Journal of Building Engineering 5 (2016) 114–118

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Characteristics of fired bricks with co-combustion fly ashes

C. Leiva a,n, C. Arenas a, B. Alonso-fariñas a, L.F. Vilches a, B. Peceño b, M. Rodriguez-galán a,
F. Baena a
a
University of Seville, Higher Technical School of Engineering, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Camino de los Descubrimientos, s/n,
E-41092 Seville, Spain
b
School of Prevention of Risks and Environment, Catholic University of North, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper studies the feasibility of utilizing co-combustion fly ashes for the production of eco-friendly
Received 23 July 2015 fired bricks. The fly ashes from co-combustion of coal and pet coke in a Spanish Power Plant were used as
Received in revised form raw material to replace clay to make fired bricks. The effect of fly ash with high replacing ratio (from 0 to
11 November 2015
80%) of clay on properties of bricks was analysed. The specimens, cylinders with 32.5 mm diameter and
Accepted 1 December 2015
Available online 3 December 2015
50 mm length, were manufactured by compressing at 10 MPa. Different firing temperatures, 800, 900
and 1000 °C, were studied. The fired bricks with high volume ratio of fly ash present a high compressive
Keywords: strength and a low water absorption capacity. With increase in firing temperature, the compressive
Co-combustion strength increased and the water absorption decreased. With increase in replacing ratio, the compressive
Fly ash
strength decreased and the water absorption ratio increased. The bricks no present environmental
Recycling
problems according to the leaching study.
Bricks
Leaching Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction interest from an environmental point of view. For this reason,

The recycling of by-products and wastes is an increasingly
major problem for the future of humanity. One of the major by-
products is coal fly ash, which is produced in significant amounts
in both Spain and the rest of the world. Currently, only a small
percentage of fly ash is utilized (42% according to the European
Coal Combustion Products Association (ECOBA)) [1]. However,
most of the rest is sent to landfill, which is unsatisfactory solution
both from ecological and economic point of view. Therefore, there
is continuing interest in establishing suitable processes in which
fly ashes can be efficiently reused.
The production of conventional ceramics can be an important
application for fly ash, bearing in mind the large quantities of raw
materials needed for ceramic production [2]. The ceramic industry
consumes large quantities of natural raw materials. A ceramic
factory of medium size uses 500 t of raw materials per day. The
major constituents of fly ash are SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 with some
minor constituents such as CaO, MgO and other oxides. Therefore,
these oxides have been mainly considered as a low cost material
resource for the cement industry [3,4] but the crisis in the con-
struction industry of Spain has diminished the Spanish cement
consumption and the recycle of fly ashes.
Combustion of non-fossil fuels is carbon neutral and thus of
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cleiva@us.es (C. Leiva).
governments have legislated to promote an increase in co-com-
bustion at the large power stations in Spain and other countries.
However, co-firing can produce fly ashes without the quality to be
used in cement or concrete production.
There are some advantages using fly ash as raw material of
bricks. For example firing energy can be saved because of the
amounts of carbon contained in fly ash. Fired fly ash bricks were
also studied and produced in Germany, England and China [5].
2. Materials and methods
In this study, fly ashes (FA) from the co-combustion of coke and
coal from a Spanish power plant were used without any previous
treatment. The chemical composition of co-combustion fly ashes
and natural clay (NC) is shown in Table 1. The content of silica,
alumina and magnesium oxide is strongly related to the vitrifica-
tion process and the subsequent forming of a tough ceramic ma-
trix when the sintering temperature has been reached [6]. The co-
combustion fly ashes present a lower loss on ignition (LOI) content
than NC. Clay has higher silica content than ashes. A higher silica
content may improve the plasticity and hardness properties of the
mixtures [7]. Regarding the specific density of the used materials,
clay presents a similar specific gravity to ashes.
The particle size distribution of the raw materials is shown in
Fig. 1. Ash particles are much finer than the particles of clay. It is
evidenced by the average particle size D50:20 μm for FA and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2015.12.001
2352-7102/Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 C. Leiva et al. / Journal of Building Engineering 5 (2016) 114–118 115

Table 1
Chemical composition of fly ashes and clay.

LOI CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 Na2O K2O MgO Ti2O P2O5 SO3 specific gravity (g/cm3)

FA 1.14 2.26 48.72 24.26 7.91 0.7 3.69 0.07 1.5 0.35 0.02 2.36
NC 3.37 1.47 77.56 11.25 3.26 0.19 3.55 1.18 3.37 o 0.01 o 0.01 2.32

Fig. 1. Size distribution of fly ashes and clay.

Fig. 2. Heating program of bricks.

