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A NEW historical survey of the trends in and the major characteristics of the
Ancient Near East is earnestly needed at the present time. The reasons for
this need are threefold. First, archaeology is again on the move after the
breathing space enforced by wartime conditions and may soon be expected
to produce a steady stream of new material. Secondly, advanced techniques
of interpretation are being applied to accumulated knowledge in various
areas of the field and bid fair to revolutionize it. Thirdly, it is worthy of
note that the "old" history of the Ancient Near East, even as set forth in
Breasted's full and imaginative prose, failed to enlist adequate support for
the development of the field. The general reader, as well as the historian,
has been made aware of the glamour and color in the studies undertaken by
Orientalists and in the results of excavations, but few ever really grasped the
pertinence of these studies to general history.
Historians now rccognize the fallacy in the assumption that only those
antecedent civilizations which have generously contributed to the making
of our own great Western civilization are worthy of their prime interest.
The teleology of human progress is so imperfectly understood, so hotly de-
bated, that no historian today can undervalue a human adventure in the
past simply because it is not immediately ancestral to our contemporary
civilization. Western civilization, with all its global ramifications, conceivably
will not be the last adventure of man on earth, and who knows from what
unthought of and unrelated source its successor will spring?
The realization of such possibilities is the basis of the new history of the
Ancient Near East now being erected upon the solid foundations of the
old. Without injury to the prestige of classical or Islamic studies, the dignity
of the history of the Ancient Near East is being raised and its profound im-
plications for man, if not specifically for us of Western civilization, are by
now apparent.
There is an obvious advantage in treating the Ancient Near East as a
unit rather than as a disparate bundle of civilized and semicivilized states and
nations.' Whatever similarities and common trends are present in all or
1 The term "Ancient Near East" is awkward. It is, however, inclusive and is in common
use. The expression "Ancient World" will be avoided in this paper as it is generally used to in-
clude both the Ancient Near East and Hellenic society as well, i.e., Greece and Rome. The
term "civilization-cluster" which is used later refers to such groups of related cultures and civili-
zations.
530
most of these civilizations will by this method become evident. The achieve-
ment of such a vantage point will be of the highest value in the further in-
tensive study of the Ancient Near East and will clarify relationships, at pres-
ent obscure, between the Ancient Near East and succeeding or related civili-
zation-clusters-Indic, Hellenic, Far Eastern, Byzantine, and Islamic. The
usefulness of this hypothesis concerning the common nature of the Ancient
Near East will become clear after we have established a working definition
of the Ancient Near East.2
The various parts of the definition to be attempted are as follows: (a)
the identification of components; (b) the identification of temporal limits;
(c) a statement of the "abstracted ethos," i. e., those characteristics and modes
imposed upon the peoples and institutions of the Ancient Near East by the
dominant problems facing them, first, as they enter onto the stage of history,
and secondly, after their initial success in dominating their environment;
and lastly (d) a statement of the nexus or relationship of the civilizations of
the Ancient Near East with other civilization-clusters neighboring it in
space and time.
The Ancient Near East is not a geographical concept. From one point of
view it is a culture-complex of vast proportions. From another point of view
it is a period in past time when a related group of civilizations lived by cer-
tain specific human values (to be described more fully below). However, if
we are to make sense, we must also construe these civilizations spatially on
the basis of their remains and of written accounts of them by others. Where
was the Ancient Near East then, what peoples inhabited it, and what civili-
zations flourished in it?
The Ancient Near East was that area within which the major civiliza-
tions and related cultures interacted strongly upon one another. In periods
of intense military and commercial activity, such as the Amarna Age or the
years of the Medo-Persian empire, the area extended to the outer limits of
recognizable influence. As periods of reduced vitality succeeded, these ex-
treme limits collapsed inwardly, sometimes to the very borders of the major
civilizations. We should note that, in establishing our farthest limits, it is not
enough that influences from the core areas pass outward like waves, but
that, from the outlying cultures affected, vigorous influences or actions must
2 It might be well at this point to inform the reader that the present paper is a project for
a longer work. It is an outline, and in its present undocumented form, is to be understood as a
hypothesis only. While hoping to establish the larger validity of the hypothesis, the writer is
under no illusion that all parts will emerge unchallenged.
