150621sanitary and Environmental Engineering

The Ministry of Higher University of Kerbala
Education and Faculty of Engineering

Scientific Research Department of Civil
Engineering
Sanitary and Environmental Engineering
Fourth Year
By
Dr. Muhammad Abdulredha

Dr. Muhammad Abdulredha & MS.c Buraq A. Mohammed Sanitary and Environmental Engineering
These lectures are intended to be as a guide for this course. Please check the references for
further information.
Table of Content
Table of Content ........................................................................................................................ 3
Table of Figure ......................................................................................................................... 18
Table of Tables ........................................................................................................................ 20
I. WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING .............................................................................. 22
Introduction .................................................................................................. 23
1.1 Sanitary Engineer ................................................................................................. 23
1.2 Work of sanitary engineering............................................................................... 23
1.3 Water Treatment Plant ......................................................................................... 24
1.4 Water Supply Network ........................................................................................ 25
1.5 Wastewater Collection Network .......................................................................... 26
1.6 Wastewater Treatment Plant ................................................................................ 27
Quantity of Water ........................................................................................ 29
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 29
2.2 Forecasting population ......................................................................................... 29
2.2.1 Arithmetic method ....................................................................................... 29
2.2.2 The uniform percentage method .................................................................. 30
2.2.3 Logistic method ........................................................................................... 31
2.2.4 Declining growth method ............................................................................ 32
2.2.5 Curvilinear method ...................................................................................... 33
2.3 Water Consumption ............................................................................................. 34
2.3.1 Consumption for various purposes (Water Demand): ................................. 35
2.3.1.1 Domestic or Residential use ...................................................................... 35
2.3.1.2 Commercial and industrial uses ................................................................ 35
2.3.1.3 Public Uses ................................................................................................. 35
2.3.1.4 Fire demand ............................................................................................... 36
2.3.1.4.1 Insurance Service Office Formula (ISO): .......................................... 36
2.3.1.4.2 National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU): .................................. 36
2.3.1.5 Losses and Wastes: .................................................................................... 38
2.3.1.6 Total water consumption ............................................................................ 38
2.3.2 Factors affecting water consumption (per capita demand): ......................... 39
2.3.3 Variation in rate of consumption ................................................................. 39
2.3.4 Density of population ................................................................................... 41
2.4 The periods of design and water consumption data required .............................. 42
2.5 Solved Examples .................................................................................................. 42
Quality of water supplies ............................................................................. 51
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 51
3.2 Impurities of Water .............................................................................................. 52
3.2.1 Suspended Impurities ................................................................................... 52
3.2.2 Dissolved Impurities .................................................................................... 53
3.3 Water quality characteristics ................................................................................ 54
3.3.1 Physical Characteristics: .............................................................................. 55
3.3.1.1 Turbidity:................................................................................................... 55
3.3.1.2 Colour:....................................................................................................... 56
3.3.1.3 Taste and Odour ........................................................................................ 56
3.3.1.4 Temperature .............................................................................................. 56
3.3.2 Chemical Characteristics: ............................................................................ 57
3.3.2.1 pH .............................................................................................................. 57
3.3.2.2 Acidity ....................................................................................................... 57
3.3.2.3 Alkalinity................................................................................................... 57
3.3.2.4 Hardness .................................................................................................... 58
3.3.2.5 Chlorides ................................................................................................... 58
3.3.2.6 Sulphates ................................................................................................... 58
3.3.2.7 Iron ............................................................................................................ 59
3.3.2.8 Solids ......................................................................................................... 59
3.3.2.9 Nitrates ...................................................................................................... 59
3.3.3 Bacteriological Characteristics: ................................................................... 59
3.3.3.1 Standard Plate Count Test ......................................................................... 60
3.3.3.2 Membrane Filter Technique ...................................................................... 60
3.4 Water quality standards........................................................................................ 60
3.4.1 Iraqi Drinking Water Standards ................................................................... 61
3.4.2 World Health Organization Guidelines ....................................................... 61
3.5 Water Treatment .................................................................................................. 62
3.5.1 Water Treatment Philosophy ....................................................................... 63
Water Distribution Systems ......................................................................... 65
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 65
4.2 Methods of distribution ........................................................................................ 65
4.3 Types of networks, according to the method of connecting different types of pipes:
66
4.3.1 Characteristics of pipes used in distributing water: ..................................... 67
4.3.2 Types of pipes according to the materials used in their manufacture: ......... 67
4.3.3 Types of Valves ........................................................................................... 67
4.4 Corrosion in distribution system and its prevention ............................................ 69
4.4.1 Cathodic protection ...................................................................................... 70
4.4.2 Galvanic protection ...................................................................................... 70
4.4.3 Anodic protection......................................................................................... 70