86 μm for NC. Therefore, the different particle size of ashes and
clay causes a lack of homogeneity in the mixes.
In order to study the replacement of clay by co-combustion fly
ash in the properties of ceramic bricks, different ash/clay ratios
have been tested. The compositions of the tested mixtures are
shown in Table 2, as well as the mixing water requirements
(WR ¼100  mass water/mass solids). The WR value increased with
the proportion of fly ashes due to the plasticity of the mix de-
creased with the increment of the proportion of fly ashes.
The specimens, cylinders with 32.5 mm diameter and 50 mm
length, were manufactured by compressing at 10 MPa. Moulding
pressure values in the range of 5–50 MPa are typically presented
in the literature [7]. The employed moulding pressure was chosen
based on previous results [8], When the moulding pressure is in-
creased, the distance between the particles decreases and the
number of contact points increases. As a consequence, the com-
pressive strength enhances and the total porosity decreases. But
an excessive pressure may lead to the development of pressure
gradients and other defects that can affect the quality of the bricks
after pressing and firing [9]. The specimens were immediately
removed from the moulds and dried at 60 °C until constant weight
was achieved. Then, samples were fired in an electric furnace ac-
cording to the designed heating program shown in Fig. 2. This
heating program is based on similar programs found in the lit-
erature [5]. The heating rate in tunnel kilns for facing bricks is
100–200 °C/h [10], higher than this study. The heating rate was
100 °C/h below 500 °C and 50 °C/h from 500 °C to the selected
maximum temperature. The maximum temperature was held
during 8 h. This heating program ensures that all the material
Table 2
Tested compositions.
Nomenclature Clay (wt%) Fly ash (wt%) WR (water/solids) (wt%)
reaches the selected firing temperature, and it permits the total
combustion of the carbon contained in the ash and the organic
material that the clay could contain. Three different firing tem-
peratures (800, 900 and 1000 °C) were studied in order to analyse
the effect of this temperature on the properties of the final
products.
The fly ash-based ceramic materials studied were characterised
by measuring the bulk density, water absorption, shrinkage, ef-
florescence, compressive strength and leaching behavior. The ob-
tained results have been compared to a control mixture based
solely on clay.
The material density (ρ) was measured by measuring weight
and volume (dimensions). Four specimens of each type were
measured. The water absorption capacity (A) was measured ac-
cording to UNE 67027 [11]. Four specimens of each type are tested.
An efflorescence study was carried out. The specimens were im-
mersed in water for 24 h and after dry in shade. After this treat-
ment, the presence of soluble salts in the bricks was determined.
The compressive (Rc) strength of the samples were evaluated,
according to EN 772-1 [12], using a compression test machine
(Suzpecar, MEM-102/ 50 t). The compressive strength tests were
performed on 40 mm-high, 32.5 mm-diameter cylinders. Three
samples of each type were tested. The results of compressive
strength have been standardized to a ratio height/diameter ¼2
according with previous studies [13].
The leaching study, is carried out to characterize the fly ash and
to evaluate the possible applications was determining according to
EN 12457-4 [14]. Clay was subjected to the same test in order to
compare the leaching results.
3. Results

