄
2. CF₄
3. O₂
4. HBr

18
ASSESSMENT

Determine if the bonds between elements are polar covalent or non-polar covalent
using the electronegativity values in the periodic table.

1. Oxygen gas, O₂ ● Electronegativities: O______O______

Difference______ Polar or Non-polar bond?
_______

2. Methane gas, CH₄ ● Electronegativities: C______ H_____

Difference______Polar or Non-polar bond?
_______

3. Water, H₂O ● Electronegativities: H______ O_____

Difference______Polar or Non-polar bond?
_______

4. Carbon Tetrafluoride, ● Electronegativities: C______ F_____

CF₃ Difference______Polar or Non-polar bond?
_______

5. Hydrogen Bromide, HBr ● Electronegativities: H______ Br_____

Difference______Polar or Non-polar bond?
_______

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 5: POLARITY OF MOLECULES

19
LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:
a. Relate the polarity of molecules to its properties.

CONCEPTS
 Molecular geometry
● another important which determines if a molecule is polar or not.
● is an area of study in chemistry that deals with studying the three-dimensional
(3D) shapes molecules form and how these shapes relate to chemical reactivity
and physical characteristics
● are determined by VSEPR Theory

➔ VSEPR Theory (Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion)

● is a model used in chemistry to predict the geometry of individual
molecules from the number of electron pairs surrounding their central
atoms.

LINEAR BENT TRIGONAL PLANAR

TETRAHEDRAL TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL OCTAHEDRAL

 Guidelines to determine the VSEPR shape of a molecule:

1. Determine the central atom of a molecule. The central atom is the least
electronegative element.
2. Count how many valence electrons the central atom has.
3. Count how many valence electrons the side atoms have.
4. Create the appropriate Lewis structure of the molecule.
5. Using the Lewis structure as a guide, determine the appropriate VSEPR shape for
the molecule.
20
 6. Note how many electrons are shared and unshared. This will help determine the
appropriate VSEPR shape.

Polar molecule:

H2O Bent - polar due to two lone pairs

NH3 Trigonal pyramidal - polar due to one lone pair

NO Linear - polar due to unequal sharing of electrons

Bent, polar due to lone pairs

Trigonal pyramidal, polar due to one lone pair

Non-polar molecule:

CO2 Linear

CH4 Tetrahedral

CCl4 Tetrahedral

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
Determine the polarity of the following compounds based on electronegativity
differences and molecular geometry.

Molecular geometry Polarity

1. HBr

21
 2. PH₃

3. SiS₂

4. O₂

5. BCl₃

ASSESSMENT
A. Identify the given molecules by providing a check whether it is a polar or
nonpolar substance.
SUBSTANCE POLAR NONPOLAR

H-H

22
 B. Determine the following: A. Molecular Geometry, B. Bond Polarity between atoms, C.
Polarity of the following molecules.

SUBSTANCE MOLECULAR BOND POLARITY POLARITY OF

GEOMETRY BETWEEN MOLECULES
ATOMS

1. Water, H2O

2. Boron
Trifluoride,
BF3

3. Silicon
Tetrafluorid
e, SiF5

4. Carbon
Disulfide,
CS2

5. Phosphorus
Trichloride,
PCL3

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 6: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

23
LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:
a. Describe the general types of intermolecular forces;
b. Give the type of intermolecular forces in the properties of substances;
c. Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances.

CONCEPTS
Intermolecular forces – are forces that form between molecules, atoms, or ions.

Four main types of intermolecular forces:

1. Ion-ion interaction
Ion-ion interaction exists between oppositely
charged ions. It occurs between ionic
compounds. Most ion-ion interaction is strong
compound which have high melting and boiling
points. Ions of like charges repel while opposite
charges attract. The strength of ion-ion
interaction is inversely proportional to the
square of distance between the ions. This is the
strongest intermolecular force.
Example : NaCl, KI and LiF

2. Dipole-dipole interaction
Occurs between polar molecules. This is due to the
partial positive pole and the partial negative pole of the
molecule

3. Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen bond is a very strong dipole-dipole
interaction. Hydrogen bond occurs in polar
molecules containing H and any one of the
highly electronegative elements, in particular
F, O, N. Hydrogen tends to be strongly positive
due to the strong tendencies of F, O, or N to
attract the electron towards it. The highly
electronegative elements make hydrogen
strongly positive. Hydrogen bonding is
responsible for the unusually high boiling
point and melting point of water.

4. Dispersion Forces or London Forces

Dispersion force is present in all molecules.
It is the only force present in nonpolar
molecules. It is very weak and acts in very
small distances.
It is formed due to the attraction between the
positively charged nucleus of an atom with
the negatively charged electron cloud of a
nearby atom. This interaction creates an
induced dipole

24
Relationship of intermolecular forces with physical properties

PROPERTIES
SURFACE TENSION Fish spider
This is a phenomenon wherein a liquid creates are able to walk
a seemingly thin film on its surface. The or stride in the
stronger the IMF, the stronger is its surface water due to
tension surface tension.

Capillary action - this is the ability of fluids to

rise in narrow tubes. The IMF between the
surface of the tube and the liquid allows the
liquid to rise provided that the IMF between the
surface and the liquid is stronger than the
cohesive forces within the liquid.

Viscosity - this is the measure a liquid’s low

resistance to flow. Generally, the stronger is the viscosity on
IMF in the liquid the more viscous it is. the left
side high
viscosity
right side

Convex and concave meniscus - a convex

meniscus is formed when the cohesive forces
within a liquid is stronger than the adhesive
forces between the liquid and the surface of the
container.
Concave meniscus on the other hand is the
opposite wherein the adhesive forces is stronger
than the cohesive forces. The cohesive and
adhesive forces are both due to IMF.

