A TEMPERATURE TOMOGRAPHIC SENSOR FOR COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
by
D.P.Correia, A. Caldeira-Pires, P. FerrHo and M.V.Heitor
Instituto Superior Tkcnico
Mechanical Engineering Department
AV.Rovisco Pais,
1096 Eisboa Codex
PORTUGAL
ABSTRACT
Environmental regulations in industrialised countries are
becoming more stringent and require the minimisation of
pollutant emissions in combustion processes together with
the reduction of energy consumption. This can only be
achieved in full scale combustion chambers by adopting
advanced monitoring and control techniques based on
non-intrusive combustion diagnostics. This paper reports
the development, implementation and test of a laboratory
flame 3D temperature sensor which allows for the
tomographic reconstruction of the temperature field,
based on the flame radiation emitted at k800nm and
k9OOnm. The current work aims to contribute to
overcome the difficulties on the application of
tomographic techniques to large scale combustion
systems by adopting new strategies for flame data
collection and processing. In this paper the various stages
for the development of a flame tomographic sensor are
presented, namely: a review of the physical concepts
involved, together with the selection, development,
optimisation and implementation of tomographic
algorithms. The design and assembly of the laboratory
rig, the experimental procedure, and the evaluation of the
results obtained, are also discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Since Radon [l] first presented a mathematical solution
for object reconstruction based on its projections,
computerised tomography (CT) has been extensively
developed and is now generally accepted as a reliable
method for reconstructing dhe structure details of a given
object. Tomographic techniques are currently used on a
wide range of different fields, which impose different
constraints on the properties to be measured, the type of
sensor used, the data acquisition equipment and the data
processing strategies.
The use of CT for combustion diagnostics has seen a
significant increase in the last decade. An attempt to make
industrial use of the information provided by CT to
combustion analysis was provided by Natterer et al. 121,
who developed a system based on algebraic techniques
0-7803-4167-8
and tried to establish a geometric flame classification
system to be used on combustion control. Fischer and
Stoll ([3],[4]) combined tomography and two-color
pyrometry, on Bunsen burner and candle flames, to
resolve the tridimensional temperature fields. Recent
publications include the characterisation of the species
concentrations and temperatures o f sooting laminar
diffusion flames, using the tomographic reconstruction of
the emissiodabsorption spectra, as in Best et al. [5] and
Barrag and Lawton [6]. The evaluation o f local PDFs of
the soot volume fraction and temperature distribution in
diffusion flames was studied by Sivathanu et al. [7], and
Phillipp et al. [8] and Waterfall et al. [9] who used the
technique on internal combustion engines.
Despite the preliminary work on laboratory flames, the
application of tomographic techniques to industrial
systems did not result on reliable process monitoring
systems due to a set of practical problems, which are
essentially caused by lacks on either the understanding of
the combustion phenomena involved, or on the adequacy
of the tomographic reconstruction algorithms for practical
systems. The solution can only be obtained by a
systematic research work, combining conventional
experimental diagnostics with adequate tomographic
sensors.
The current work aims to contribute to overcome these
limitations by adopting a different approach to the
problem, which consists on 4 main stages, namely:
1) Development and optimisation of dedicated
tomographic algorithms. This task included extensive
tests of the tomographic reconstruction algorithms used
against mathematical functions in order to assess their
performance. The agreement of the reconstructed image
with an original test function was used to validate the
implemented algorithm.
2) Development and implementation of an experimental
setup, which is represented in Figure 1, allowing for the
3D reconstruction of the flow characteristics based on the
analysis of flame radiation, simultaneously acquired on
two infrared wavelengths. Several sets of images were
401
".,C...l.Y" *VI -......-..--------------
conditions (camera shutter speeds, focus, etc.).
/----x
HorizontalPlatform
YWdeo Slgnalr
Figure 1. Experimental Rig.
