MAJOR WORD FORMATION PROCESSES, ART OF PUBLIC

SPEAKING AND LISTENING, AND REPORT WRITING

Word formation is a major morphological process and it constitutes a vital aspect

of most languages of which English is not an exception. The processes through
which new words are created is referred to as word formation.
Below are types of word formation processes in English Language.
1. Borrowing
2. Compounding
3. Derivations: affixation
4. Conversion
5. Blending
6. Abbreviation: Clipping and Acronyms
7. Coinage or Neologism
8. Creative respelling
9. Back-formation

BORROWING: Borrowing occurs when a language is deficient in expressing a

concept. It is a very common way of creating new words in human language as it
involves taking words from one or more language(s) and fixing it into the
vocabulary of another.
The language that borrows from another is called the recipient language while the
one from which the word is borrowed is called the donor language.
The borrowed word is referred to as the LOAN-WORD. The loan words have the
same meaning as the objects/concepts to which they originally refer in the donor
language. See examples below.
1). bureau. (French)
2). rendezvous
3). fiance(e)
4). coup d'etat
5). memoir
6). tsunami. (Japanese)
7). tycoon
8). Alcohol. (Arabic)
9). Safari
10). Algebra
11). Piano. (Italian)
12). Pizza

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COMPOUNDING: This refers to the creation of a new word through the addition
of two or more different words. Compounding is a very productive morphological
process. In some cases a word formed by the process of compounding usually has a
new meaning which is apparently related to the meaning of the root word although
not always the sum of the meaning of both words. See examples below
1. Big + wig = bigwig (a notable person of high position or importance within a
group
2. King+ pin= kingpin
3. book + case = bookcase
4. sign + post = signpost
5. watch + man =watchman
6). Toothpick (7). babysitter, (8) toothache, (9). blackboard. (10). Facebook.
Note that not all compound words are written together as seen above. They can by
hyphenated or written separately, as in the examples below.
1. traffic light (noun)
2. Over-ripe (adj)
3. Penny-wise (adj)
4. Highlight (verb)
5. Without (preposition)
4. Laughing gas (noun)
4. White elephant (noun)
5. ice-cream.
Some words like "ice-cream" can be written with or without a hyphen. This is
mainly because English language is flexible with the type of compound words it
allows.

DERIVATIONS:
The derivation process is normally done through affixation (i.e suffixation or
prefixation), which implies, adding a suffix or a prefix to the root word. Some
examples include:
1. urgent (adjective) + -cy = urgency (noun)
2. ir- + responsible (adjective) + -y = irresponsibly (adverb)
3. national (adjective) + -ity = nationality (noun)
4. national (adjective) + -ist = nationalist (noun)
5. national (adjective) + -ise = nationalise (verb)
4. melo- +drama(noun) + -tic = melodramatic (adjective)
The new words formed by the process of derivation may or may not belong to the
same word class of the root word as seen in the above examples

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 CONVERSION
Conversion occurs when the meaning of a word is changed from one word class to
another. For example, the verb "google" (searching the internet using the Google
search engine) is formed from the noun "google" which means a search engine.
This word "google" has also gone through the process of derivation to form new
words like...
googleable (adjective)
googleplex (noun) cooperate headquarters of Google. i.e google complex in
California, US
The noun "read" (as in "a good read") is formed from the verb "to read". For
example: The book is a good read, I will always recommend to newbies
(newcomer).
I emailed this document to John. (emailed is a verb, formed from the noun "email")
4. He was bullied at school as a child. (bullied is a verb, formed from the noun
"bully")

BLENDING
The process of blending is similar to compounding except that it involves taking a
part of two different words to make a new word, like merging two words based on
the sounds of these words. This is extremely popular in the English language, and
it produces hundreds of new words every year. The meaning of the new word
formed is a mixture of the meanings of the original words. In some cases, these are
informal, but there are many that have become a natural part of standard English.
Below are some examples:
1. motor+ hotel=motel
2. Work + alcoholic= workaholic
3. Smoke + fog = smog
4. Television+ broadcast=telecast (verb)
5. Electronic +mail = emai
6. Telephone+ communication =Telecom
7. Breakfast+ lunch=brunch

ABBREVIATION: When a word is abbreviated, a new form of the word is

derived by shortening it or simply by using only part of the word: as shown in the
examples below.
1. Perambulator –> pram
2. Veterinary –> vet
Generally, there are about two types of abbreviation: they are clipping and
acronyms.
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The abbreviation of a longer word or phrase is lexicalized in the language, they
also retain the same meaning as well as the same part of speech of the longer word
from which it was derived.
Clipping
This means literally clipping the word, which means "cutting" the word to make it
shorter. Clipping normally makes the word more informal and/or appealing. Some
examples are:

advertisement = ad
hamburger = burger
demonstration = demo
Gymnasium = gym
Professor = Prof
Telephone = phone
Motorbike = bike
Mathematics= maths
Gasoline = gas
Michael= Mike
Fanatic = fan

ACRONYMS
Acronyms, which are a form of abbreviation, are words formed by using only the
initial letter(s) of a set of words. By creating an acronym, we are reducing the
meaning of a whole phrase or sentence to a single word. They are usually written
in capital letters as seen in the examples below:
Common Operating Machine Particularly Used for Technical, Education And
Research COMPUTER
laughing out loud = LOL
United Nations = UN
Radio Detection and Ranging = RADAR
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome = AIDS
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome = SARS
Joint Admission and Matriculation Board =JAMB

WORD COINAGE OR NEOLOGISM

This refer to the morphological process of creating new words to name previously
non-existent object, concept, phenomena or ideas that results from cultural/
linguistic contact.