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES

Identify the type of intermolecular forces present in the following compounds.

Write your answer before the number
________________ 1. CARBON DIOXIDE ( CO2 )

________________ 2. AMMONIA ( NH3)

25
 ________________3. POTASSUIM CHLORIDE (KCL)

________________ 4. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H 2O2)

________________ 5. GLYCERINE (C3H803)

ASSESSMENT

Identify the most probable intermolecular force of attraction in the following:

1. KCl ----KCl

2. NH3——NH3

3. Na2S——Na2S

4. HF——HF

5. MgS ——MgS

6. CH3OH——CH3OH

7. H2——H2

8. CuO——CuO

9. SbH3——SbH3

10. CO2——CO2

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 7: MACROMOLECULES
26
LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:
a. describe the four major types of biological molecules;
b. explain how the structures of biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acid form; and
c. determine the properties and functions of biological macromolecules.

CONCEPTS
Food provides the body with the nutrients it needs to survive. Many of these
nutrients are biological macromolecules. A macromolecule is a very large molecule
that is built from smaller organic molecules. It is made up of single units known as
monomers that are joined by covalent bonds to form larger polymers. There are four
main classes of biological macromolecules found in living things. These are:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
Although all of the molecules are made of carbon, they have different
structures and different properties.
I. Carbohydrates
- can be represented by the formula (CH 2O)n, where n is the number of carbon
atoms in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen is 1:2:1.
- have a ringed shape; each individual ring or subunit is called a
monosaccharide
- the body’s main energy source and are found inside ALL different cell types
- It is an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits and vegetable are all natural
sources of carbohydrates. It provides energy to the body, particularly through
glucose, a simpler sugar that is a component of starch and an ingredient in
many staple foods.
- Classified into three subtypes:
A. Monosaccharide - (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars.
Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. Depending on the
number of carbon atoms in the sugar, they may be known as trioses (three
carbon atoms), pentoses (five carbon atoms), and hexoses (six carbon
atoms).
Examples of monosaccharide are:
 Glucose (found in food such as pasta, whole grain bread, legumes and
a range of vegetables)
 Fructose (found in fruit)
 Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar)

 Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical
formula (C6H12O6), they differ structurally and chemically (and are known
as isomers) because of differing arrangements of atoms in the carbon
chain.

27
Fig.1.1 Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharide, meaning that
they have the same chemical formula but slightly different structures.

B. Disaccharide - (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a

dehydration reaction (a reaction in which the removal of a water molecule
occurs). During this process, the hydroxyl group (–OH) of one monosaccharide
combines with a hydrogen atom of another monosaccharide, releasing a
molecule of water (H2O) and forming a covalent bond between atoms in the two
sugar molecules.
Common disaccharides include:
 Lactose - consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose
- found naturally in milk
 Maltose (malt sugar)- formed from a dehydration reaction between two
glucose
molecules
 Sucrose (table sugar) – compose of glucose and fructose

Fig.1.2 Common disaccharides include maltose, lactose and sucrose.

C. Polysaccharide - (poly- = “many”), a long chain of monosaccharides

linked by covalent bonds. The chain may be branched or unbranched, and
it may contain different types of monosaccharides.
Examples of polysaccharides are:
 Starch - the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of amylose
and amylopectin (both polymers of glucose). Plants are able to synthesize
glucose, and the excess glucose is stored as starch in different plant
parts, including roots and seeds.
- consumed by animals is broken down into smaller molecules, such as
glucose.
The cells can then absorb the glucose.
 Glycogen - the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates,
and is made up of monomers of glucose.

28
  Cellulose - made up of glucose monomers that are linked by bonds
between particular carbon atoms in the glucose molecule. The cell walls
of plants are mostly made of cellulose, which provides structural support
to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature.
 Chitin - a nitrogenous carbohydrate, made of repeating units of a
modified sugar containing nitrogen. Arthropods, such as insects, spiders,
and crabs, have an outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects
their internal body parts.
This exoskeleton is made of the biological macromolecule chitin.

Fig. 1.3 Although their structures and functions differ, all polysaccharide
carbohydrates are made up of monosaccharides and have the chemical
formula (CH2O)n.
II. Proteins
- macromolecules that are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen, but often also contain other elements
- made up of long chains of amino acids also called polypeptide chains
- one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the
most diverse range of functions of all the macromolecules
- found inside ALL different cell types, each with a unique function
- Some proteins are enzymes that carry out important biochemical processes
within the cells of all living organisms, including animals and plants. Other
proteins are structural proteins important for the composition of all of our
organs and tissues.
- proteins can function as enzymes or hormones
 Enzymes, which are produced by living cells, are catalysts in
biochemical reactions (like digestion). Example of an enzyme is salivary
amylase, which breaks down amylose, a component of starch.
 Hormones are chemical signaling molecules, usually proteins or
steroids, secreted by an endocrine gland or group of endocrine cells that
act to control or regulate specific physiological processes, including
growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction. For example,
insulin is a protein hormone that maintains blood glucose levels.
- Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Each amino acid has
the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central carbon atom
bonded to an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a hydrogen
atom.
- Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms bonded to
the central carbon atom known as the R group. The R group is the only
29
 difference in structure between the 20 amino acids; otherwise, the amino acids
are identical.