The tomographic reconstruction software, developed for
the reconstruction of the local emitted radiation field of
the flame, included correction terms for the radiation
attenuation inside the flame, in order to accurately
estimate the local temperature of soot particles.
3) Experimental study of the flames studied, which
included the characterisation of the scalar and vector
fields of non-premixed flames, making use of
conventional diagnostic techniques.
4) Calibration of the tomographic pyrometer, by
comparing the data obtained from the new sensor with
accurate results obtained with conventional methods, in
order to evaluate the adequacy of CT to flame
diagnostics.
This paper discusses the approach adopted on each of the
stages and, in particular, presents a theoretical description
of the relevant aspects of radiative heat transfer, radiation
absorption and pyrometry in flames, and the description
of the tomography procedures used. Results of
tomographic reconstruction of the axissymmetric flame
studied are presented and compared with the temperature
measurements performed.
SPECTRAL EMISSION OF FLAMES
According to Gaydon [lo] there are three basic types of
flame spectra: line spectra, emitted or absorbed by free
atoms, band spectra, corresponding to electronic
transitions in molecules and changes in rotational or
vibrational energy, and continuous spectra, which is
associated with emission or absorption by solid particles
or liquid droplets, but may also be due to processes such
as dissociation, ionisation or recombination in molecules
or atoms. Flame radiation may consist of a few spectral
lines, many lines arranged in band systems, continua, or
combinations of lines, band and continua depending on
the fuels and oxidisers present, and their interaction,
which is determined by complex aerothermodinamic
phenomena. Luminous flames show strong continuous
402
- - -- --- --- --- - - - __ - - __ --- -- - - - - - _.
This is mainly due to the radiation from hot carbon
particles, soot, (usually between lOOA and 2000A in
diameter). The solid carbon particles, which are formed in
a flame as a result of incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons, increase the emissivity and enhance flame
radiation, which is to be used for temperature diagnostics
on the present paper.
However, as carbon particles are frequently smaller than
the wavelength of light, their emissivity increases for
shorter wavelengths and, as a consequence, the spectral
intensity distribution in the continuum is different from
that of a black body at the flame temperature.
RADIATION ABSORPTION
Radiation emitted inside a flame is attenuated in an extent
that depends on the path in the attenuating environment
and on the physical properties of the environment itself.
Therefore, radiant energy, at a given wavelength h,
propagating through the reacting gases, is absorbed and
scattered in the gas. For monochromatic radiation, the
absorption by each chemical specie in the gas, a,(T),
which is quantified as the ratio between the
monochromatic radiance at wavelength h, N, (T) , and
the spectral radiance of a blackbody at the same
temperature, N i (T) , depends on the characteristics of
the absorbing particles, according to the Beer-Lambert
law:
where K,is the extinction coefficient and L the optical
path on the absorbing gas.
Several attempts have been made in order to model the
value of K,, based on different principles and
simplifications. The most common are:
i) Neglecting the absorption effect, which corresponds to
assume that Ka = O (as performed by Fischer [2]).
Tomography is performed assuming that all emitted
radiation reaches the radiation collector equipment
without attenuation.
ii) Assuming a given relation of K, with A ,as initially
suggested by Hottel and Broughton [Ill and later
described by Siddal and McGrath [12], considering
that the absorption coefficient, a,(T), is constant
inside the flame.
iii) Determining the local K, through means of an
emission-absorption method, as performed by Best et
al. [5] and Barrag and Lawton [6], and then using the
determined values of the extinction coefficient for the
pyrometry calculations. This method requires the use
of an external radiation source, or a mirror of known
reflectivity (as proposed by Porter [131).
It is known that Ka depends on both the wavelength and
the soot concentration across the flame, which would
imply spatial differences in the local extinction
coefficient. A reasonable compromise between the
determination of the local absorption, which imposes the
use of an external radiation source, precluding its use on L

process control application, and neglecting it, consists on

assuming the relation between K,and h, as pointed out
by Wl.