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 For example, some brand names in English language have come to mean the same
thing as the object they represent
Omo (detergents such as Ariel, waw, zip sunlight, klin, etc.)

Crane "as a type of wading bird" used to represent a machine for raising, shifting,
and lowering heavy weights by means of a projecting, swinging arm or with the
hoisting apparatus supported on an overhead track.

The English language constantly picks up neologisms. For instance, in recent years
computer technology introduced a couple of new terms to the language e.g.
i). blogosphere (blogs)
ii). Netroots (the grassroots political activists who communicate via the Internet
especially via blogs)
iii). Webinar
iv). Gadget
v). Malware (software designed to interfere with a computer's normal functioning)
vi). Even the word NEOLOGISM was a brand new coinage introduced in the later
half of the 18th century. It was borrowed from the French term neologisme_ (the
habit of forming new words).
vii). Google

CREATIVE RESPELLING
Involves spelling a word differently so as to make it more practical, attractive, or to
fulfil some particular aim, usually commercial. For example:
because – bcoz
light – lite/lyt
forever – 4eva
Nigeria ---9ja

BACK-FORMATION
This is the process of creating a new shorter word by removing an affix that was
thought of as part of the old word. Some examples include,
1. Swindle from the word swindler
2. Edit from the word editor
3. "Donate" from word ’’donation
4. Burgle from the word burglar
The above examples of back-formation show that words formed by the subtraction
of an affix from already existing longer words are quite common in British
English.
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THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Public speaking is an oral presentation made before a large audience in a formal
setting or situation. A typical press conference addressed by the president of a
nation, constitutes public speaking. Another instance of public speaking could be a
situation where the governor of a state is presenting a welcome address before a
large group of civil servants gathered for a seminar or conference.

PREPARING FOR PUBLIC SPEAKING

Public speaking requires adequate preparation. There is nothing as important as the
knowledge of the content or theme of delivery. This is important because some
public speaking events may elicit questions and responses from the audience. The
speaker should demonstrate versatility and aptness in anticipating and addressing
emerging issues.. This will certainly enhance his marketability as an expert in the
trade. It will also build, in the speaker, a psychology of self-assurance and
confidence.

Another important factor is to determine the purpose of the speech. This will give
the entire speech a defined perspective and automatically determine the selection
of relevant materials. Purpose should be clearly defined from the onset, the speech
writing itself, and the actual delivery, ought to be persuasive, informative,
educative, express feelings in such powerful way as to provide creative outlet for
the audience as the case may be.

But sometime, the public speaking personality may be high-up as a CEO in

corporate management or an executive in government or public service. As such,
the time and concentration to prepare a speech may be an unnecessary burden. This
necessitates the services of professional speech writers, who is often a member of
the public relations department of an organization. This indispensible staff works
closely with the boss to get the necessary details such as the topic or theme,
audience composition and expectations of the audience.

As a final step, the speech writer subjects the speech to other professional
colleagues for critical scrutiny, in order to ensure accuracy and appropriateness of
language, overall anticipated effect on the audience and so on. It might also be
necessary for the legal department to look at the work to ensure there are no
adverse legal implications implicitly lurking in one or more corners of the speech.

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Steps to Take before Delivering the Speech.
Preparation is the key to success and it will make you feel so much more relaxed
and confident when it is time to present.
1. Research your topic in detail: Ensure you possess some facts and evidence
regarding the topic
2. Be purposeful regarding the message you want to deliver.
3. Understand your audience: Tailor your speech to being inclusive and sensitive
not leading to misunderstanding.
4. Structure your speech. Being conscious of the introduction, the body and the
conclusion can help you prepare an interesting speech.
5. Practise until you become confident: With enough practise, your nerves would
relax as you will become more familiar with the content of your speech.
6. Ask for feedback: Getting constructive feedback will definitely avail you the
opportunity to correct aspect of your speech presentations that require
improvement.