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4.4.4 Inhibition ...................................................................................................... 70
4.4.5 Metallic Coating........................................................................................... 71
4.4.6 Chemical coating ......................................................................................... 71
4.4.7 Inert materials .............................................................................................. 71
4.5 Distribution Reservoirs ........................................................................................ 71
4.5.1 Functions of Distribution Reservoirs: .......................................................... 71
4.5.2 Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs: ......................................... 71
4.5.3 Types of Reservoirs ..................................................................................... 72
4.5.4 Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs ............................................... 72
4.6 Design stages of water distribution systems: ....................................................... 72
4.6.1 Requirements of good distribution system: ................................................. 72
4.7 Water flow in pipes .............................................................................................. 73
4.8 Hydraulic Analysis............................................................................................... 77
4.8.1 Hardy-Cross Method .................................................................................... 78
4.8.2 Equivalent pipe method: .............................................................................. 90
Intakes and Screens ...................................................................................... 96
5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 96
5.2 Intake.................................................................................................................... 96
5.2.1 Definition ..................................................................................................... 96
5.2.2 General requirements for the location of an intake:..................................... 96
5.2.3 Intake criteria design: ................................................................................... 97
5.2.4 Intakes Types ............................................................................................... 97
5.2.4.1 Intakes from Impounding Reservoirs ........................................................ 97
5.2.4.2 Lake Intakes .............................................................................................. 98
5.2.4.3 River intakes .............................................................................................. 98
5.2.5 The intake conduit........................................................................................ 99
5.3 Screens ............................................................................................................... 100
5.3.1 Definition ................................................................................................... 100
5.3.2 Types of Screens: ....................................................................................... 100
5.3.3 Design criteria of the screens ..................................................................... 101
5.4 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 101
Pumps and Pumping Stations .................................................................6-106
6.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................6-106
6.2 Pumps..............................................................................................................6-106
6.2.1 Types of pumps .......................................................................................6-106
6.3 Work and efficiency of pumps ........................................................................6-107
6.4 Centrifugal pumps ...........................................................................................6-109
6.4.1 Characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps: ..........................................6-110
6.5 Suction Lift .....................................................................................................6-112
6.6 Solved Problems .............................................................................................6-114
Coagulation and Flocculation .................................................................7-118
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................7-118
7.2 Type of coagulants used in water treatment: .............................................7-118
7.3 How does the coagulant work: .....................................................................7-118
7.3.1 The chemical reaction governing the coagulation process ................7-118
7.3.2 Coagulation by the Jar Test: ................................................................7-119
7.4 The Power and the velocity gradient (G) ....................................................7-120
7.5 Design criteria ...............................................................................................7-122
7.6 Solved Problems ............................................................................................7-122
Plain Sedimentation ................................................................................8-128
8.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................8-128
8.2 Water Treatment-Clarification Process...........................................................8-128
8.3 Sedimentation theory ......................................................................................8-128
8.4 Ideal sedimentation .........................................................................................8-131
8.5 Inlet and Outlet Arrangement: ........................................................................8-132
8.6 Types of Settling: ............................................................................................8-132
8.7 Types of sedimentation tanks: ........................................................................8-132
8.8 Design criteria .................................................................................................8-133
8.9 Solved Problems .............................................................................................8-135
Water Filtration .......................................................................................... 140
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 140
9.2 Filtration definition ............................................................................................ 140
9.3 Theory of Filtration ............................................................................................ 140
9.4 Types of Filters .................................................................................................. 141
9.5 Filter Media ........................................................................................................ 142
9.6 Slow Sand Filters ............................................................................................... 144
9.6.1 Principles of Slow Sand Filtration ............................................................. 145
9.6.2 Advantages and disadvantages of slow sand filter .................................... 145
9.7 Rapid Sand Filters (RSF) ................................................................................... 146
9.7.1 Operation Problems in RSFs ...................................................................... 147
9.7.2 Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter ............................................................ 149
9.7.3 When is Backwashing Needed? ................................................................. 149
9.8 Slow Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters ........................................................... 149
9.9 Hydraulics of filters ........................................................................................... 150
9.9.1 Head loss in clean filter bed ....................................................................... 150
9.9.2 Head loss during filtration (nonclean filter bed) ........................................ 153
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9.9.3 Filter cleaning or Backwashing ................................................................. 154
9.10 RSF Design Criteria ........................................................................................... 155
9.11 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 156
Water Disinfection ..................................................................................... 160
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 160
10.2 Methods of disinfection ..................................................................................... 160
10.2.1 Chlorination: .............................................................................................. 160
10.2.1.1 Chlorine in water: .................................................................................. 160
10.2.1.2 Chlorine Demand .................................................................................. 161
10.2.1.3 What is used in chlorination? ................................................................ 161
10.2.1.4 Chlorination is classified according to its point application as: ............ 162
10.2.2 Ozone ......................................................................................................... 163
10.2.3 Chlorine dioxide......................................................................................... 164
10.3 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 164
Special Treatments: Hardness Removal or Water Softening ..................... 168
11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 168
11.2 Type of hardness: ............................................................................................... 169
11.3 Softening Processes: .......................................................................................... 169
11.3.1 Ion Exchange method: ............................................................................... 169
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11.3.1.1 Advantages of the zeolite method: ........................................................ 170
11.3.1.2 The ion exchange capacity of a filter is expressed in:........................... 170
11.4 Design criteria .................................................................................................... 170
11.5 Membrane filtration: .......................................................................................... 172
11.6 Reverse osmosis: ................................................................................................ 172
11.7 Solved Problem .................................................................................................. 173
WASTEWATER ENGINEERING .............................................................................. 180
Introduction to Wastewater or Sewage ...................................................... 181
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 181
1.2 Definitions.......................................................................................................... 181
1.3 Main Parts of Sewer System .............................................................................. 182
1.4 Types of Wastewater Flowing in the Sewer System ......................................... 183
1.5 Quality-Characteristic of Wastewater: ............................................................... 184
1.5.1 Principal pollutants .................................................................................... 185
1.6 Determination of the Concentration of Organic Matter:.................................... 187
1.7 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 189
Quantity of wastewater .............................................................................. 193
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 193
2.2 Quantity of Sewage ............................................................................................ 193
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2.3 Quantity of Sanitary Sewage ............................................................................. 193
2.3.1 Infiltration and Inflow ................................................................................ 194
2.3.2 Fluctuations in Dry Weather Flow ............................................................. 194
2.4 Design periods and use of sewage flow data ..................................................... 196
2.5 Amount of Storm Sewage .................................................................................. 196
2.5.1 Factors Influencing the Quantity of Surface Runoff.................................. 196
2.5.2 Rational formula ........................................................................................ 200
2.6 Solved problems................................................................................................. 201
Sewer systems ............................................................................................ 207
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 207
3.2 Sewerage system ................................................................................................ 207
3.3 Material of Sewers ........................................................................................... 208
3.4 Strength and Loading of Vitrified Clay Pipes.................................................... 208
3.5 Corrosion in sewers: ........................................................................................ 209
3.6 Flow in sewers: ................................................................................................. 210
3.6.1 For full flow conditions............................................................................ 211
3.6.2 For partial flow ........................................................................................ 211
3.7 Solved problems ............................................................................................... 212
Appurtenances of the sewer system ........................................................... 227
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4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 227
4.2 Manhole (MH) ................................................................................................... 227
4.2.1 Location of manhole .................................................................................. 227
4.2.2 Types of manholes: .................................................................................... 228
4.2.3 Manhole ladders ......................................................................................... 228
4.2.4 Ventilating columns ................................................................................... 229
4.2.5 Drop manhole............................................................................................. 229
4.3 Street inlets: ....................................................................................................... 230
4.4 Catch basin: ........................................................................................................ 230
4.5 Oil, grease and sand trap: ................................................................................... 231
4.6 Pumping station: ................................................................................................ 231
4.6.1 Sewage pumps station requirements: ......................................................... 232
4.7 Solved problems................................................................................................. 234
Sewage Disposal ........................................................................................ 237
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 237
5.2 Self-purification process .................................................................................. 237
5.2.1 Factors affecting the self-purification process: ..................................... 237
5.2.2 Zones of the self-purification process ..................................................... 238
5.2.3 Application of formulas:.......................................................................... 239
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5.2.4 Streeter-Phelps mathematical model: .................................................... 239
5.3 Effect of stream discharge: ............................................................................. 239
5.3.1 Oxygen sag curve and BOD removal ........................................................ 240
5.3.2 Characteristics of the mix: ...................................................................... 241
5.3.3 The effect of K1 and K2 on the self- purification process ..................... 241
5.4 Solved problems ............................................................................................... 243
Wastewater or Sewage Treatment Plant .................................................... 248
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 248
6.2 Wastewater treatment plant: .......................................................................... 248
6.2.1 Preliminary and Primary treatment ............................................................ 249
6.2.2 Secondary or biological treatment: ............................................................ 250
6.2.3 Tertiary treatment....................................................................................... 252
6.3 Microbiology of sewage treatment: ................................................................ 253
Preliminary and Primary Treatment........................................................... 256
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 256
7.2 Preliminary treatment systems ........................................................................... 256
7.3 Primary sedimentation tank ............................................................................... 260
7.4 Population equivalent......................................................................................... 261
7.5 Solved problems................................................................................................. 262
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Secondary Treatment or the Biological treatment ..................................... 266
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 266
8.2 Basic requirements: ............................................................................................ 266
8.3 Bacterial Growth Pattern (Food-Biomass curve):.............................................. 266
8.4 Techniques used in the biological treatment ...................................................... 267
8.4.1 Attached Growth Process:.......................................................................... 267
8.4.2 Suspended Growth Process: ....................................................................... 268
8.5 Trickling Filter ................................................................................................... 269
8.5.1 Design criteria: ........................................................................................... 269
8.5.2 Advantages of recirculation: ...................................................................... 269
8.5.3 Mathematical model of trickling filter system: .......................................... 271
8.5.4 Operating problems:................................................................................... 272
8.5.5 Solved problems......................................................................................... 272
8.6 Activated Sludge Process ................................................................................... 275
8.6.1 Types of activated sludge processes: ......................................................... 276
8.6.2 Operating problems of activated sludge systems: ...................................... 277
8.6.3 Mathematical model of activated sludge systems:..................................... 277
8.6.4 Completely mixed process with solids recycle: ......................................... 278
8.7 Secondary Sedimentation Tank ......................................................................... 280
16
8.8 Solved problems................................................................................................. 280
SANITARY LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ...................................................... 285
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Table of Figure
Figure 1: Water Treatment plant .............................................................................................. 25
Figure 2: Water supply system ................................................................................................ 26
Figure 3: Wastewater collection networks ............................................................................... 27
Figure 4: Wastewater Treatment Plant .................................................................................... 28
Figure 5: Arithmetic population growth .................................................................................. 30
Figure 6: Geometric population growth ................................................................................... 31
Figure 7: Population growth .................................................................................................... 32
Figure 8: Curvilinear method of predicting population. The blue line is the forecast for city A.
.................................................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 9: Fluctuations in Rate of Demand ............................................................................... 40
Figure 10: The hydrologic cycle .............................................................................................. 51
Figure 11: Common impurities in water ................................................................................. 52
Figure 12: pH in Water Chemistry........................................................................................... 57
Figure 13:Water treatment plant schedule ............................................................................... 63
Figure 14:surface water treatment flow chart .......................................................................... 64
Figure 15: Types of pipe networks, (A) Ring system, (B) Radial system, (C) Dead end system
and (D) Grid system. ................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 16: Types of valves and specialized appurtenances used in water distribution system.
(A) Gate valve, (B) Check valve, (C)Global valve, (D) Butterfly valve, (E) Plug valve, (F)
Air/vacuum air relief valve, and (G) Pressure-regulating valve. ............................................. 69
18
Figure 17: Flow in old cast-iron pipes. (Hazen-Williams C = 100.) ....................................... 76
Figure 18: A pipe loop ............................................................................................................. 91
Figure 19: Intake in impounding reservoir .............................................................................. 98
Figure 20: River intakes) ......................................................................................................... 99
Figure 21: example of intake conduit ...................................................................................... 99
Figure 22: Screen Chamber ................................................................................................... 100
Figure 23: head terms used in pumping ..............................................................................6-108
Figure 24:Characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps at constant speed ..........................6-111
Figure 25:Series characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps at constant speed ................6-112
19
Table of Tables
Table 1: municipality census ................................................................................................... 30
Table 2: municipality census ................................................................................................... 31
Table 3: the available data of population for three cities that are B, C and D ......................... 33
Table 4: Residential fire flows ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 5: Fire flow duration ...................................................................................................... 37
Table 6: Summary of water demand (Gallons = liters x 0.264) .............................................. 38
Table 7:Periods of design and water consumption data required ............................................ 42
Table 8: Types of suspended Impurities .................................................................................. 53
Table 9: Types of dissolved Impurities .................................................................................... 54
Table 10:Functions of Water Treatment Units ........................................................................ 64
20
Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