Anatolia'
Hittite Carian
Lydian Lycian
3 It cannot be emphasized too strongly that such a listing is at best approximate and at
worst subject to criticism in almost every particular. This is due partly to the rapidity with which
Ancient Near Eastern studies and archaeology are moving, and partly to the incidence of the
author's own judgment. In a paper of this kind there is no room to adduce the reasoning be-
hind each listing or explanations for seemingly arbitrary omissions. The system of evaluation
used does not consider each culture for itself but only in its relationships to the other cultures of
the Ancient Near East. Thus some of the cultures of South Arabia, for instance, might be con-
sidered culturally potent enough to be classed as absorption cultures if one is thinking of the
influence of that area upon Ethiopia. But Ethiopia is outside our field of interest; we exclude
all comparisons but internal ones (i.e., within the Ancient Near East).
4 The original Sumerian transmuted by and including Akkadian, Amorite, Assyrian, and
Chaldaean elements.
5 The Zagros cultures, like those of Anatolia, are in most respects still very unclear. An im-
portant temporal division can be made, however, at that point in time when the Aryan-speaking
peoples first appear in the highlands. So little is known about the Guti, for instance, that it is
presumptuous to assume that that culture is peripheral and could not possibly be classed with
the absorption civilizations. The Kassite culture is a similar case. The cultures of eastern Cilicia
and Cappadocia, and of north Syria seem to form an important linkage group (not appearing in
the list) between central and western Anatolia on the one hand and Syria-Paleqtine and Mesopo-
tamia on the other.
Cis-Oxian Iran
Bactrian
Parthian
South Arabia
Himyarite
Minaean
Sabaean
II
In the informed popular mind there persists the quite justifiable con-
ception of the alpha and omega of the Ancient Near East as, respectively,
the invention of writing in the fourth millennium B.C., and the fall of Babylon
in 539 B.C. (or the defeat of Darius III at the hands of Alexander in 33I B.C.).
The Hellenistic and Roman period, as well as the Parthian and Sasanian em-
pires are vaguely considered as existing in a kind of penumbral state, neither
fish nor fowl. Some scholars treat this millennium which follows the im-
posing work of Cyrus the Persian as if it were but an aspect of Hellenic or
Byzantine history, while others view it through pre-Islamic spectacles. In
effect few have felt themselves on solid ground when dealing with it.
Obviously a dividing point does exist in history, which we can represent
by the date of the fall of Babylon in 539 B.C. But we would be misrepresent-
ing the facts to assume that that date represents therefore the terminus ad
quem of the Ancient Near East. Before this date the several civilizations
and cultures had each glowed in its setting with intermittent flashes, a world
of diverse colors and discrete parts. Beginning with that year, Achaemenid
domination unrolled rapidly and smoothly over a now widely extended
area, solidifying the whole and creating the first Pax Orientalis. Because
the Achaemenid empire and its two successors, the Parthian and Sasanian
empires, nourished the essential spirit and prestige of the Ancient Near
East, we must admit that 539 B.C. is only the closing of a chapter in its career.
We must look further to fix on a date at which point we can with justice
state that the Ancient Near East is no more. This date we equate with the
tempts to apply that pattern which he developed from a study of the Hellenic society, namely, a
period of growth, a time of troubles, a universal state, in which period arise both external and
internal proletariats (barbarian war-bands and the universal church respectively), and lastly an
interregnum which includes a V3Zkerwanderung of the barbarians and the gestation of a new
society in the universal church. Such a compressed statement of course does grave injustice to
Toynbee's theory, which is more fluid than the above would suggest. In some cases he badly
strains his argument; in others he barely skims the surface. His treatment of the Sumeric society
is indecisive and reveals little understanding of its paramount importance as a grand exemplar
in the world of the Ancient Near Eastern civilizations. As a matter of fact, Toynbee seems un-
aware of the importance of lateral influences of one civilization upon another. To him they af-
fect each other mainly as they give birth to a new society or are born from one. Like sticks in a
children's game they seem to be laid end to end. His treatment of the relationship of the Minoan
to the Syriac society is quite fanciful in this regard. The Syriac society, whose period of growth
begins ca. II25 B.C. and ends with the collapse of Solomon's kingdom, possesses apparently no
progenitors at all, except-in a vague and uncrystallized way-Minoan Crete. Three obvious
absurdities can be corrected here: (i) the Syriac society is older than II25 B.C.; (2) it had
definite cultural and spiritual forces playing upon it from the beginning from both Egypt a
Mesopotamia; and (3) the currents of culture moved not only from west to east between Cre
and Syria-Palestine but just as strongly from east to west. In justice to Toynbee, the historia
of the Ancient Near East must acknowledge that, in spite of his fumblings, he is one of the ve
few historians outside the field who ever cast more than a casual glance inside. In so doing he
has recognized the prime importance of this area of study and has announced its merits to the
whole field of history.