Other methods would include the evaluation of the soot
distribution, size and absorption, through means of more
complex models, as the one described by Timothy et al.
[15]. The current work will focus on the application of the
second approach and will assess the adequacy of this For small values of the product AT (tuove 0.002 mu.) an
model through the comparison against experimental explicit solution of Eq. 5 can be obtained by Wien’s
measurements. approximation to Planck’s law. As this condition is
verified for the propane flames studied in this work, the
One of the first attempts to model the dependence color pyrometry equation becomes:
between Ka and the wavelength, h, was performed by
Hottel and Broughton [ 111 that suggested that the spectral
absorption coefficient for luminous large-scale flames
was related to the wavelength as:
1
K,a-
ilp L

These authors report values for the constant p ranging
from 0.95 (infrared) to 1.39 on the visible wavelengths,
from direct measurement on steady-state luminous flames.
Siddall and McGrath [12] quantify p as:
p = 0.906 + 0.283.In il (3)
for h = [l - l O ] p . The same authors have studied the
emissivity and absorption in luminous flames for different
fuels, and concluded that the extinction coefficient
depended not only on the wavelength but also on the
carbonhydrogen ratio of the fuel and on soot
concentration. They suggested a large set of mean values
for the constant p (for various fuels), which, for propane
flames, as used in this paper, is 1.00.
COLOR PYROMETRY
The monochromatic spectral radiance of a blackbody
N i ( T ) is modelled by the Plank radiation law (as stated,
for example, in Tourin [16]). For a radiating body, the
monochromatic spectral radiance is obtained by
multiplying the spectral emissivity { A ( T ) by the
blackbody spectral radiance, as stated in Eq. 4:
Two-color pyrometry is based on the ratio of the spectral
radiance equations obtained for the same conditions but
for different wavelengths, assuming a given relation
between the two monochromatic emissivities. The general
approach is to assume that a flame behaves like a gray
body, which is to say that the emissivity is independent of
the wavelength, as represented in Eq. 5 :
On the present work, the spectral radiances from the
flames were experimentally obtained for two
wavelengths, kept close together in order to validate the
gray body approach. Equation 6 can be used to quantify
the temperature, resulting in Equation 7, where c2 is the
second radiation constant (= 1,4388cmK).
TOMOGRAPHY ALGORITHMS
The tomographic process consists on the reconstruction of
the two or three dimensional internal structure of a given
object from one or several projections.
The use of analytical integral equations, for the
reconstruction of the tridimensional structure of
axissymmetric objects, is well known and has been
applied to a large set of different subjects, as in medical
diagnostic, geological survey, astronomy, fluid mechanics
and combustion.
The mathematical reconstruction equation was first
developed by Radon in [l], and latter optimised and
applied to radio astronomy by Bracewell [17]. From a
finite set of projections the Radon Transform, R[F],
provides the mathematical equation (Eq.8) that allows the
reconstruction of the original property distribution, F,
based on a set of one or more projections, represented by
the function P, as illustrated on Figure 2.
403
 ~
Figure 2. Sample object and its projection for a given
angle @ .
For the specific case of an axissymmetric object, all the
radial projections of the object become equal,
F(x, y) = F(r) and P(p, $) = P(p) , and therefore the
Radon integral equation can be developed into the Abel
integral equation that states as follows:
where A[F](p) is the Abel Transform operator.
The main advantage of assuming an axissymmetric
geometry and using an Abel transform based algorithm is
that a single projection of the object is necessary for the
reconstruction. This assumption allows a significant
reduction of time consuming computation as well as a
considerable economy on data retrieving apparatus.
Since the objective of the tomographic procedure is to
obtain F(x, y) from P(p, $) , and in particular Ffr) from
P(p) for an axissymmetric object, the integral equation to
be used in this procedure consists on the Inverse Abel
Integral Equation, which can be presented in the form:
Various methods for implementing numerical solutions
for this equation are suggested in the literature and were
implemented during the early development stages of this
work: Nestor and Olsen's [18], Barr [19], Freeman- Katz
[20] and ART (used by Fischer [3]). However, these
algorithms do not allow for the inclusion of a radiation
absorption correction term, which imposed the use of a
numerical translation of the reconstruction procedure,
degenerating on a method similar to an Algebraic
Reconstruction Technique (ART).