Dr. Muhammad Abdulredha
E-Mail: Muhammed.r@uokerbala.edu.iq
References:
• Steel, E.W. and McGhee, T.J., 1979. Water supply and sewerage (5th edition).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Baruth, E.E. and American Water Works Association, 2005. Water treatment
plant design.
• Davis, M.L., 2010. Water and wastewater engineering. McGraw-Hill.
• Metcalf, I.N.C., 2003. Wastewater engineering; treatment and reuse. McGraw-
Hill.
21
I. WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
22
Introduction
Sanitary Engineering is the branch of civil engineering associated with the supply of water,
disposal of sewage, other public health services and the management of water and sewage in
civil engineering.
1.1 Sanitary Engineer
• An expert or specialist in the branch of civil engineering associated with the supply of
water, collect and disposal of sewage, and other public health services.
• An engineer whose training or occupation is in sanitary engineering.
• An engineer specializing in the maintenance of urban environmental conditions
conductive to the preservation of public health.
1.2 Work of sanitary engineering
The development of sanitary engineering has paralleled and contributed to the growth of cities.
Without an adequate supply of safe water, the great city could not exist, and life in it would be
both unpleasant and dangerous unless wastes were promptly removed. The concentration of
population in relatively small areas has made the task of the sanitary engineer more complex.
Groundwater supplies are frequently inadequate to the huge demand and surface waters,
polluted by cities, towns, and villages on watersheds, must be treated more and more elaborated
as the population density increases. Industry also demands more and better water from all
available sources. The river receives ever-increasing amounts of sewage and industrial wastes,
thus requiring more attention to sewage treatment, stream pollution, and the complicated
phenomena of self-purification.
The public looks to the sanitary engineer for assistance in such matters as design, construction,
and operation of water and sewage works, the control of malaria by mosquito control, the
eradication of other dangerous insects, rodent control collection and disposal of municipal
refuse, industrial hygiene, and sanitation of housing and swimming pools. The activities just
given, which are likely to be controlled by local or state health departments, are sometimes
known as public health or environmental engineering, terms which while descriptive are not
accepted by all engineering. The terms, however, are indicative of the important place the
engineer holds in the field of public health and in the prevention of diseases.
23
1.3 Water Treatment Plant
Drinking water treatment plants are used to remove particles and organisms that lead to diseases
and protect the public’s welfare and supply pure drinkable water to the environment, people
and living organisms. In addition, they also provide drinking water that is pleasant to the senses:
taste, sight and smell and provide safe, reliable drinking water to the communities they serve.
Water treatment means the act or process of making water more potable or useful, as by
purifying, clarifying, softening or deodorizing it. Water is treated differently in different
communities depending on the quality of the water which enters the plant. For example;
groundwater requires less treatment than water from lakes, rivers and streams. Figure 1 shows
a traditional surface water treatment plant. In brief, water treatment plant stages can define as
follows:
Screening: removes objects such as rags, paper, plastics, and metals to prevent damage and
clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances. Some modern treatment plants
use both coarse screens and fine screens.
Grit Removal: removes sand, gravel, cinder, or other heavy solid materials that are heavier
than the organic materials in the water. Removal of grit prevents unnecessary abrasion and
wear of mechanical equipment and grit deposition in pipelines and channels.
Coagulation: removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. Alum and other chemicals
are added to water to form tiny sticky particles called “floc” which attract the dirt particles. The
combined weight of the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough to sink to the bottom
during sedimentation.
Sedimentation: The heavy particles (floc) settle to the bottom and the clear water moves to
filtration.
Filtration: The water passes through filters, some made of layers of sand, gravel and charcoal
that help remove even smaller particles.
Disinfection: A small amount of chlorine is added or some other disinfection method is used
to kill any bacteria or microorganisms that may be in the water.
Storage: Water is placed in a closed tank or reservoir for disinfection to take place. The water
then flows through pipes to homes and businesses in the community.
24
Figure 1: Water Treatment plant
1.4 Water Supply Network
A water supply network is a system of engineered hydraulic components which provide potable
meets the water quality standards required for human consumption to the point of consumption.
A water supply (Figure 2) system typically includes:
A raw water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such as a
lake, a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer.
Water purification facilities (water treatment plant). Treated water is transferred using water
pipes (usually underground).
Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water systems
may store the water in tanks or pressure vessels. Additional water pressurizing components
such as pumping stations may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or above ground
reservoirs.
A pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers such as houses, industrial and
commercial establishments and other usage points.
25
Figure 2: Water supply system
1.5 Wastewater Collection Network
Wastewater collection networks are used to safely collect and convey water from domestic,
industrial, and commercial waste discharges to centralized wastewater treatment plants without
compromising the health of communities and the environment. A Wastewater collection
networks (Figure 3) system typically includes:
BUILDING SEWERS are what connect a building's internal wastewater collection system to
the municipal sewer system. Property service connections can connect to a lateral, main or
trunk sewer line.
LATERAL & BRANCH SEWERS are the upper ends of the municipal sewer system.
Laterals dead-end at their upstream end with branch sewers collecting the wastewater from
several lateral sewer lines.
MAIN SEWERS are collectors for lateral and branch sewers from an area of several hundred
acres or a specific neighbourhood or housing development. They convey the wastewater to
larger trunk sewer lines, to lift stations or to a neighbourhood treatment centre.
26
TRUNK SEWERS serve as the main arteries of the wastewater collection system. They collect
and convey the wastewater from main sewer lines either to a treatment centre or to an
interceptor sewer.
INTERCEPTOR SEWERS receive the wastewater from trunk sewers and convey it to a
treatment centre. These are the largest diameter lines in the sewer system and the furthest
downstream in the system.
LIFT OR PUMP STATIONS are utilized in gravity sewer systems to lift (pump) wastewater
to a higher elevation when the route followed by a gravity sewer would require the sewer to be
laid at an insufficient slope or at an impractical depth. Lift stations vary in size and type
depending upon the quantity of wastewater to be handled and the height it must be lifted.
Figure 3: Wastewater collection networks
1.6 Wastewater Treatment Plant
Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from municipal wastewater,