first successful challenge flung by the rising power of Islam against the last
of the Sasanid emperors in the year 632 A.D. The objection may be entered
here that, if we carry the Ancient Near East into Parthian and Persian times,
how do we know that it does not project into the period of the Caliphate?
Admittedly Islam carried on isolated pieces of Ancient Near Eastern cul-
ture, irrigation agriculture, commercial patterns, etc.'1 Its advent, however,
led ultimately to the deletion of those tongues, such as Coptic, Aramaic,
and Babylonian Semitic, in which had been enshrined most of the religious
and intellectual life of the Ancient Near East. This language frontier is an
important dividing line between the Ancient Near East and Islam.
The several periods of Ancient Near Eastern empire, Sumerian, Ak-
kadian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Assyrian, Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasan-
ian, had all been merely conquests of opportunity, without any compelling
creed or message to broadcast. As a consequence the fundamentals of Ancient
Near Eastern life remained virtually intact and the rate of change of the
various cultural elements was scarcely disturbed. Islam on the contrary was
impelled outward by a positive idea. The introduction of this idea turned
out to be the catalyst which regrouped old elements of the Ancient Near
East to such an extent that their former configurations were no longer ap-
parent. In this manner we say that Islam terminated the period of the An-
cient Near East.12
We must now turn our attention back to the beginnings. Unavoidably
we are vague at this point. Only when much more material has been recov-
ered by the archaeologist will we be able to visualize the general connections
between mesolithic and neolithic cultures and the Ancient Near East.
11 It is not this simple. New civilizations do not arise phoenix-like from the ashes of
predecessor civilizations and cultures. They result from a recombination of selected elements,
which in former combinations had become inert. Thrown into this potpourri are novel features
from the rising civilization. This mass of heterogeneous elements is then grouped to accord
with the several dominant problems facing the new civilization. The decay of civilizations is
erroneously conceived if we insist that all of the various elements-intellectual, esthetic, tech-
nological, etc.-begin to break down as the end approaches. A civilization is not an organism;
and therefore, even as the over-all inertia of final extinction settles upon it, it is entirely possible
-and it often happens-that certain vigorous elements, ideas or institutions, are at that moment
either in a state of gestation or are actually operative.
12 The degree and quality of affiliation of Islam to its predecessor, the Ancient Near East,
calls for more intensive research. The motivating power of political Islam was Arabian, but its
whole background and orientation were Syro-Palestinian, and specifically Judeo-Christian. Owing
to the fact that the Israelite and early Christian civilizations were not totally within the Ancient
Near East (see footnote 8), however, this relationship can not be cited to disprove our conten-
tion that the rise of Islam implied the end of the Ancient Near East. An outstanding difference
between the abstracted ethos of the Ancient Near East and that of Islam is to be found in the
fact that Islam offered no sacraments, mysteries, or hierarchy of priests, as did most of the re-
ligions of the Ancient Near East. Islam did not conceive of man as being as closely enmeshed in
the web of Nature and natural forces as its predecessor civilizations did. In view of this, Hitti's
statement that "the Moslem conquests may be looked upon as the recovery by the Ancient Near
East of its early domain (The Arabs: A Short History [Princeton, 1943], p. 47)" is manifestly
incorrect,
This much does seem evident now, however. If the abstracted ethos of
the Ancient Near East is to be located with reference to the central problem
facing it, namely, how the state could best aid in maintaining the essential
harmony of nature, and consequently the well-being of mankind-which
problem was solved through sacraments and manipulation of the gods and
other powers-then we are justified in establishing our terminus a quo at
the point of man's first awareness of this problem. And this point of necessity
must precede the invention of the art of writing."3 Writing, at least in those
Sumerian centers where it appears in its oldest form, evolved partially as an
adjunct of the systematization of temple life, and is thus subsequent to it in
point of time. And temple life in turn reflects the emergence of that ethos
which we recognize as essentially Ancient Near Eastern. The beginnings of
the Ancient Near East are thus pre-literate; this much we can say.
