PHYSICAL SCIENCE

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LESSON

1 THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ELEMENTS

Lesson Content
1.1 The origin of the Light Elements
1.2 The origin of the Heavy Elements
1.3 Understanding Life Span of Star
1.4 Atomic Theory Timeline

Objectives:

• Give evidence for and describe the formation of light and heavy elements during star
formation and evolution.
• Identify and describe the development of the model of the atom.
• Determine the different proponents in the development of the model of the atom.
• Calculate the and write nuclear reactions.

1. THE ORIGIN OF LIGHT ELEMENTS

❖ The Big Bang Model

- Provides an explanation for the formation of light elements, which later evolved into heavier
elements through stellar evolution.
- The big bang theory is not a theory about the origin of the universe, rather it is a description
or model of the universe; that there already existed a packed state with density and energy
from which the universe emerged.
- The name “big bang” was coined by British astronomer Fred Hoyle in 1949.
- It was first proposed by Belgian astrophysicist and priest Abbe Georges Edouard Lemaitre
(1894- 1966).
- Lemaitre published a paper stating that the universe is constantly expanding and cooling; it
was not a static universe as Einstein described.

- Three key observational evidence which support the big bang model:
a. Hubble/ cosmic expansion
- Edwin Hubble (1930)
- Hubble’s law (also known as Hubble Expansion)- states that the universe was expanding,
thereby suggesting that it was once compact.
b. Cosmic microwave background (CMB)/ Cosmic Background Radiation
- George Gamow (1940)
- Together with R. Herman and R. Alpher, they predicted that if the early stage of the universe
was hot and dense, then an afterglow of radiation must have filled up the universe because
of the cooling process.
c. Primordial/ big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN)
- G. Gamow, R. Herman and R. Alpher
- These reactions began with the fusion of protons and neutrons, forming nuclei in a process
called nucleosynthesis. Primordial or BBN produced the “light elements” shortly after the big
bang.
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Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Reactions

1
1𝑝 + 10𝑛 → 21H + 00𝛾 2
1H + 21H → 32He + 10𝑛

2
1H + 11𝑝 → 32He + 00𝛾 3
1H + 21H → 42He + 10𝑛

3
2
1H + 21H → 31H + 11𝑝 1He + 21H → 42He + 11𝑝

2. THE ORIGIN OF THE HEAVY ELEMENTS

- Hydrogen atoms first produced in the big bang would need additional protons and neutrons
to become helium or lithium.
- Protons and neutrons are held together by a strong force. Protons can also be combined
with neutrons to form heavier nuclei through nuclear fusion.
- The atoms formed in the big bang merged into large clouds of gas. These clouds began to
contract under their own gravity, leading to star formation. Consequently, the heavier
elements formed inside stars and scattered space because of instabilities and explosions.
- New elements came into being during and after the explosions.
- Stellar Nucleosynthesis is responsible for the formation of heavy elements.
Stellar Formation and Evolution
• The universe continuously expanded for several years and the clouds of hydrogen
and helium gases condensed to form stars including the sun. Over millions of years,
the stars made of hydrogen become hotter and denser. During this stellar evolution,
nuclear reactions continued, which produced elements heavier than lithium. The light
elements combined to form atoms of carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon and iron.
• Starting from a small, yellow star, successive nuclear reactions occurred until it
became a giant red star. The reactions involved in the formation of each new
element happened in regions or layers so called fusion shells. As more elements
produced, new layers added up to the size of the star until it became a red giant.
Stars are described to have an “onion skin structure” as they evolved and produced
new elements.

• Reactions in the hydrogen fusion shell:

1 1 2 0
1He + 1He → 1H + +1𝑒

2
1H + 11He → 32He + 00𝛾
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Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
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3
2He + 32He → 42He + 11H + 11H

• Reactions in the helium fusion shell:

4 4 8
2He + 2He → 4Be

8
4Be + 42He → 12
6C

• Reactions in the carbon fusion shell:

12 12 20 4
6C + 6C → 10Ne + 2He

12
6C + 126C → 23
11Na + 21H

• Neon then becomes concentrated at the core, then underwent fusion to produce
oxygen. When oxygen became concentrated at the core, nuclear fusion continued,
producing silicon.
• The fusion of 28 14Si produced radioactive 28Ni, which then decayed to iron. More
56

nuclear fusions happened between different nuclei to form the other elements.
However, production of elements stopped when iron was formed. Since iron is the
most stable nuclei, it cannot undergo nuclear fusion. In all of the previous reactions,
a great amount of energy is produced, enough to fuel more nuclear reactions.
However, in order to produce elements heavier than iron, energy input is necessary.
At this point, the star has already exhausted its nuclear fuel.

Stellar Explosion
• As the red giant star exhausted the nuclear fuel of light elements, its core started to
collapse that eventually led to the explosion of the star. This violent explosion called
supernova released a huge amount of nuclear energy and produced, through
neutron capture and radioactive decay, other elements heavier than iron.