Fig. 2.1 Amino acids are made up of a central carbon bonded to an amino group (–NH2), a
carboxyl group (–COOH), and a hydrogen atom. The central carbon’s fourth bond varies among
the different amino acids, as seen in these examples of alanine, valine, lysine, and aspartic
acid.
III. Nucleic acids
- Large complex molecules that made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen.
- The most important macromolecules for continuity of life. They carry the
genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell.
- The two primary types of nucleic acids are :
 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-
celled bacteria to multicellular mammals.
- made up of deoxyribose sugars and phosphates and composed of
nucleotide bases (guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine) that are
arranged in a specific sequence. It is the order of these nucleotide base pairs
that determines the instructional code carried by the DNA for genetic
information and protein synthesis.
 RNA (ribonucleic acid) - mostly involved in protein synthesis and
regulation
- DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as nucleotides. The
nucleotides combine with each other to form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA.

Fig. 3.1 A nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose

sugar, and a phosphate group.

30
Fig.3.2 Chemical structure of DNA, with colored label identifying the four bases as well as the
phosphate and deoxyribose components of the backbone by Madeleine Price Ball is CC0).

IV. Lipids
- made up primarily of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in long hydrocarbon chains
or in multiple, complex ring structures
- Hydrophobic (“water-fearing”), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar
molecules. This is because they are hydrocarbons that include only nonpolar
carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds.
- Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of lipids called fats, the major
component of cell membranes.
- In an organism, lipids are a source of stored energy, serve to insulate the body
and are found inside ALL different cell types
- Common lipids found in plants and animals are various fats and oils, waxes,
phospholipids, steroids, and cholesterol.
- A fat molecule, such as a triglyceride (three fatty acids), consists of two main
component:
 Glycerol - an organic compound with three carbon atoms, five hydrogen
atoms, and three hydroxyl (–OH) groups.
 Fatty acids - a long chain of hydrocarbons to which an acidic carboxyl
group is attached, hence the name “fatty acid.” It may be saturated or
unsaturated.
Saturated fatty acids - if there are only single bonds between neighboring
carbons in the hydrocarbon chain
- solid at room temperature
Examples: Animal fats, butter
 Mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes, where globules
of fat occupy most of the cell. In plants, fat or oil is stored in seeds and is
used as a source of energy during embryonic development.

Unsaturated fatty acid - when the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond
- Liquid at room temperature and are called oils. The double bond causes a
bend or a “kink” that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping
them liquid at room temperature.
Examples of unsaturated fats are:
 Olive oil
 corn oil
31
  canola oil
 cod liver oil
 In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them
semi-solid, leading to less spoilage and increased shelf life. Simply
speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. During
this hydrogenation process, double bonds of the cis-conformation in the
hydrocarbon chain may be converted to double bonds in the trans-
conformation. This forms a trans-fat from a cis-fat. The orientation of the
double bonds affects the chemical properties of the fat.
 Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of
artificially hydrogenated trans-fats

Fig. 4.1 During the hydrogenation process, the orientation around the double bonds is
changed, making a trans-fat from a cis-fat. This changes the chemical properties of the
molecule.

Phospholipids are the major constituent of the plasma membrane. Like fats, they are
composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or similar backbone. Cells are
surrounded by a membrane, which has a bilayer of phospholipids.
Steroids and Waxes
Unlike the phospholipids and fats, steroids have a ring structure. Although they do
not resemble other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also
hydrophobic. All steroids have four, linked carbon rings and several of them, like
cholesterol, have a short tail.
Waxes are made up of a hydrocarbon chain with an alcohol (–OH) group and a fatty
acid. Examples of animal waxes include beeswax and lanolin. Plants also have waxes,
such as the coating on their leaves, that helps prevent them from drying out.

32
 Fig. 4.2 Lipids include fats, such as triglycerides, which are made up of fatty acids and
glycerol, phospholipids, and steroids.

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES

Instruction: Fill the table below, the monomer, functions, examples and
structures of Macromolecules.

Examples
Macromolecule Monomer Functions (3) Structure
(Food)

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Nucleic Acids

Lipids

ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice: Read and analyze the following questions below. Write the
letter of the correct answer before the number.
1. An example of a monosaccharide is 2. Cellulose and starch are examples of
________. ________.
a. fructose a. monosaccharides
b. glucose b. disaccharides
c. galactose c. lipids
d. all of the above d. polysaccharides

33
 3. Phospholipids are important becoming damaged, what
components of __________. macromolecule should she increase in
a. the plasma membrane of cells her daily diet?
b. the ring structure of steroids a. protein
c. the waxy covering on leaves b. lipid
d. the double bond in hydrocarbon c. nucleic acid
chains d. carbohydrate
4. The monomers that make up proteins 8. You are working with compound in a
are called _________. laboratory. You figure out the
a. nucleotides structure and see that it is made up
b. disaccharides of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a
c. amino acids ratio of two hydrogen atoms for each
d. chaperones carbon atom. How could you best
5. Proteins do all of the following things classify this compound?
in the body, except which of the a. lipid
following? b. protein
a. digest food c. carbohydrate
b. carry genetic information d. nucleic acid
c. carry oxygen in the blood 9. Which macromolecule would be
d. speed up chemical reactions helpful in repairing muscle?
6. Leon has a big football game this a. lipid
evening. What macromolecule should b. protein
he load up on during dinner to ensure c. carbohydrate
that he has enough energy for the big d. nucleic acid
game? 10. This macromolecule stores energy
a. carbohydrate and makes up the cell membranes.
b. protein a. lipid
c. nucleic acid b. protein
d. lipid c. carbohydrate
7. If Jennifer wanted to grow her hair d. nucleic acid
out without fear of it breaking or

References:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/lhrli@ucdavis.edu/Book
%3A_Biology_for_Majors

https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Biological_Chemistry
http://cnx.org/contents/bf17f4df-605c-4388-88c2-25b0f000b0ed@2

https://bio.libretexts.org/TextMaps/Map%3A_Microbiology_(OpenStax)

https://chem.libretexts.org/Exemplars_and_Case_Studies/Exemplars/Culture/
Secondary_Protein_Structure_in_Silk

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 8: CHEMICAL CHANGE

34
LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:
a. Use simple collision theory to explain the effects of concentration, temperature
and particle size on the rate of reaction.
b. Define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rates.