404
present work and is described in greater detail on the next
Section.
INCLUDING ABSORPTION ON AN
AXISSYMMETRIC TOMOGRAPHIC
RECONSTRUCTION ALGORITHM
The tomographic reconstruction of any given object is
based on the assumption that any projection integrates
radiation (or some other property, depending on the
application) that is either emitted or transmitted through
the object. The reconstruction process basically
deconvolves the retrieved data in order to obtain the
initial property field.
For the specific flame in study, illustrated in Figure 3, the
projection acquired by the detector equipment integrates
the radiation emitted inside the body, along a given
optical path (in this case assumed to be a parallel beam),
but the radiation emitted by the soot particles is largely
absorbed inside the flame, by the soot layers standing
between the emitter particles and the detector.
Ill1
Figure 3. Schematic view of the object tomographic
reconstructionprocess.
The amount of radiation absorbed, assuming a constant
extinction coefficient within the flame, is proportional to
the path on the attenuating environment (as stated on
Eq.1).
In particular, if an axissymetric object is to be modelled
as a set of layers in which the physical properties
(including the emtted radiation and the temperature) are
assumed constant, the reconstruction algorithm
deconvolves the retrieved data into the each of the layers,
including a correction term for the absorbed radiation
along the path.
Under the assumption that the flame behaves according to
Beer-Lambert's law (Eq.l), and that the radiation is
attenuated only inside the object (non-absorbing
atmosphere), the algorithm developed considers the flame
Bayer crossed by each parallel beam and the centroids for
each of the layers (for the evaluation of the attenuating
distances).
The calculated values form a matrix that correlates each
of the objects layers to the projection elements. Solving
the matrix allows the reconstruction of the initial property
field. The procedure is repeated for the entire object,
obtaining the 3D local emitted radiation field of the
flame.
ALGORITHM EVALUATION
The numerical discretisation of the tomographic
reconstruction was implemented on dedicated computer
programs in order to evaluate the various algorithms.
The procedure, similar to the one performed by Fischer
[3], was to use a set of different mathematical functions of
known projection and to check the performance of the
algorithms, both in terms of computing time and quality
of the reconstruction.
Several different functions were used, which were meant
to test the algorithm for different aspects, such as, the
response to discontinuities on the function and on its first
derivative.
The testing procedure was to generate a projection
function from a given mathematical function, and then
reconstruct the original function using the tomographic
reconstruction algorithms. Sample results are presented in
Figures 4 a) and b), for two of the tested functions using
the optimised algorithm. The domain of the test functions
is [-1,1]. Results are presented on a [0,1] scale due to
object axissymmetry. The results demonstrate the ability
of the optimised algorithm to reproduce the original
functions, i),based on theirs projections, ii).
(i) (ii) (iii)
-r----------tx------+r
b)
Figure 4.(i) Test functions, (ii) Their projections and (iii)
Reconstructed functions. a) Linear function, and b)
Gaussian function.
The various algorithms were also tested for their response
to a different number of discretisation points. Figure 5
represents the reconstructed function for four different
conditions. The algorithm used for this test is the
optimised algorithm including the absorption
compensation (in this case though, K, was set to zero). 405
An improvement in the spatial resolution of the
tomographic reconstruction algorithm contributes to the
quality of the reconstruction, as illustrated in Figure 5,
which represents the reconstructed function
corresponding to the original test function 4 a)i), for
different spatial resolutions, ranging from 10 to 1000
points.
C> d)
Figure 5 . Algorithm response for the linear function, for
different numbers of integration points: a) 10, b) 25, c)
100 and d) 1000 points.