containing mainly household sewage plus some industrial wastewater. Physical, chemical, and
27
biological processes are used to remove contaminants and produce treated wastewater (or
treated effluent) that is safe enough for release into the environment (Figure 4). Sewage
treatment generally involves three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary treatment.
Figure 4: Wastewater Treatment Plant
Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the sewage in a quiescent basin where
heavy solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids float to the surface.
The settled and floating materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or
subjected to secondary treatment.
Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended biological matter. Secondary
treatment is typically performed by indigenous, water-borne micro-organisms in a managed
habitat. Secondary treatment may require a separation process to remove the micro-organisms
from the treated water prior to discharge or tertiary treatment.
Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and secondary
treatment in order to allow ejection into a highly sensitive or fragile ecosystem (estuaries, low-
flow rivers, coral reefs).
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Quantity of Water
2.1 Introduction
Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational, and environmental

activities. Virtually, all these human uses require fresh water. 97% of water on the Earth is salt
water, leaving only 3% as fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is frozen in glaciers
and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly found as groundwater, with
only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.
In the design of any waterworks project, it is necessary to estimate the amount of water that is
required. This involves determining the number of people who will be served and their per
capita water consumption, together with an analysis of factors that may operate to affect
consumption.
2.2 Forecasting population
To design any waterworks element, the total water demand should be calculated for adopt
period of design range from as outlet as 5 to as many 50 years. It is necessary to estimate the
maximum population expected to be served by the designed facility for any time in the future.
Many methods are used to estimation of the population, some of these methods presented
below:
2.2.1 Arithmetic method
The assumption in this method is that the rate of growth of population is assumed to be constant
(ΔP/Δt = constant). This method gives too low estimation and can be adopted for forecasting
populations of large cities which have achieved saturation conditions. Mathematically the
hypothesis may be expressed as
𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝐾 𝛥𝑡 1
Pf = Population in the future (capita)

𝑃𝑜 = Base population (capita)
𝑝𝑡 −𝑃0
K = Growth rate =ΔP/Δt (capita/ time) or K = = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝
𝑡𝑡 −𝑡0
𝛥𝑡 = Time increment between Pf and Po
29
Figure 5: Arithmetic population growth
Example 1: The population of a municipality as obtained from census is reported in Error! R

eference source not found.. Estimate the population of the town on 1992 using
Arithmetic method.
Table 2-1: municipality census
Year 1957 1967 1977 1987