CONCEPTS

Collision Theory of Reaction Rates

This theory states that for reactions to occur, molecules, atoms, or ions must
first collide. Not all collisions are successful. In order for collisions to be effective
collisions, particles must possess. The minimum amount of energy needed for the
reaction and must collide with proper orientation.

Factors affecting reaction rates:

 Concentration of reactants
In collision theory, an increase in reactant concentration ensures that there will be
more collisions between particles. This also increases the probability rate of effective
collisions.
 Temperature
In collision theory, increasing the temperature of the reactants increases the kinetic
energy that it possesses, thereby increasing the number of collisions and giving
enough energy to overcome the activation energy.
 Surface Area / Particle Size
In collision theory, an increase in surface area relates to more particles being
available for collision.
 Presence of catalyst
Catalysts are substances that can be added to a chemical reaction to increase its
reaction rate. This allows the reaction to occur in an alternative pathway. This
pathway requires lower activation energy. Catalysts are not consumed in a reaction.

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
Direction: List down 10 practical applications of your knowledge on factors affecting
chemical reactions at home.

Example: Increasing temperature to cook food faster, cutting ingredients to small pieces to
decrease cooking time etc.

1.

2.

3.
35
4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

ASSESSMENT
Direction: Predict the rate of the reaction and the factor affecting the rate of reaction in
the following. Assume that the substances below are reactants for different reactions.
Indicate if the reaction will be slower, faster, or have the same rate

Normal Condition Changed Condition Factor Reaction Rate

Ex. A cube of salt Powdered sugar Particle Size Faster

1. 20% HCl 5% HCl

2. 276 K 315 K

3. 2 H2O2--2H2O addition of Iron

(III)Oxide
4. A cube of Sugar Powdered sugar

5. 5 Sampalok 1 Sampaloc cube

Cubes
6. 52 g of NaOH 65 g of NaOH

7. 3.68x1025 atoms 9.25x1023 atoms of

of Li Li
8. 500 K, 4.5% 600K, 4.5% Baruim
Barium
9. 48g powdered zinc 48g zinc pellets

10. Starch + water Starch + water +

amylase

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 9: LIMITING AND EXCESS REACTANTS

36
LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:
a. Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction; and
b. calculate the amount of product form

CONCEPTS
Chemical reactions are the processes by which chemicals interact to form new
chemicals with different compositions. Simply stated, a chemical reaction is the
process where reactants are transformed into products. How chemicals react is
dictated by the chemical properties of the element or compound- the ways in which a
compound or element undergoes changes in composition.

Limiting Reactant
The reactant in a chemical reaction that limits the amount of product that can be
formed. The reaction will stop when all of the limiting reactant is consumed.

Excess Reactant
The reactant in a chemical reaction that remains when a reaction stops when the
limiting reactant is completely consumed. The excess reactant remains because
there is nothing with which it can react.

 The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting reagent.
The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess reagent.
To find the amount of remaining excess reactant, subtract the mass of excess
reagent consumed from the total mass of excess reagent given.

How to find the Limiting Reagent: Approach 1

Find the limiting reactant by looking at the number of moles of each reactant.
1. Determine the balanced chemical equation of the chemical reaction.
2. Convert all given information into moles (most likely though the use of molar mass
as a conversion factor).
3. Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the calculated ratio
to the actual ratio.
4. Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product produced.
5. If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess of the non-limiting reactant.

How to find the Limiting Reactant: Approach 2

Find the limiting reactant by calculating and comparing the amount of product each
reactant will produce.
1. Balance the chemical equation for the chemical reaction.
2. Convert the given information into moles.
3. Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product
produced.
4. The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting reactant.
5. The reactant hat produces a larger amount of product is the excess reactant.

Example 1:
What is the limiting reactant if 78 grams of Na 2O2 were reacted with 29.4 grams og
H2O?
Solution:
Using approach 1
A. 78g × 1mol = 1.001 moles of Na2O2
77.96g
29.4g × 1mol= 1.633 moles of H2O
18g

37
 B. Assume that all of the water is consumed, 1.633 × 221.633 ×2/2 or 1.633 moles of
Na2O2 are required. Because there are only 1.001 moles of Na 2O2, it is the limiting
reactant.

Using Approach 2:

78 g Na2O2 x 1mol Na2O2 x 4 mol NaOH x 40g NaOH = 80.04 g

77.96g Na2O2 2mol Na2O2 1molNaOH NaOH
*Using either approach gives Na2O2 as the limiting reagent.