III
13 E. A. Speiser's recent discussion would seem to bear this statement out. Studies in the
History of Culture: Some Sources of Intellectual and Social Progress in the Ancient Near East
(Washington, 1942), pp. 57, 58, 6I.
Concomitant with this second layer of empire appear three other new
phenomena, that of personalism, and-contesting the field now with the
nature religions-the first inklings of revealed religion. Springing from the
latter is the concept of the future, generally taking the form of a Heaven
in the afterworld, or a Promised Land in this. With the appearance of these
four elements we are made aware that the original abstracted ethos has been
altered. It must be emphasized, however, that these new elements could not
radically transmute the still continuing old forms (imposed by the original
abstracted ethos) which by now gave off a heavy odor of sanctity. Also we
must note that these new elements develop continuously throughout the
whole of the latter period of the Ancient Near East. We bring them in at
this point because by now they have become sufficiently powerful to affect
the whole life of the Ancient Near East.
It is unnecessary to expatiate upon this new abstracted ethos which was
supplementing and in part displacing the old. An example will make clear
the relationship between the first and second layers of Ancient Near East-
ern empire. The Old and Middle Kingdom empires, although appreciable
in extent, did not react markedly upon Egypt. The New Kingdom empire
of the Eighteenth Dynasty on the other hand was a cultural partnership
(witness the accelerated linguistic and cultural borrowing between Egypt
and Syria-Palestine in this period), which fact serves to distinguish it from
those anterior empires.
The empires of Akkad, or Ur III, and of the first Babylonian dynasty
were short-lived but important predecessors of the Assyrian empire. The
relationship they bear to the Assyrian empire, however, may well parallel
that between the aforementioned Egyptian empires, though the evidence is
not as clear.
The Minoan thalassocracy was an early, significant, and apparently far-
flung empire, perhaps contemporary in its origins with the rise of the New
Kingdom of Egypt. The imperial state raised up by David and Solomon in
the hills of Palestine and in Trans-Jordan may be mentioned here, but it
obviously does not represent the real significance of the fourth competent
civilization. The political skills of Israel were certainly not notable-in fact
they were decidedly inferior. The extrapolated Carthaginian empire is con-
sidered below (see footnote 2I) as simply an aspect of Phoenician sea power.
Following the Assyrian, appear the Neo-Babylonian, the Medo-Persian,
the Parthian, and the Sasanian empires.17 A fairly consistent progression
17 The four periods of alien intrusion following the collapse of the Medo-Persian empire
are omitted from this discussion (the Alexandrine empire, the states of his successors, the Roman,
and the Byzantine empires), not because they were not of large significance in the development
of Ancient Near Eastern culture and thought but because they represent in part the imposition
of the abstracted ethoi of two foreign civilization-clusters, with which we do not have space to
deal.
18 The collapse of the original abstracted ethos allowed experimentation with empire: it did
not make it inevitable. It is interesting to observe that it was the competent civilizations-
Egyptian, Minoan, and Sumero-Semitic-which initiated the first successful imperial ventures.
Apparently they had retained enough drive, left over from their more flourishing days, to ac-
complish this. But those empires which followed were constructed by either absorption civiliza-
tions (Medo-Persian and Sasanian) or peripheral cultures (Parthian). It is the date 539 B.C., men-
tioned earlier in this paper, which separates the empires emanating from the great core areas
from those imposed upon those areas by their lesser brothers of the Ancient Near East.
19 The stability and prosperity of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt was a political triumph
of no small magnitude, considering the painful break with Memphite tradition and the rampant
separatism of the rural nobles. Surely Late Minoan II represents a tour de force of overseas or-
ganization on the part of an island poorly provided with natural resources. Nor can we under-
estimate the outpouring of skill and energy from Babylon in the days of Hammurabi, the fine
sense of order and legal sanction which is evident in that period.
which resulted produced the Amarna Age and then fell away in a diminish-
ing series of thrusts and counterthrusts into the Twentieth Dynasty. Geo-
graphical isolation and unhampered food production enabled Egypt to nurse
the ghost of imperial pretensions down into the reign of Amasis, last king
but one of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty.