Population 58000 65000 73000 81000
Solution: -
∆p 65000 − 58000
𝐾1 = = = 700
∆t 1967 − 1957
∆p 73000 − 65000
𝐾2 = = = 800
∆t 1977 − 1967
∆p 81000 − 73000
𝐾3 = = = 800
∆t 1987 − 1977
∑ 𝐾𝑖 700 + 800 + 800
𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 767
𝑛 3
𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝛥𝑡
P(1992) = 81000 + 767 ∗ (1992 − 1987) = 84835 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
2.2.2 The uniform percentage method
The growth rate is proportional to population (ΔP/Δt ≈ P)

̅ ∗ ∆t
ln 𝑃𝑓 = ln 𝑃𝑜 + 𝐾 2
𝑃𝑓 = Population in the future (capita)

𝑃𝑜 = Base population (capita)
̅ = ln P1− ln P2
K = Growth rate =ΔP/Δt (capita/ time) or 𝐾 𝑡 −𝑡 𝑡 0
30
Figure 6: Geometric population growth
Example 2: The population of a municipality as obtained from census is reported in Error! R

eference source not found.. Estimate the population of the town on 1992 using
the uniform percentage method.
Table 2-2: municipality census
Year 1957 1967 1977 1987

Population 58000 65000 73000 81000
Solution: -
ln P1 − ln P2ln (65000) − ln (58000)

̅1 =
𝐾 = = 0.0114
𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡0 10
ln P1 − ln P2 ln (73000) − ln (65000)
̅2 =
𝐾 = = 0.0116
𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡0 10
ln P1 − ln P2 ln (81000) − ln (73000)
̅3 =
𝐾 = = 0.0104
𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡0 10
∑ 𝐾𝑖 0.0114 + 0.0116 + 0.0104
̅𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝐾 = = 0.0111
𝑛 3
ln P(1992) = ln (81000) + 0.0111 ∗ 5 = 11.3577
P(1992) = 85622 capita
2.2.3 Logistic method
The logistic method is widely used in modelling population growth. The population growth
trends have S shape. A logistic projection can be made based upon the following equations:
𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑃𝑓 = 3
1 + 𝑒 𝑎+𝑏∆t
31
(2𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2 ) − 𝑃12 (𝑃0 𝑃2 ) 4

𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝑃0 𝑃2 − 𝑃12
𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃0 5
𝑎 = ln
𝑃0
1 𝑃0 (𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃1 ) 6
𝑏= ln
𝑛 𝑃1 (𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃0 )
in which 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 is the saturation population of the community and 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants. 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 , 𝑎
and 𝑏 can be determined from three successive census populations and the equations 4, 5 and
6, respectively. 𝑛 is the time interval between successive censuses. 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 represent the
population at two time periods.
Example 3: In two periods each of 20 years a city has growth from 18000 to 58000 and
75800, respectively. Determine the expected population after 20 years.
Solution: -
2(18000)(58000)(75800) − (18000 + 75800)(58000)2

𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
(18000)(75800) − (58000)2
𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 78652 capita
78652 − 18000
𝑎 = ln
18000
𝑎 = 1.215
1 18000(78652 − 58000)
𝑏= ln
20 58000(78652 − 18000)
𝑏 = −0.1124
78652
𝑃𝑓 = 1.215−0.1124∗60
= 78341 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
1+𝑒
Figure 7: Population growth

2.2.4 Declining growth method
This technique is similar to the logistic method and assumes that the city has some limiting
saturation population, and that its rate of growth is a function of its population deficit.
′′ ∆t
𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃0 + (𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃1 )(1 − 𝑒 𝐾 ) 7
32
1 (𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃) 8
𝐾 ′′ = − ln
𝑛 (𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃0 )
where 𝑃 and 𝑃0 are populations recorded n years apart. Future population (𝑃𝑓 ) can then be
estimated using Equation 7. 𝐾 ′′ is a constant that can be determined from successive

censuses using Equation 8.
2.2.5 Curvilinear method
This technique involves the graphical projection of the past population growth curve, following
whatever tendencies the graph indicates. The commonly used variant of this method includes
comparison of the projected growth to that of other cities of larger size. The cities chosen for
the comparison should be as similar as possible to the city being studied. Geographical
proximity, likeness of economic base, access to similar transportation systems, and other such
factors should be considered.
Example 4: Estimate the population of a city for year of 2020 by using the available data
of population for three similar cities shown in.
Table 2-3: the available data of population for three cities that are B, C and D
City A City B City C City D

Year Population Year Population Year Population Year Population
1940 40000 1900 50000 1920 50000 1880 50000
1980 50000 1910 50700 1930 50500 1890 70000
1990 ? 1920 60500 1940 50800 1900 80000
2000 ? 1930 60900 1950 60000 1910 90000
2020 ? 1940 70100 1960 60100 1920 90500
Solution: -
33
Figure 8: Curvilinear method of predicting population. The blue line is the forecast for city A.
70100 + 60100 + 90500

𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴 (2020) = = 73567 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
3
2.3 Water Consumption
It is usual to express water consumption in litters or gallons per capita per day, obtaining this
figure by dividing the total number of people in the city into the total daily water consumption.
For many purposes the average daily consumption is convenient. It is obtained by dividing the
population into the total daily consumption averaged over one year.
𝐿
𝐿 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐷𝑎𝑦)
Water consumption ( )= 9
𝐶𝑎𝑝. 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎)
𝐿
Average daily consumption ( )
𝐶𝑎𝑝. 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿 10
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝐷𝑎𝑦)
=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎)
34
𝐿
Average daily per capita demand ( )
𝐶𝑎𝑝. 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿 11
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 12 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠 (𝐷𝑎𝑦)
=
360 𝑥 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎)
If this demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the demand during
peak hours.
2.3.1 Consumption for various purposes (Water Demand):
The first step in designing a water system is to determine how much water is needed by the
population (current and projected) to be covered and water demand over the 50-year planning.
The water demand to a city can be classified according to its ultimate use or end. The ordinary
classifications are:
2.3.1.1 Domestic or Residential use
This type includes water demand for, Domestic purposes (cooling, drinking, washing, bathing,
…… etc) Also, this type includes water use outside of house like, irrigation of house garden,
or air cooling. Domestic use is about 75 to 380 litters per capita per day (L/C/D) which
represents about 40 – 60% of the total water demand.
2.3.1.2 Commercial and industrial uses
This consumption includes the use of water in factories and commercial region, laundries,
offices, hospitals, restaurants. Symons suggested the following relation to estimate industrial
and commercial uses:
Industrial and commercial uses = 12.2 m3/1000 m2 of floor area of the business
In general, the industrial use represents 25- 30% of the total consumption of a city while the
demand for the commercial use represents about 10 - 15% of the total consumption.
2.3.1.3 Public Uses
This type comprises the use of water for general services like streets washing, irrigation of
general gardens, water supply to schools, garages, …. ets. This type of demand requires about
50-75 litters per capita per day which represents about 5 -10% of the total consumption.
35
2.3.1.4 Fire demand
Fire demand of water is often the determining factor in the design of the water supply network.
The required flow rate for firefighting must be available in addition to the coincident maximum
daily flow rate. The duration required for fire flow must be between 4 to 10 hours. The overall
required fire flow can be estimated as 15 litters per capita per day and the average rate of supply
ranges from 9 litter per second to 12 litter per second supplied over 5 to 10 hours.
The per capita fire demand is very low on an average basis but the rate at which the water is
required is very high. The rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a function of population
and is worked out from following empirical formulas:
2.3.1.4.1 Insurance Service Office Formula (ISO):
𝐹𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 18 𝐶 √𝐴𝑓𝑡 2 12
Where: -
1. 𝐹 = required flow in gallon/minute (1 gpm = 5.451 m3/day)