Delivering the Speech

The average public speaking individual has a whole lot of issues to grapple with.
Some of these issues have to do with the speaker as a person, while others have to
do with the audience. Time management is important both in respect of scheduled
take off time and throughout the duration of the speaking assignment.
Another critical issue is to register a captivating and an arresting start. Sometimes,
starting with a brief and apt anecdote could be very effective. Ordinarily, a speech
has a beginning, a middle, and an end. As such, the speaker should try to catch the
attention of the audience from the beginning, fully develop his theme at the middle
and conclude at the end.
Apart from that, eye contact is a significant feature of the delivery. Eye contact
enables the speaker to effectively do what we may call audience management. The
usual squints, grimaces, popping dimples, dilated eyes, absorbing gaze and other
manifestations of body language may speak volumes about the audience.
Furthermore, as an effective speaker, ensure to communicate content with clarity
of language, giving examples and illustrations where necessary. Using electronic
media can be an added advantage in communicating content. Be simple and avoid
unnecessary verbosity and wordiness.

A speech usually has the following parts:

1. A title: the title should include the introduction of the speaker, place, event and
date of the gathering.

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 2. A protocol list; used to acknowledge the presence of dignitaries and everyone
down the line.
3. The body of the speech.
4. The signature, name and official designation of the speaker should be the last
items.

REPORT WRITING
Report writing refers to the process of creating a document that presents
information on a past event in a clear and concise manner. Report writing is the
representation or account of an event, an experience or something witnessed,
examined or investigated and the conclusion arrived at.

IMPORTANCE OF REPORT WRITING

1. Reports provide decision-makers with the information they need to make
informed decisions.
2. Reports provide data for planning processes, development of strategies and
allocation of resources.
3. Recommendations for future action help to improve processes, procedures,
or outcomes.
4. Reports give attention to detail which help to build trust and credibility.

FEATURES OF REPORT WRITING

1. Clarity: Reports should be written in clear and concise language, avoiding
jargon or technical terms that may be confusing to the reader.
2. Objectivity: A report should be objective, meaning that it should be free
from bias or personal opinions. This is particularly important when
presenting data or analysis.
3. Accuracy: Reports should be based on reliable sources and accurate data.
Information should be verified and cross-checked to ensure that it is correct
and up-to-date. Structure: A report should be structured in a logical and
organized manner, with clear headings, subheadings, and sections.
4. Visual aids: A report may include visual aids such as charts, tables, and
graphs, which can help to illustrate the key points and make the information
easier to understand.
5. Evidence: Reports should include evidence to support any claims or
findings, such as statistics, quotes, or references to relevant literature.
6. Recommendations: Reports should include recommendations or suggestions
for future action based on the findings or analysis presented.
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TYPES ACCORDING TO SUBJECT MATTER
1. Eye-witness Report: An eye witness report is a narrative account of any
event or experience.
2. Work Report: A work report presents information on job related tasks.
3. Laboratory Repot: This gives an account of the procedure, result and
significance of an experiment with findings and conclusion. It outlines ,
analyse and, evaluates these facts scientifically to form a report. Progress
Report: A progress report shows that work schedule and time management
are meeting set targets and deadlines.
4. Investigative Report: After investigation, a special reportis sent in with
detailed information on the matter.
5. Analytical Report: Analytical reports persuade readers to accept certain
conclusions necessitated by problems or opportunities in a set-up as being
factual and valid.

TYPES ACCORDING TO FORM

1. Schematic Form: Ideas presented in a report can be arranged into sections
and sub- sections which carry headings and sub-headings along with
numbers.
2. Letter Form: A report can also be presented in an official letter form where
the idea is a simple one with a single point of view.
3. Mixed Form: The mixed form of a report combines features of the letter
form and feature of the schematic form. It begins like a letter and takes the
schematic form when the findings are written down.

TYPES ACCORDING TO LENGHT

1. LONG REPORTS: Long reports give detailed information
2. SHORT REPORTS: Shorts reports do not contain full details.
The length of a report depends on the degree of information required.

RUDIMENTS OF REPORT WRITING

Change of Pronouns
Direct Speech Reported Speech
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 I He, she
Me Him, her
We They
Us Them
You He, she, they
You Him, her, them
My His, her
Mine His, hers
Our Their
Ours Theirs
Your His, her, their
Yours His, hers, theirs
This That
These Those

Change of Adverbs
Adverbs of Place
Here There
Adverbs of Time
Now Then
Today That day
Tomorrow The next day/The following day
Yesterday The previous day
Tonight That night
Last week The week before
Next week The week after
Last month The previous month
Next month The following month
Last year The previous year
Next year The following year
Ago Before
Thus So

Change of Modal Verbs

Direct Speech Reported Speech
Will Would
May Might
Can Could
Shall Should
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 Has/Have Had

Change of Tense

Simple Present Simple Past

DS: cook RS: cooked

Present Continuous Past Continuous

DS: am cooking RS: was cooking

Present Perfect Past Perfect

DS: have cooked RS: had cooked

Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

DS: have been cooking RS: had been cooking

Simple Past Past Perfect

DS: cooked RS: had cooked

Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

DS: was cooking RS: had been cooking

Past Perfect Past Perfect

DS: had cooked RS: had cooked

Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

DS: had been cooking RS: had been cooking

NOTE: DS means Direct Speech while RS means Reported Speech

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