2. How much the excess reactant remains if 24.5 grams of CoO is reacted with 2.58
grams of O2?
4CoO+O2 → 2Co2O3

Solution

A. 24.5g × 1mole = 0.327moles of CoO

74.9g
2.58g × 1mole = 0.0806 moles of O2
32g
B. Assuming that all of the oxygen is used up, 0.0806 x 4/1 0r 0.3225 moles of
CoOCoO are required.
Because there are 0.327 moles of CoO, CoO is in excess and thus O2 is the
limiting reactant.

C. 0.327 mol – 0.3224 mol = 0.0046 moles left in excess.

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
Instruction: Calculate the following problems and show your solutions.
1. How many moles of alanine would be formed if 3.78moles of iron and 5.69 moles
of nitrobenzene were mixed in excess water?
2. How many grams of alanine would be formed if 3.78 g of iron and 5.69 g of
nitrobenzene were mixed in excess water?
3. How many grams of alanine would be formed if 32.78g of iron were mixed with
23.89g of nitrobenzene in excess water?

ASSESSMENT
Instruction: Calculate the following problems and show your solutions.

1. What is the minimum mass in grams of iron which would be required to consume
3.48 grams of nitrobenzene?
2. What mass of iron would be left over if 5.00 g of iron reacted with 3.48 g
nitrobenzene?

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 10: HOW ENERGY IS HARNESSED?

38
LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:
a. Describe the different sources of energy;
b. Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy;
c. Outline the pros and cons of the different sources of energy.

CONCEPTS
Electricity can be broken down to two major groups: renewable and non-renewable
sources.

I. Non-renewable sources
A.
Non-renewable sources are: Renewable sources are:
- Fossil fuel (coal, petroleum, - Hydroelectric
natural gas) - Wind power
- Electrochemical (batteries) - Solar power
- Geothermal
- Hydrothermal
- Biomass
Fossil fuels include hydrocarbons such as coal, oil, and natural gas that comes
from organic remains of prehistoric organisms. Coal is the world’s most
abundant fossil fuel. It is relatively inexpensive and is readily available.

The energy that comes from fossil fuels came from the sun through the
process of photosynthesis when the prehistoric plants were still alive. Fossil
fuels are captured sunlight! The formation of fossil fuels is due to a series of
geologic processes where the remains of organic life are accumulated in the
ocean bottom and are buried to eventually become part of the geosphere.
They are buried to depths having high temperature and pressure where they
are converted to oil, natural gas, or coal.

In the Philippines, around 69% of our electricity is derived from fossil fuels
(coal, oil, natural gas, biomass). In the world, around 75% of our energy is
generated by combustion of fossil fuels. Power plants burn fossil fuels and
the heat generated during this process is used to turn water into steam and
this turns the turbines.

The general reaction for the combustion of hydrocarbon is:

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water

Combustion is an exothermic process. Methane is a common natural gas, an
example of the combustion of methane gas can be seen below.

39
 CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + Energy

As seen from the chemical reaction, burning fossil fuels produces carbon
dioxide which is harmful to our environment in huge amounts. This is one of the
biggest downsides of using fossil fuels. The emissions from fossil fuel power
plants also cause acid rain and global-scale pollution by elements such as
mercury.

B. Electrochemical (batteries)
Batteries give electricity via an electrochemical reaction. It has three main parts:
1) Anode
2) Cathode
3) Electrolyte

The first battery was invented by Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist. He

presented his paper before the Royal Society in London in 1800. His invention of
the battery propelled studies on electricity as it allowed scientists to produce
electricity.

Batteries, compared to other sources, have low intensity but they are commonly
used since they are portable and efficient. The two main types of battery:
1) primary or disposable battery
2) secondary or rechargeable battery

Examples of primary batteries are alkaline, mercury, silver-oxide, and zinc

carbon batteries. Examples of secondary batteries are lead-acid and lithium
batteries.

II. Renewable sources

A. Geothermal
 Geothermal power is the main source of energy in the Visayas region.
Around 38% of electricity in Visayas is produced from geothermal power.
 Geothermal power utilizes the heat energy from the earth’s crust. This
heat energy heats up rocks which, in turn, heats up nearby groundwater.
In some cases, the groundwater becomes so hot that it turns into
underground steam. The steam is tapped to drive turbines that generate
electricity.
 Geothermal energy is less of an environmental hazard compared to fossil
fuels though it still has some emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide,
and sulfur dioxide. Disposal of water is also a concern as it contains some
salt.
B. Hydroelectric
 Hydroelectric utilizes moving water to turn turbines. This is the main
source of electricity in Mindanao, generating around 45% of electricity in
the region.
 Dams are installed in strategic locations where there is a substantial drop
in elevation. One of the environmental concerns related to hydroelectric
power is displacement of marine species.

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C. Wind power
 Wind has been used in centuries to move ships and pump water. Wind
turbines are installed in strategic locations to harness the mechanical
energy from wind.
 Main examples of wind turbines in the Philippines are the ones found in
San Lorenzo, Guimaras (Trans Asia Renewable Energy Corp--TAREC);
Bangui Bay, Ilocos Norte (North Wind Power Devt Corp); Burgos, Ilocos
Norte (EDC Wind Power Corporation).

D. Solar Cells
 We will have access to solar power as long as the sun exists.
 Solar panels are composed of photovoltaic cells or cells that convert light
to electricity. Panels are comprised of two semi-conducting metals, usually
silicon, layered to create a sandwich. Each sheet is doped so that they can
acquire a charge--one positive and one negative. When light shines on the
panels, electrons are made to jump out of the free atom, thereby creating
electricity.
 Solar energy is abundant, requires low maintenance, and is
environmentally-friendly. Emissions associated with the manufacture of
solar panels are present but very minimal compared to pollution caused
by burning fossil fuels. Two of the harmful emissions from the
manufacture of solar panels are nitrogen trifluoride and sulfur
hexafluoride. Both are potent greenhouse gases.
 Solar energy is also known as “The People’s Power,” referring to the easy
deployment of solar panels and the introduction of “community solar
gardens” where energy is shared among owners.
 Some disadvantages of solar energy are that it is expensive, requires rare
metals and requires a good amount of space.