2. A = total floor area (ft2) excluding the basement (1 m2 =10.764 ft2).
3. C = coefficient related to the type of construction. C =1.5 for wood frame
construction. C = 1.0 for ordinary construction. C = 0.8 for non-combustible
construction. C = 0.6 for fire-resistive construction. C = 0.9 for heavy timber
building
However, this formula is limited by several issues that are:
1. The fire flow calculated is not exceed 8000 gpm.

2. The minimum fire flow is not to be less than 500 gpm.
3. The total for all purposes and for a single per day.
4. Fire duration between 4 to 10 hours.
2.3.1.4.2 National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU):
𝐺𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 1020 √𝑃 (1 − 0.01 √𝑃) 13
Where: -
1. 𝐺𝑔𝑝𝑚 represents the required fire flow in gpm.
36
2. 𝑃 represent the population in thousands.
This formula is also limited by several issues that are:
1. The population should be less than 200000 capita.

2. The duration of fire flow between 4-10 hours.
3. The demand is limited to one fire per day.
In general, the required fire flow can be estimated according to the population and the
construction characteristics. The following tables shows the fire flow according to the distance
in residential areas and fire duration.
Table 2-4: Residential fire flows
Distance between adjacent units Required fire flow

ft m Gpm 1/min
> 100 >30.5 500 1890
31-100 9.5-30.5 750-1000 2835-3780
11-30 3.4-9.2 1000-1500 3780-5670
< 10 <3.0 1500-2000f 5670-7560
Table 2-5: Fire flow duration
Required fire flow Duration, h

gpm 1/min
< 1000 < 3780 4
1000-1250 3780-4725 5
1250-1500 4725-5670 6
1500-1750 5670-6615 7
1750-2000 6615-7560 8
2000-2250 7560-8505 9
> 2250 > 8505 10
Example 5: A four-story building of heavy timber type building with a floor area of 715 m2
(7700 ft2). Calculate the water fire requirement.
Solution: -
𝐹𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 18 𝐶 √𝐴𝑓𝑡 2
𝐹𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 18 ∗ 0.9 √4 ∗ 7700

𝐹𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 2843 𝑔𝑝𝑚
37
Example 6: five-story building of ordinary construction of 7700 ft2 (715 m2) of ground area
communicating with a three-story building of ordinary construction of 9500 ft2
(880 m2) ground area. Compute the required fire flow.
Solution: -
𝐹𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 18 𝐶 √𝐴𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴 = 5 ∗ 7700 + 3 ∗ 9500
𝐴 = 67000 𝑓𝑡 2
𝐹𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 18 ∗ 1 √67000
𝐹𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 4659 𝑔𝑝𝑚
𝐹𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 4659 𝑔𝑝𝑚 ∗ 5.451
𝐹𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 25397 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
2.3.1.5 Losses and Wastes:
It can be defined as water lost due to leakage in water supply network or working, pumps, water
meters and extra water of users. It represents about 10% to 15% of the total water demand.
2.3.1.6 Total water consumption
Total water consumption = domestic + industrial and commercial + public + fire demand +
losses
Table 2-1: Summary of water demand (Gallons = liters x 0.264)
Type of Use Purposes Depend Demand Percentage

Consumption upon (lpcd) of Total
Domestic Houses, Sanitary, culinary, Living 190-340 50
Hotels, etc drinking, washing, conditions
bathing and irrigation
Commercial Industrial and Water process according Local 200 15-30
and industrial Commercial to floor area per day conditions
plants (12.2m3/1000m2)
Public Public City halls, jails, and Local 50-75 10
building and school. - flushing streets conditions
public and fire protection)
service
Loss and Uncounted Network, equipment Execution 50-75 10
waste degree
38
2.3.2 Factors affecting water consumption (per capita demand):
1. Characteristics of population: Habits of people and their economic status.