The Sumero-Semitic civilization, which had been experimenting with
empires from at least the time of Sargon of Akkad, developed a relatively
high standard of efficiency in administration under the Assyrian conquerors.
The Assyrian empire was a successful advance over the Egyptian experi-
ment, even if measured in terms of extent only, and yet its fall was as precipi-
tous and complete as that of the Cretan empire. Sufficient facts are not yet
at hand to explain adequately or to isolate the obviously important cultural
weaknesses in Sumero-Semitic life that caused such an amazing collapse.
The Neo-Babylonian empire was only a fleeting image of its Assyrian
predecessor.
All of the empires mentioned above were merely curtain-raisers to the
grand accomplishment of the imperial purpose under the gifted rulers of
the Achaemenid house.
Personalism is a necessary corollary to the Amarna Age, although it did
not spring up full blown at that precise period. The fragmentation of group
objectives incident upon entering into the complex climate of empire offers
greater freedom to the privileged individual and weakens to just that extent
the canons of group thinking. The new and unusual opportunities offered
to the individual by the wealth, the bureaucracy, and the intellectual stimu-
lation of empire spurred on his sophistication. In Egypt the plethora of New
Kingdom tombs, as well as the evidence of a growing class of civil servants,
bear witness to this gradually changing way of life in the Ancient Near
East. The employment of Aramaeans and Greeks by Assyrian and Persian
overlords points in the same direction.20
The frescoes from the imperial palace at Knossos present us with a lively
array of courtiers and fashionable ladies. It is impossible not to react in an
essentially contemporary manner to the ease, individualism, and grace of
20 Thie new interest in the individual is explicitly illustrated by the story of the Egyptian
priest Wenamon. This is one of the first psychological novels in history, a piece of work con-
cerned solely with secular and human events, and grouped around the two protagonists of the
story, Wenamon and Zakar-Baal, prince of Byblos. The contrast with the Middle Kingdom Sinuhe
is instructive. Sinuhe is a character in a dream, only dimly outlined. The story deals with his
utter misery at having been forced into the uncouth society of the beduin, and his relief and
joy at finally regaining his station in Egyptian society in the protecting shadow of the throne.
Sinuhe is any Egyptian living in exile. Wenamon is distinctly himself and could not possibly be
mistaken for anyone else. From Sinuhe to Wenamon there has occurred interesting progress in
the direction of increasing personalism.
IV
We have already mentioned how the Ancient Near East was connected
terminally with its successor, Islamic culture, and so we need consider
further only the relationships of the Ancient Near East with the Hellenic,
the Byzantine, the Indic, and the Far Eastern groups.
To make clear these relationships we must first note that the Ancient
Near East is enclosed on all sides by sea and desert, except along the north
where mountain valleys and steppe afford generally easy access into the
region. Such physical isolation goes far toward explaining the geographical
longevity of the Ancient Near East.
The desert barrier forms a vast semicircular shield on the south, and in-
cludes the Libyan and Nubian deserts, the Rub al Khali, the barren coastal
regions of ancient Gedrosia and the salt pans of inner Iran. This practically
continuous zone of aridity is pierced at two points by long northwesterly fin-
gers of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, each of which
probes up into the heart of the Ancient Near East. Along these waterways
passed influences to and from the Indus valley and the Far East. The ports
of entry appear to have been the Yemen and the Bahrein region respectively,
although future investigation way well include Oman.
On the west, except for the narrow Hellespontine and Bosporan land-
bridges, the approach was guarded by wide stretches of sea; these waters
were dominated by Oriental keels for roughly 2,500 years. The disappear-
ance of the Minoan thalassocracy in the late fifteenth century signalized
changing conditions, but control continued to be exercised, through the
Mycenaean period and the Viking-like razzias of the Sea-Peoples, down to
22 The heavy friction between the Ancient Near East and the Hellenic world eventually
rubbed off that part of the latter farthest to the east, thereby producing Byzantine culture. The
Byzantine emipire, however, carried on unchanged the Drang nach Osten initiated by Macedonia
and Rome; so the fundamental relationship between East and West continued unaltered.