1.3. UNDERSTANDING THE LIFESPAN OF STARS

- Stars must have an energy to exist for a certain length of time. This energy comes from various
nuclear fusion reactions between light elements, involving the release of a huge amount of
energy that keeps the star hot.
- Hydrogen and helium are the nuclei for the synthesis of heavier elements within stars.
- Nuclear reactions explain why bright light emanates from stars and why they have extremely
high temperatures.
- Stars are fueled by nuclear fusion at their cores (processes mostly involved in the conversion
of H to He).
- Classification of stars according to their mass: small size- merely transforms H to He.
medium- when H atoms are depleted, there
He are further converted to C and O. e.g. sun
massive- undergo further nuclear reactions.
oxygen and carbon fuse to form neon (Ne),
sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), silicon (Si) and
sulfur (S). These elements are transformed mostly
into calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni),
chromium (Cr), copper (Cu) and others.
- As they age, huge stars with depleted cores and exhausted fuel supplies undergo supernova
(the explosion of a star, resulting in an extreme brightness and release of an exceedingly
high amount of energy which results in the formation of other elements heavier than iron.
They are then ejected into space, finally forming the basis for matter.
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
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❖ Nuclear Fusion Reactions

a. Nuclear fission- splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. This sustains nuclear power
plants and some nuclear weapons.
b. Nuclear fusion- reaction through which light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus. This
reaction fuels the stars as well as hydrogen or thermonuclear bombs.
- nuclear fusions in stars may be classified into two phases, which form different sets of elements:

1. Exothermic reactions (forms He) – releases energy in the form of heat or light.

2. Burning phases (forms heavier nuclei): Helium burning, C and O burning, Si burning

Helium Burning

Carbon and Oxygen Burning Silicon Burning

 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

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❖ Writing and Balancing Nuclear Reactions

- Nuclear Reaction is written in terms of chemical symbols and formulas.

1. Fundamental particles involved in the reaction must

be properly written as shown in the table.

2. Reactants are written on the left side of the arrow,

while products are set on the right side. The arrow
therefore symbolizes the transformation of reactants
into products.

3. The sum of the mass no., as well as, the atomic no.
on both sides of the equation must be equal in order
to satisfy the law of conservation of matter.

4. Coefficients must be placed before the formula or

symbol to balance the mass number and atomic
number.

5. Check if the equation is indeed balanced. Make sure that the net atomic number, atomic
mass, and charge are equal on both sides of the chemical equation.

Most common types of nuclear reactions, along with illustrative examples

• Alpha decay: loss of an alpha particle ( 42𝛼 )

Alpha decay of polonium – 210
210 206 4
84Po → 82Pb + 2𝛼

• Beta decay: loss of beta particle ( −10𝛽 )

Beta decay of carbon – 14
14 14 0
6C → 7N + −1𝛽

• Gamma radiation: emission of gamma ray ( 00𝛾 )

Gamma radiation in alpha decay of uranium – 238
92U → 90Th + 2𝛼 (alpha decay)
238 234 4

234
90Th → 206
82Pb + 00𝛾 (gamma radiation)

• Positron emission: conversion of a proton in a nucleus into a neutron, along with the
release of a positron (01𝑒 )
Positron emission of oxygen – 15
15 15 0
8O → 7N + 1𝑒

• Electron capture: drawing of an electron ( −10𝑒 )into an atom’s nucleus

Electron capture of mercury – 201
201 0 201
80Hg + −1𝑒 → 79Au

• Bombardment of alpha particle: addition of alpha particle

Bombardment of beryllium with an alpha particle
9 4 12 1
4Be + 2𝛼 → 6C + 0𝑛
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
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Other subatomic particles involved in nuclear reactions are the proton ( 11𝑝)and neutron (10𝑛).

4. ATOMIC THEORY TIMELINE

450 B.C. Democritus

Greek Philosopher
o States that all matter around us is made of indivisible tiny particles called “atomos”.

1803 John Dalton

English School Teacher
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
a) Elements are made of tiny particles called “atoms”
b) Atoms of one element are identical while atoms of different elements are different.
c) Conservation of atoms – rearrangement in RXN (Lavoisier previously stated this in
terms of the Law of Conservation of Matter)
d) Different atoms form compounds in constant ratios.
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
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1839 Michael Faraday

English Chemist
o The structure of atoms is
somehow related to electricity.

1896 J.J. Thomson

English Physicist
a) Discovered atoms have negative particles (electrons) using a cathode ray tube.
b) Discovered electron’s charge to mass ratio: 1.76 x 10^8 C/g

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model, 1900

- Electrons are dispersed in a uniform positive charge

1909 Robert Millikan

American Physicist
- Measured the charge of an electron using oil droplets
- Electron’s charge: 1.60 x 10 ^-19 C
- Electron’s mass: 9.11 x 10^-28 g

1909 Ernest Rutherford

New Zealand Scientist
Rutherford’s Nucleus Theory
- Positive charge is not like a pudding, but concentrated in the nucleus as shown in the gold
foil (alpha particle) experiment.
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Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
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- Most of an atom is empty space

1919 - named positive charge the “proton” (+1)
1932 - Rutherford and James Chadwick discover neutron in nucleus (no charge)

1887-1915 Henry Moseley

English Scientist
Moseley’s Atomic Number
- Each element contains a unique number of protons (atomic number)
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
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1911-1913 Niels Bohr

Danish Physicist
Bohr’s Orbit Model
- Electrons orbit the nucleus
- Model based on the hydrogen atom
- Energy of the electrons is quantized.

1st shell(K)- 2 electrons

2nd shell (L)= 8 electrons
and so on........

1926 Louis de Broglie and Erwin Schrodinger

French Graduate Student
Wave Mechanical Model
- Electrons can act like particles and waves (just like light)
- Electrons occupy orbitals. Orbitals are nothing like orbits. They are areas of probability (90%
of electron probability)
- Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer performed experiments to support the wave
mechanical model.
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

Physical Science Name of student:

 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section:
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

Physical Science Name of student:

Reference/s:

- Monserrat, R.C. & Punzalan, J.M. (2016). Physical Science.Sibs Publishing House, Inc., Quezon City,
Philippines
- Santiago, K.S. & Silverio, A.A. (2016). Physical Science. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., Quezon City,
Philippines Nuclear Reactions and Types: Transmutation, Radioactivity, Fission, fusion. (2020).
Retrieved from https://hemantmore.org.in/science/chemistry/nuclear-
reactions/6215//bp/ch23/medicine.php