2. Climatic conditions.
3. Cost of water.
4. Efficiency of waterworks administration: Leaks in water mains and services;
and unauthorized use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
5. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different
ways: based on meter reading and based on certain fixed monthly rate.
6. Presence of industries and commerce.
7. Pressure in the water distribution system.
8. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically and medically safe, the consumption
will increase as people will not depend to private wells, etc.
9. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared
to that for smaller towns as big cities have severed houses.
2.3.3 Variation in rate of consumption
There is a large variance of water quantity consumption because some months have high
consumption rate these are the hot or warm months. Also, there is a certain day requires high
demand of water supply network. As well as peak demand occurs through one day and its hours
occurrence depend on city characteristic.
It is usually that the peak of water consumption occurs at morning when the activities of day is
beginning. while the minimum water consumption is always happened at 4 P.M. Also, the peak
of water use occurs through working days and through hot months of the year. The rate of
consumption is varying as follow:
1. Annual or yearly variation.
2. Daily variation. Depends on the activity. People draw out more water on holidays
and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
3. Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the
evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement
is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be
39
supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly
supply.
4. Monthly variation.
5. Seasonal variation. The demand peaks during summer. Fire break outs are generally
more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.
6. Weekly variation.
Figure 9: Fluctuations in Rate of Demand
So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the
fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly
proportioned. The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system
must be designed to meet the peak demand. The effect of monthly variation influences the
design of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and
service reservoirs. As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases. Figure above
shows variation of water consumption with time.
As the average demand can be calculated using the population in which the average daily
demand equals the average water consumption (lpcd) multiplied by the population. The
maximum hourly, daily, weekly, monthly can be estimated Goodrich formula.
𝑃 = 180 𝑡 −0.1 14
Where: 𝑃 is the percentage of the annual average consumption for any time t in days. T is the
time in days. day (t=1), weekly (t=7), monthly (30) and yearly (360).
The formula gives the percentage of the maximum daily as 180 percent, the weekly
consumption as 148 percent, and the monthly as 128 percent of the average daily demand. The
40
maximum hourly consumption is likely to be about 150 percent of the maximum for that day.
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand in certain area of a city will affect
design of the distribution system while minimum rate of consumption is of less important than
maximum flow but is required in connection with design of pump plants, usually it will vary
from (25-50) percent of the daily demand.
Average daily demand = Average water consumption (lpcd) x NO. of population
Maximum daily demand = p x average daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
Maximum weekly demand = p x average daily demand=1.48 x average daily demand
Maximum monthly demand = p x average daily demand=1.28 x average daily demand
Maximum hourly demand = p x maximum daily demand = 1.5 x maximum daily demand =1.5
x 1.8 x average daily demand = 2.7 x average daily demand
Minimum hourly demand = p x maximum daily demand = 0.5 x maximum daily demand = 0.5
x 1.8 x average daily demand = 0.9 x average daily demand
The water consumption is also varied according to the income level. For instance, water
consumption in low income countries is about 270 lpcd while it reaches about 310 lpcd in
middle income countries. In high income countries, water consumption reaches about 380 l/c.d.
Despite the fact the Iraq falls within middle income counties, it is assumed that 400 lpcd is
required to cover the demand.
2.3.4 Density of population
Population density is an important aspect to the engineer in solving water and sewerage
problems. As the population densities vary widely within a city, the engineer must design
sewers and water mains so that each section of the city must be adequately served. Population
density, considering a whole city, rarely exceeds an average of 7500 to 10,000 per km2.
Population densities range from 3800 to 8800 capita per km2 in the sparsely built-up residential
sections, while it ranges from 8800 to 10,000 per km2 in closely built-up single-family
residential areas with small lots. In apartment and high-rise districts, the populations rages from
25,000 to 250,000 per km2 while in commercial districts the day population is highly variable
according to development of the area.
41
2.4 The periods of design and water consumption data required
The economic design period of a structure depends upon its life, first cost, ease of expansion,
and likelihood of obsolescence. The water consumption at the end of the period is an important
aspect and must be estimated. Overdesign is not conservative since it may burden a relatively
small community with the cost of excessive works designed for a far larger population.
Different segments of the water treatment and distribution systems may be appropriately
designed for differing periods of time using differing capacity criteria.
Table 2-2:Periods of design and water consumption data required
Segments Design Design criteria

period (year)
Development Groundwater 5 The design capacity of the source should be
of source adequate to provide the maximum daily demand
Surface 50 anticipated during the design period.
Water
Pipelines from source > 25 The design capacity of the pipe lines should be
based upon average consumption at the end of the
design period.
Water treatment plant 10-15 Most WTP will be designed for average daily flow
at the end of the design period. Hydraulic design
should be based upon maximum anticipated flow.
Pumping station 10 Pump selection requires knowledge of maximum
flow including fire demand, average flow, and
minimum flow during the design period.
Amount of storage Minimum Design requires knowledge of average flow, fire
cost demand, maximum hour, maximum week, and
maximum month, as well as the capacity of the
source and pipe lines from the source.
Distribution system Indefinite Maximum hourly flow including fire demand is the
basis for design.
2.5 Solved Examples
Example 7: If the average domestic consumption is 250 lpcd and the percentage annual
consumption P = 200 t-0.1 for a city of 20000 capita. Find the maximum daily
water demand for domestic consumption.
Solution: -
𝑃 = 200 𝑡 −0.1
𝑃 = 200 𝑡(1)−0.1
𝑃 = 200 % = 2
42
l
Max. daily consumption = 2 ∗ (250 ∗ 20000) = 10 ∗ 106
d
Example 8: A community with a population of 22000 capita has an average consumption
of 600 lpcd and fire flow by a building of ordinary construction with a floor
area of 1000 m2 and a height of 6 stories. Determine the maximum water rate
and the total water flow for domestic and fire demand. Note: gallon = 3.785
litre and ft2 = 10.76 m2.
Solution: -
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑃 = 180 𝑡 −0.1

𝑃 = 180 (1)−0.1
𝑃 = 180 %
𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 600 ∗ 22000 = 23.76 ∗ 106
𝑑
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐹) = 18 𝐶√𝐴
(𝐹) = 18 ∗ 1 ∗ √6 ∗ 1000 ∗ 10.76 = 4573.5 𝑔𝑝𝑚
𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
(𝐹) = 4573.5 ∗ 3.78 ∗ 60 ∗ 24
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑙
(𝐹) = 24.89 ∗ 106
𝑑
𝑙 𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 23.76 ∗ 106 + 24.89 ∗ 106
𝑑 𝑑
𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 48.65 ∗ 106 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
𝑑
6 𝑙
48.65 ∗ 10
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑑 = 2211𝑙𝑝𝑐𝑑
22000 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
The total flow required during this day would be:
10 hr
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = (23.76 ∗ 106 ∗ 1 day) + (24.89 ∗ 106 ∗ )
24
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 23.76 ∗ 106 + 10.37 ∗ 106 = 34.13 ∗ 106 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑙
34.13 ∗ 106
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑑 = 1551𝑙𝑝𝑐𝑑
Example 9: community with a population 22,000 has an average consumption of 600

litres per capita per day and a fire flow dictated by a building of ordinary
construction with a floor area of 100 m2 and a height of 6 stories. Find the
total water demand.
Solution: -
𝑙
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 600 ∗ 22000 = 13.2 ∗ 106
𝑑
43
𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 600 ∗ 22000 = 23.76 ∗ 106
𝑑
(𝐹) = 18 ∗ 1 ∗ √6 ∗ 100 ∗ 10.76 = 1446.3 𝑔𝑝𝑚
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
1446.3 𝑔𝑝𝑚 ∗ 3.78 = 5467
𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑙
5467 ∗ 24 ∗ 60 = 7.87 ∗ 106
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑
𝑙
(𝐹) = 7.87 ∗ 106
𝑑
𝑙 𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = (23.76 ∗ 106 ) + (7.87 ∗ 106 )
𝑑 𝑑
𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 31.63 ∗ 106 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑑
6 𝑙
31.63 ∗ 10
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑑 = 1438 𝑙𝑝𝑐𝑑
10
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = (23.76 ∗ 106 ) + (7.87 ∗ 106 ∗ )
24
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 23.76 ∗ 106 + 3.28 ∗ 106 = 27.04 ∗ 106 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑙
27.04 ∗ 106
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑑 = 1229 𝑙𝑝𝑐𝑑
Example 10: Determine the fire flow for a 3-story wood frame building covering 700 m2
which connects with 5- story building of fire resistive construction covering 900
m2.
Solution: -
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐹) = 18 𝐶 √𝐴𝑓𝑡 2