The improvement on the spatial resolution results in
higher computational costs, although, as displayed on the
chart in Figure 6 , for small numbers of discretisation
points the processing time is reduced, therefore limiting
the problem to larger arrays.
0 500 1000 1500
Number of Discretisation Points
Figure 6. Number of discretisation points vs. processing
time in seconds.
The evaluation of the algorithms including absorption
compensation was also performed by using the
mathematical test functions. This procedure allowed to
characterise the errors that occur when an algorithm
without absorption compensation is used on a projection
acquired from an object on an attenuating environment.
Figure 7 displays the process of reconstruction of the
linear function assuming that radiation absorption is
modelled by Beer-Lambert law (Eq. 1). An attenuating
environment generates a different projection from a non-
attenuating, as is illustrated in Figures 4a)(ii) and figure
7(ii). The algorithm is able to correct the absorption effect
and reproduce the original function.
Figure 7. Process of reconstruction of the linear function
assuming absorption conditions. (i) Test function, (ii)
Projection and (iii) Reconstructed function.
The typical errors associated with neglecting the media
absorption of radiation are illustrated on Figure 8, which
represents a simulation of the projection for an absorbing
media, Figure 8(ii), and its reconstruction without
compensation for the absorption effect, Figure 8(iii). The
reconstructed function is to be contrasted with the test
function, Figure 8(i), if the errors associated with the
neglecting of the absorption effect are to be characterised.
(ii) (iii)
Figure 8. Reconstruction without absorption correction.
(i) Test function, (ii) Projection and (iii) Reconstructed
function (iii).
LABORATORY RIG AND EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE
The laboratory rig can be divided into three main parts:
the combustion system, the image acquisition tools and
the processing hardware.
The flame used in this work consists on a non-premixed
jet propane flame, similar to flames found in most
industrial environments. This flame was extensively
characterised by Caldeira-Pires et al. [21], using time-
resolved thermometry, chemical species concentration
and laser velocimetry.
The data retrieved in these experiments was used to
calibrate the 3-D viewing system, and, on a latter stage,
was compared with the results obtained from the
pyrometry calculations on the tomography reconstructed
images. Figure 9 shows a schematic view of the burner
used, as well as an image of the flame obtained for visible
wavelengths. The burner is mounted on a horizontal
platform as displayed in Figure 1.
406
Figure 9. Schematic view of the burner and visible
wavelength image of the non-premixedjet propane flame.
The image is digitised by pairs of CCIR cameras that are
placed on the platform, obtaining radial views of the
flame. The platform allows for changing of the position of
the cameras, namely their distance to the flame and the
angle between the sets of cameras.
The video output signals are connected to a RGBA frame
grabber board that allows for the simultaneous acquisition
of up to four independent monochromatic video signals
through the color inputs. The video signals were
synchronised using the video output of the first camera.
Infrared interference filters (Melles Griot 800 and 900nm
filters) were used for the acquisition of the
monochromatic flame images. The frame grabber is
mounted in a PC which was used for the acquisition,
processing and display of the flame images. A dedicated
software library was used in order to control the frame
grabber and all the acquisition, tomography and
pyrometry software was purpose built.
Experiments were performed for a flame characterised by
a Reynolds number of Re = 20400. The flame images
acquisition procedure was to obtain time-averaged images
for the two wavelengths, for a given projection.
As the average flame characteristics are axissymmetric,
the calculations were based on a single projection. The
tomographic reconstruction, for each of the
monochromatic average images, allowed for the
pyrometry equations solution.
This procedure was used to quantify the local soot
particle temperatures as discussed on the next section,
where the results of the experiments are presented for
both the tomography and the pyrometry calculations. The
data is then compared with the thermocouple results by
Caldeira-Pires et al. [21].