E. Biomass
 Biomass refers to organic matter from plants and animals
(microorganisms). Plants get their energy from the sun through the
process of photosynthesis which, in turn, gives energy to animals upon
consumption. Wastes such as crop remains, manure and garbage are good
sources of biomass. Wood is also a biomass fuel. As long as we replenish
the trees that we cut, biomass can be a sustainable energy source.
 Biomass is used to create methane and alcohol which are fuels useful in
energy production and in powering automobiles.
 Production of biogas or biofuels involves the action of microorganisms that
break down organic matter in a multi-step process.
 Technologies utilizing biomass are continuously evolving in order to
improve efficiency.

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ACTIVITY/EXERCISES

Direction: Create checklists on how to conserve electricity. Come up with

concrete steps that you can take in order to help conserve electricity on a daily
basis. Provide different settings such as what to do in school, at home, in the
car and etc.

______________________________________
(SETTING)

42
ASSESSMENT

I. IDENTIFICATION: Write the answer in the given space before the number.

_________________ 1) It is used to create methane and alcohol which are fuels useful
in energy production and in powering automobiles.

___________________ 2) It has been used in centuries to move ships and pump water.

___________________ 3) It utilizes the heat energy from the earth’s crust.

___________________ 4) Composed of photovoltaic cells or cells that convert light to

electricity.

___________________ 5) Utilizes moving water to turn turbines.

___________________ 6) He is an Italian physicist who invented the first battery.

II. ESSAY
7-8) Differentiate renewable from non-renewable.

9-10) Give two advantages and disadvantages of one source of electricity of your
choice. Briefly explain your answers.

REFERENCES:
Teaching Guide for Senior High School PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Published by the Commission on Higher Education, 2016
Chairperson: Patricia B. Licuanan, Ph.D.
Commission on Higher Education
K to 12 Transition Program Management

43
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 11: ACTIVE INGREDIENT

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. Identify active and major ingredients in cleaning and personal care products;
b. From product labels, identify the active ingredient(s) of cleaning products used at
home;
c. Identify the major ingredients of cosmetics such as body lotion, skin whitener,
deodorants, shaving cream, and perfume.

CONCEPTS
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS

a) Biodegradable - capable of being decayed by the action of living organisms. The

number of years depends on many factors such as the kind of waste,
environmental temperature and type of microorganism.
b) Non-biodegradable - incapable of being decayed by the action of living organisms
c) Oxo-biodegradable - capable of being decayed by living organisms only after the
help of metal salts added in the material’s composition. The metal salts speed up
the initial decay process after which the process is left to microorganisms to
finish.
d) Surfactants - a surface active agent, capable of reducing the surface tension of
liquids. For example, in washing oil off plates, surfactants help the oil and water
come together by weakening the surface tension of oil.
e) Emulsifier - encourages the suspension of one liquid in another (e.g. margarine is
a mixture of oil and water). It is also called a stabilizer. It extends storage life and
prevents separation of ingredients.
f) Buffer - a solution of acid and base or salt that helps maintain the pH of a
solution constant.
g) Emollient - any substance that softens the skin by slowing the evaporation of
water.
h) Oxidizer - a substance that oxidizes another substance. Oxidizing a substance
may mean supporting combustion, helping a substance breakdown, etc.

ACTIVE INGREDIENTS IN PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS

 Examples of active ingredients in personal care products include the antibacterial,
triclosan, and the sunscreen agent, oxybenzone. As wastewater treatment plants
are not designed to remove these specialty chemicals, a fraction of these products
enters the environment, where they can have significant consequences.

 The precise types of active ingredients used in a product are based on an item’s
function. Common acne-fighting ingredients might include salicylic acid or
benzoyl peroxide. Natural anti-aging products might contain antioxidants, such as
vitamins C and E, as well as alpha-hydroxy acids to reduce fine lines and
wrinkles. Dimethicone and petrolatum are in certain deep moisturizers to trap
water in the skin for extra hydration.

44
SOME INGREDIENTS TO AVOID IN PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS
1. TRICLOSAN
 Products that use it: Triclosan is an anti-bacterial and antifungal found in
soaps, body washes, hand sanitizers, toothpaste and cosmetics.
 Triclosan is linked to skin sensitivity, liver damage, and hormone disruption
and may cause cancer.
2. PARABENS
 Products that use them: Parabens are preservatives used in cosmetics, skin
care products, soaps, cleaning products and baby products to extend shelf
life.
 Parabens can cause skin and allergic reactions, but they are most worrying
for their impact on our endocrine system.
3. PHTHALATES
 Products that use them: Phthalates are another preservative used in soaps,
shampoos, cosmetics, beauty and skin care products, and cleaning products.
 Phthalates are another group of chemicals that enormously impact our
endocrine system, particularly reproduction and male fertility.
4. SODIUM LAURYTH (OR LAURYL) SULFATE (SLS)
 Products that use it: SLS and other sulfates are lathering agents that make
our soaps sudsy and frothy. It's used in a wide variety of soaps, body washes,
beauty care products and cleaning products.
 SLS can cause severe skin irritation and can be contaminated with 1,4-
dioxane, a known carcinogen. It can also build up easily in the brain, heart,
lungs and liver.
5. COAL TAR DYE
 Products that use it: This colouring agent is used in dandruff shampoos,
bubble bath, toothpastes and hair dyes
 Coal tar dye is a known human carcinogen and is linked to allergic reactions,
dermatitis, asthma attacks, headaches, nausea, fatigue, nervousness, lack of
concentration, and a possible increased risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma,
multiple myeloma and Hodgkin's disease.
6. FORMALDEHYDE
 Products that use it: Formaldehyde functions mainly as a preservative in
shampoo, nail care, baby products, deodorants, toothpaste, cleaning
products, hairspray and cosmetics.
 Formaldehyde aggravates allergies, irritates the skin and burns eyes, nose
and throat, may boost our cancer risk and is a neurotoxin.