C-0 100 0 16.8 3.1. Shrinkage

C-20 80 20 17.2
C-40 60 40 17.9 Figs. 3 and 4 show photographs of the samples after firing. All
C-60 40 60 18.9 the samples presented a low shrinkage; lower than 4% for all the
C-80 20 80 19.5
C-100 0 100 20.2
compositions. Previous results with combustion fly ashes shown
that above 1000 °C, a partial sintering can be observed in bricks
116 C. Leiva et al. / Journal of Building Engineering 5 (2016) 114–118
Fig. 3. Samples before and after the firing program at 800 °C.
Fig. 4. Samples after firing at 1000 °C.
with large shrinkage and deformation [5]. In this study, 1000 °C is
the maximum firing temperature so a high shrinkage is not
observed.
3.2. Density
Fig. 5 shows the density for different compositions and firing
temperatures. It can be observed that density increases with
temperature. This is because the increment of the temperature
causes an increment in the degree of sintering of parts, a higher
percent of vitrification of the crystalline phases, the generation of
a viscous amorphous phase, which flows into the pores and the lid
[15]. When the ash content increases, the density decreases
slightly between 800 and 900 °C. This fact is due to the lower
specific gravity of the ash relative to the clay. However, the density
increases with increasing the ash content when the firing tem-
perature is 1000 °C. This is because 1000 °C has already reached
the temperature of vitrification of the ashes and a more compact
and dense material is obtained.
Generally, a brick with a good quality has a density in the range
Fig. 5. Density of bricks.
of 1700–2000 kg m  3 [16], so all the compositions at 900 and
1000 °C present appropriate values. However, European standard
EN 771-1 [17] mandates a bulk density between 1200 and
1400 kg m  3 for burnt clay solid bricks and all the densities ob-
tained in the present study are below this range. But, on other
hand, the German standard DIN 105-100 [18] requires densities
between 1200 and 2200 kg m  3. And all the densities obtained are
into the range established in this German standard.
3.3. Water absorption
Fig. 6 shows the water absorption obtained for the different
compositions and firing temperatures. The amount of water ab-
sorbed decreases with the firing temperature. The water absorbed
varies inversely with the density. A higher density involves less
internal ducts and capillaries that can hold water [19]. The water
absorption according to Indian standard IS 3495- 2 [20] shall not
be more than 15% by weight. All the compositions for 1000 and
900 °C (except C-100 at 1000 °C) meet this limits.
3.4. Efflorescence results
The absence of gray or white deposits on the surface of the
bricks after the test indicates absence of soluble salts. If the white
deposits cover about 10% of the surface, the efflorescence is said to
 C. Leiva et al. / Journal of Building Engineering 5 (2016) 114–118
Fig. 6. Water absorption of bricks.
Fig. 7. Samples after the efflorescence test.
be slight. The efflorescence is considered as moderate when the
white deposits cover about 50% of the surface. If gray or white
deposits are found on more than 50% of surface, the efflorescence
becomes heavy. And the efflorescence is treated as serious when
the deposits are converted into powdery mass [21]. As Fig. 7
shows, the gray or white deposits cover less than 10% of the sur-
face of the bricks in all the cases.
3.5. Compressive strength
Fig. 8 shows the effect of temperature and ash content upon the
compressive strength of the bricks. When the firing temperature is
Fig. 8. Compressive strength of the bricks.
117
increased, the compressive strength is increased for all composi-
tions. This increment is much larger at 1000 °C due to the higher
degree of sintering of the piece. During sintering, the crystalline
phases melt and flow, filling internal pores due to surface tension
forces. This liquid crystalline phase may react with any of the re-
maining refractory solid. During cooling, the molten phase is so-
lidified and a glassy matrix favors the formation of a more re-
sistant and dense body [22].
The compressive strength decreases with ash content for
samples treated at 800 and 900 °C. This property is closely linked
to the density, as it can be seen in Section 3.2. This trend is in-
verted for a firing temperature of 1000 °C, where the compressive
strength increases by increasing the percentage of ash added.. It is
because, at 1000 °C, the degree of the sintering of the piece in-
creases with the amount of FA. When a firing temperature of
1000 °C was employed, all the tested compositions showed a
higher compressive strength than the specimen made only with
NC.
Employing the same both ratio clay/ash and firing temperature,
the compressive strength of a ceramic material developed by using
co-combustion ashes is higher than using coal combustion ashes
[22]. It is because, at 1000 °C, the sintering degree increases with
the amount of silica, alumina and magnesium oxide in the ash.
And the compressive strength increase with the sintering degree.
In this sense, bricks made by employing fly ashes from co-com-
bustion, SiO2 þ Al2O3 þMgO¼ 73.05%, had higher compressive
strength than bricks made by employing fly ashes from combus-
tion, SiO2 þ Al2O3 þMgO¼ 69.78%, as it can be seen in previous
studies [22].
According to European standard EN 771-2 [23] and the British
Standard BS 3921:1985 [26] the compressive strength of conven-
tional bricks must be higher than 5 MPa and 5,2 MPa respectively.
The compressive strengths obtained with 900 and 1000 °C are
higher than these standard values. ASTM C62-13 [24] provides a
minimum compressive strength of 10.34 MPa for bricks used in
normal weathering. This would allow using brick with a firing
temperature of 1000 °C. This ASTM standard also provides a limit
of 17.23 MPa for moderate weathering. In this case, just bricks with
more than 20% of fly ashes at 1000 °C could be used under this
restriction. Colombian standards NTC 4205-2 [25], for non-struc-
tural solid masonry units, establish a minimum compressive
strength of 14 MPa. According with this requirement, composi-
tions with more than 20% at 1000 °C could be used.
3.6. Leaching
In Spain, there is no national legal environmental requirements
for the re-use of fly ashes (or any kind of wastes) in this type of
products. But the Spanish norm EN 771-1 [17] indicates that “for
any additional information relative to hazardous substances, the
product must be accompanied, when and where required, and as
appropriate, for documents relating to other legislation on ha-
zardous substances compliance”.
The heavy metals concentrations in the leachate of both FA and
NC have been compared with the limits stated in the European
Landfill Directive [27] for granular waste acceptable at landfills for
inert, non-hazardous and hazardous wastes (Table 3). In all the
cases, the heavy metals concentrations in the leachate of fly ashes
are below than the inert waste limits. Only the concentration of Sb
of clay is higher than the inert waste limit.
4. Conclusions
Co-combustion fly ashes used as raw material replacing of clay
to make fired bricks is an effectively measure of saving land and
118 C. Leiva et al. / Journal of Building Engineering 5 (2016) 114–118

Table 3
EN-12457 leachability of fly ashes and clay (mg/kg).

As Cd Cr Sb Cu Hg Mo Ni Pb Se Zn

Fly ash o 0.3 o 0.03 0.14 o 0.05 o 0.03 o 0.01 o0.1 o 0.1 o 0.3 o 0.1 o 0.01
Clay 0.11 o 0.01 o 0.01 0.11 o 0.01 o 0.03 o0.01 0.33 o 0.05 o 0.03 0.32
Inert 0.5 0.04 0.5 0.06 2 0.01 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.1 4.0
Non Hazardous 2.0 1.0 10 0.7 50 0.2 0.5 10 10 0.5 50
Hazardous 25.0 5.0 70.0 5.0 100.0 2.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 7.0 200.0

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