RESULTS
The laboratory experiments resulted in a large set of time-
averaged images, for the two wavelengths used. These
images represent the monochromatic flame radiation,
integrated along an optical path (assumed parallel), for
burner distances of 25 to 55 burner diameters. The time-
averaged images have shown to be axissymmetric, as
Figure 10 illustrates.
a) b)
Figure 10. a) Instantaneous, and b) Time-averaged images
(16 seconds = 400 images) for 800nm.
In Figure lob), the grayscale level corresponding to each
picture element (pixel) is a function of the radiation
emitted along the optical path, taking into consideration
the radiation absorbed along the same optical path. Two
average images for the wavelengths considered behind are
represented on Figure 11. The image units are in
grayscale values and can be correlated to radiance units
by calibration over a blackbody furnace. Acquisition
times, camera settings, focal distances, shutter speeds and
combustion parameters were maintained constant
throughout the experiments, allowing for the pyrometry
calculations.
a) b)
Figure 11. Monochromatic images: a) 800nm and
900nm.
These images were used to perform the calculations
necessary for the tomographic reconstruction of the
monochromatic images. This was done according to the
algorithm including absorption correction. As stated by
Eq. 2, the extinction coefficient was considered to be
proportional to the inverse of the wavelength (with
p = 1) and therefore the extinction coefficient should be
higher for the 900nm image. The results for the
tomographic reconstruction of the monochromatic images
are presented in Figure 12. The left hand side of Figures
12a) and 12b) represent the original image, as retrieved
407r
by the CCIR cameras. The right hand sides characterise
their tomographic reconstructions, which represent a
radial distribution of the radiation emitted at the given
wavelength.
a) b)
Figure 12. Tomography reconstructed images: a) 800nm
and b) 900nm.
The 3D temperature field evaluation process consists on
the combined use of the tomography reconstruction
techniques and the color pyrometry equation (Eq. 7). A
conversion term is multiplied to the ratio of the spectral
radiances, N,, (T)/NA2(T) , so that the grayscale images
can be translated into IS units. This conversion term is
obtained through calibration with a blackbody furnace.
Applying the pyrometry equation to the tomography
images results in the local temperature field, as illustrated
on Figure 13a). These results are compared against the
data obtained from the experiments obtained by Caldeira-
Pires et al. [21], represented on Figure 13b).
a> b)
Figure 13. a) Temperature field obtained with the
temperature tomographic sensor, and b) Measurements
by Caldeira-Pires et al..
The qualitative agreement suggests that the experimental
procedure adopted in obtaining these preliminary results
is adequate, although more detailed experiments are
required in order to validate the technique and to optimise
the modelling of the extinction coefficient.

sensor for combustion systems, making use of radiation
pyrometry, radiation absorption compensation and
tomographic reconstruction algorithms, was discussed
and assessed. The results obtained for the 3D temperature
field of a non-premixed propane flame and compared
against the data obtained from measurements performed
with conventional techniques (time-resolved
thermometry), suggest that the new sensor is adequate for
the characterisation of the temperature field and the
radiative heat transfer process on combustion
environments, although detailed experiments are required
for optimising the flame radiation absorption modelling.
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
Financial support provided by the European Union under
the project CLEAN-GLASS, Contract noBRPR-CT95-
0033, is gratefully acknowledged.
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Duai-te P. Col-reia was boi-n in Lisbon, Poi-rugal i l l 197 I . He gl-:~dt!ated

i i i Mcchanicul Engineering
in the Technical University o f Lisbon i n 1995. i n the l.icld of ~~llcrinodyna~iiics. Fluid Mechanics
and Combustion. As a graduation pro.ject, hc dcvclol)cd ;I iiitili imctlia fui-nacecombustion coiitrol
system based 011 image proccssing tccli~iic~ucs that is cui-i-crlrly i n usc o n ;I large sc;iIc industrial
furn;rce at Marinlia Grande, Poi-tugal. Ilc curicntly dcveloping ;I PhD thcsts under tlic subject
“Asscssment on Tomographic Tecliniques iipplied to thc Control o f Conibuhtion Systcins”.

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