SOME HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS & THEIR ACTIVE INGREDIENTS

1. BLEACH
 Active Ingredient: Sodium Hypochlorite
 Formula: NaClO
 Purpose: Remove stains & whiten
2. Hydrogen Peroxide
 Active Ingredient: Hydrogen Peroxide
 Formula: H2O2
 Purpose: Disinfectant
3. Laundry Softener
 Active Ingredient: Sodium Carbonate
 Formula: Na2CO3
 Purpose: Used to improve cleaning efficiency
45
 4. Baking Powder
 Active Ingredient: Sodium Bicarbonate
 Formula: NaHCO3
 Purpose: Cooking- Releases CO2
5. Glass Cleaner
 Active Ingredient: Ammonia
 Formula: NH3
 Purpose: Strong surfactant cleaning power and quick drying time are
attractive benefits of having ammonia in glass cleaners.

ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
Fill the table below using of any products (personal care products or household
products).

TEXTURE,
PRODUCT
ODOR, MODE OF
ACTIVE/ GUIDELINES PRECAUTIO
PRODUCT COLOR OF ACTION
PRODUCT MAJOR IN USING THE NS IN
DESCRIPTION PRODUCT OF ACTIVE
INGREDIENT PRODUCT USING THE
*OBSERVE INGREDIENT
PRODUCT
CAUTION

46
ASSESSMENT

Identification: Identify the following statements or questions below and choose

your answer inside the box.

1. It is an anti-bacterial and antifungal found in soaps, body washes, hand

sanitizers, toothpaste and cosmetics.
2. A household product has an active ingredient sodium hypochlorite that remove
stains and whiten.
3. This ingredient can cause severe skin irritation and can be contaminated with 1,4-
dioxane, a known carcinogen. It can also build up easily in the brain, heart, lungs
and liver.
4. The active ingredient in glass cleaner that has strong surfactant cleaning power
and quick drying time.
5. Salicylic acid or benzoyl peroxide are ingredients of this product.
6. These ingredients are preservatives used in cosmetics, skin care products, soaps,
cleaning products and baby products to extend shelf life.
7. The active ingredient in Laundry Softener that used to improve cleaning efficiency.
8. A solution of acid and base or salt that helps maintain the pH of a solution
constant.
9. A surface-active agent, capable of reducing the surface tension of liquids.
10. It is capable of being decayed by living organisms only after the help of metal
salts added in the material’s composition.

Oxo-biodegradable Buffer Sodium carbonate

Ammonia Parabens Triclosan
Sodium carbonate Surfactants Acne-fighting product
Bleach Sodium Lauryth Sulfate

References:

 Teaching Guide for Senior High School - PHYSICAL SCIENCE

 https://atlasofscience.org/active-ingredients-in-personal-care-products-detected-
throughout-the-enviromnment/
 https://medium.com/@mdsun_1688/what-are-active-ingredients-in-skin-care-
products-2cd536d3ea5
 https://www.meghantelpner.com/blog/13-ingredients-to-avoid-in-personal-care-
products/
 https://prezi.com/oxydtyhideiq/10-household-products-their-active-ingredients/

47
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NAME:________________________________________ DATE:__________________________
GRADE & SECTION:__________________________ TEACHER:______________________

LESSON 12: CLEANING AGENT AND ITS USES

LEARNING GOALS: The students should be able to:

a. Give the use of other ingredients in cleaning agents;
b. Give common examples of cleaning materials for the house and for personal care;
c. Explain the precautionary measures indicated in various cleaning products and
cosmetics.

LEARNING GOALS:

SOME EXAMPLES OF CLEANING MATERIALS FOR THE HOUSE

 All-purpose Cleaners
 Abrasive Cleaners
 Powders
 Liquids
 Scouring Pads
 Non-abrasive Cleaners
 Powders
 Liquids
 Sprays
 Specialty Cleaners
 Kitchen, Bathroom, Glass and Metal Cleaners
 Bleaches
 Disinfectants and Disinfectant Cleaners
 Drain Openers
 Glass Cleaners
 Glass and Multi-surface Cleaners
 Hard Water Mineral Removers
 Metal Cleaners and Polishes
 Oven Cleaners
 Shower Cleaners – Daily
 Toilet Bowl Cleaners
 Tub, Tile and Sink Cleaners
 Floor and Furniture Cleaners
 Carpet and Rug Cleaners
 Dusting Products
 Floor Care Products
 Furniture Cleaners and Polishes
 Upholstery Cleaners
 Other Cleaning Aids
 Ammonia
 Baking Soda

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 LIST OF PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS

 Perfume  Toothbrush  Comb

 Hand lotion  Sunscreen  Hair spray
 Razor  Toothpaste  Hair clip
 Tissues  Deodorant  Hair band
 Sunglasses  Tweezer  Hairbrush
 Hand mirror  Mouthwash  Hair dryer
 Wet wipe  Dental floss  Hair gel

USE OF OTHER INGREDIENTS IN CLEANING AGENTS

 ABRASIVES
Abrasives are materials that wear off dirt by rubbing. Rottenstone, whiting,
pumice, volcanic ash, quartz, marble, feldspar, and silica are prime examples of
an abrasive. Sandpaper, plastic and nylon meshes, and steel wool are also
abrasives.
 ACIDS
Acids are beneficial in removing hard-water deposits, discoloration from
aluminum, brass, bronze, and copper and iron rust stains. Strong acids also eat
away clothing, leather, skin and some metals. They can also irritate and injure the
skin and eyes.
 ALKALIES
Alkalies are soluble salts that are effective in removing dirt without excessive
rubbing. They are good grease removers because the alkalies form an emulsion, a
mixture where oily or solid particles are held in suspension. The particles do not
separate from the rest of the liquid; therefore, they are not redeposited on the
surface being cleaned.
 BLEACHES
Chlorine generally is the most common bleach used in household cleaning
products. However, new non-chlorine bleaches are becoming more popular,
mainly because they are safer to use and store.
 DETERGENTS
Some laundry detergents may be used for housecleaning jobs. Detergents
loosen dirt, and if complex soluble phosphates (called “builders”) are added to a
detergent, they will remove oily dirt. If a builder is added, the cleaning product is
marked “heavy duty” or “all-purpose.”
 SANITIZERS
Sanitizers are chemicals that reduce the number of bacteria and often are used
in cleaning bathrooms and washing dishes. Use with caution and follow the
directions on the bottle. Sanitizers also help deodorize surfaces because they kill
odor-producing microorganisms.
 SPIRIT SOLVENTS
Most polishes and waxes for wood furniture and floors contain a spirit solvent.
These solvents are similar to the fluids used in dry-cleaning processes because
they remove oily dirt.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES INDICATED IN VARIOUS CLEANING PRODUCTS

AND COSMETICS

49
 When choosing a personal care product, learn to read the labels. Be aware of
toxic substances that may be found in the product you want to buy. Below are some
of the substances you have to avoid.
 Poisonous heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, and mercury can be found in a
wide range of personal care products. When these heavy metals enter the body,
they can accumulate and replace the metals that are normally present for specific
functions in the body.
 Hydroquinone is often found in skin lighteners and facial cleansers. This
substance has been reported as a cancer-causing agent and respiratory tract
irritant.
 Phthalates are substances often found in color cosmetics, fragrance lotions, and
hair care products. They are linked to endocrine disruption and reproductive
toxicity.
 Nitrosamines are substances produced by diethanolamine (DEA) and
truethanolamine (TEA) which are both found in nearly every kind of personal care
product. They cause organ system toxicity and endocrine system disruption.

Cleaning products are often disposed in the environment. For instance, detergents
are mixed with water that goes down the drain. Hence, the detergent may find its way
into the ground and into bodies of water. It is important that these products are safe
for the environment. Below are some properties you need to consider in buying
products.
a. Corrosive
These also serve as a warning to keep away from the
eyes and nose. Aerosolized products once dispersed can
be light enough to linger in the air. These molecules can
then make contact with the eye, or be inhaled.
b. Poison/Toxic
As mentioned in previous topics, certain products are
really meant to act as a poison. A pesticide is harmful
towards certain organisms. But remember, toxicity is a
function of concentration. If you are exposed constantly,
certain toxins may accumulate.
c. Storage Instructions
Products contain information about specific storage instructions to keep
their functionality.
d. Directions for Use
e. Manufacturing and Expiration Date
f.
ACTIVITY/EXERCISES
Fill the table below using of any cleaning products in your home. Give the
cleaning agent and their uses.

PRODUCT CLEANING AGENT USES

50
ASSESSMENT
Identification: Identify the following statements or questions below and choose
your answer inside the box.

1. This is a good grease remover and effective in removing dirt without excessive
rubbing.
2. These are substances often found in color cosmetics, fragrance lotions, and
hair care products. They are linked to endocrine disruption and reproductive
toxicity.
3. It is generally the most common bleach used in household cleaning products.
4. These are beneficial in removing hard-water deposits, discoloration from
aluminum, brass, bronze, and copper and iron rust stains.
5. Rottenstone, pumice, volcanic ash, and quartz are examples of this ingredient
in cleaning agent.
6. This is used to promote oral hygiene and it is an abrasive that aids in removing
dental plaque and food from the teeth.
7. It is a skincare product that helps to keep your underarms smelling fresh
rather than stopping sweat like antiperspirant.
8. It is a liquid mixture used to emit a pleasant odor and formed from fragrant
essential oils derived from plants and spices or synthetic aromatic compounds.
9. Products contain this information to keep their functionality.
10. It is often found in skin lighteners and facial cleansers. This substance
has been reported as a cancer-causing agent and respiratory tract irritant.

Toothpaste Acids
Perfume Abrasives
Chlorine Hydroquinone
Alkalizes Deodorant
Storage instructions Phthalates

References:

 Teaching Guide for Senior High School - PHYSICAL SCIENCE

 http://www.healthycleaning101.org/types-of-household-cleaning-products/
 https://7esl.com/personal-care-products-vocabulary/

51
 https://www.munciesanitary.org/departments/recycling/household-hazardous-
waste/household-cleaning-products/

52