For wooden building:
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 = 18 ∗ 1.5 √3 ∗ 700 ∗ 10.76
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 = 4058 𝑔𝑝𝑚
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 = 4059 𝑔𝑝𝑚 ∗ 3.78 ∗ 24 ∗ 60
𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑙
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 = 22.09 ∗ 106
𝑑
For fire resistive building:
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 = 18 ∗ 0.6 √5 ∗ 900 ∗ 10.76
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 = 2376 𝑔𝑝𝑚
(𝐹)𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 = 2376 𝑔𝑝𝑚 ∗ 3.78 ∗ 24 ∗ 60
44
𝑙
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 = 12.93 ∗ 106
𝑑
For both buildings by using fractional area:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 3 ∗ 700 + 5 ∗ 900 = 6600 𝑚2
2100
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.318
6600
4500
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.682
6600
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝐹) = 18 [0.318 ∗ 1.5 √3 ∗ 700 ∗ 10.76 + 0.682 ∗ 0.6 √5 ∗ 900 ∗ 10.76 ]
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝐹) = 18 [71.70 + 90.04] = 2911 𝑔𝑝𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝐹) = 2911𝑔𝑝𝑚 ∗ 3.78 ∗ 24 ∗ 60
𝑙
(𝐹) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 15.85 ∗ 106
𝑑
Example 11: A 4-story wooden building, each floor is 509 m2. This building is adjacent to a
5-story ordinary type building, each floor is 900 m2. Determine the fire flow in
m3/hr for each building, and both buildings if they are connected?
Solution: -

For wooden building:
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 = 18 ∗ 1.5 √4 ∗ 509 ∗ 10.76
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 = 3996.3 𝑔𝑝𝑚
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 = 3996.3 𝑔𝑝𝑚 ∗ 3.78 ∗ 24 ∗ 60
𝑙
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 = 21.75 ∗ 106
𝑑
For ordinary building:
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 = 18 ∗ 1.0 √5 ∗ 900 ∗ 10.76
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 = 3960.82 𝑔𝑝𝑚
(𝐹)𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 = 3960.82 𝑔𝑝𝑚 ∗ 3.78 ∗ 24 ∗ 60
𝑙
(𝐹) 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 = 21.56 ∗ 106
𝑑
For both buildings by using fractional area:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4 ∗ 509 + 5 ∗ 900 = 6536 𝑚2
4 ∗ 509
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.312
6536
5 ∗ 900
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 0.688
6536
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝐹) = 18 [0.312 ∗ 1.5 √4 ∗ 509 ∗ 10.76 + 0.688 ∗ 1.0 √5 ∗ 900 ∗ 10.76 ]
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝐹) = 3971.89 𝑔𝑝𝑚
45
𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 3.78 𝑚3 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝐹) = 3971.89 ∗ ∗ 60 ∗ 24
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 1000 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
(𝐹)𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 21619.79
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Example 12: Find the maximum daily domestic demand for a population of 1000 capita
with a rate of 300 lpcd. What is the maximum demand if p = 250%?
Solution: -
𝑙 3
𝑚3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1000 ∗ 300 = 300 ∗ 10 = 300
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 300 = 540
𝑑𝑎𝑦
The maximum demand if p =250%
𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2.5 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2.5 ∗ 300 = 750
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Example 13: A 6-story building was constructed for an engineering company. The building is
an ordinary type structure with 103 m2 for each floor. Determine: the
maximum rate, and the total storage, for both domestic and fire demand in
lpcd. Knowing that the building can serve 22 * 103 capita having an average
water consumption rate of 200 lpcd?
Solution: -
𝑙
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 22000 ∗ 200 = 4.4 ∗ 106
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑙 𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 4.4 ∗ 106 ∗ 1.8 = 7.92 ∗ 106
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐹) = 18 ∗ 1 ∗ √1000 ∗ 10.76 ∗ 6 = 4574 𝑔𝑝𝑚

𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐹) = 4574 𝑔𝑝𝑚 ∗ 3.78 ∗ 24 ∗ 60
𝑙
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐹) = 24.89 ∗ 106
𝑑
𝑙 𝑙
𝑑 𝑑
𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 32.81 ∗ 106 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑑
6 𝑙
32.81 ∗ 10
46
10
24
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 18.29 ∗ 106 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑙
18.29 ∗ 106
Example 14: For the data given find the population in year 2035 by using arithmetic and
geometric method, and average daily demand, maximum daily demand,
weekly demand, and monthly demand as well as the maximum and minimum
hourly demand. Also determine the fire water demand and total water
demand if the water consumption of 500 lpcd?
Year 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005

Population 25000 32000 42500 55000 69000
Solution: -
𝑝 −𝑃
Arithmetic method 𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝐾 𝛥𝑡 and K = 𝑡𝑡−𝑡 0
𝑡 0
ln P1− ln P2
̅ ̅
Geometric method ln 𝑃𝑓 = ln 𝑃𝑜 + 𝐾 ∗ ∆t and 𝐾 = 𝑡𝑡 −𝑡0
Info Year Pop. ∆p ∆t Arithmetic method Geometric method
𝐾 𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑓 ̅
𝐾 ̅𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝐾 ln 𝑃𝑓 𝑃𝑓
1965 25000
1975 32000 7000 10 700 0.0246
1985 42500 10500 10 1050 0.0283
1995 55000 12500 10 1250 0.0257
Base 2005 69000 14000 10 1400 1100 0.0226 0.0253
Design period 30
First stage 2020 85500 11.521 100810.7
Second stage 2035 102000 11.901 147413.9
If the arithmetic method is adopted:
𝑙 𝑚3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 500 ∗ 102000 = 51 ∗ 106 = 51 ∗ 103
3
𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 51 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
3
𝑚 𝑙
= 91.8 ∗ 103 = 91.8 ∗ 106
𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.48 ∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.48 ∗ 51 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
3
𝑚
= 75.48 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.28 ∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.28 ∗ 51 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
3
𝑚
= 65.28 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
47
𝑚3 3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.5 ∗ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.5 ∗ 91.8 ∗ 10
𝑑𝑎𝑦
3
𝑚
= 137.7 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.5 ∗ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.5 ∗ 91.8 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
3
𝑚
= 45.9 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Fire demand for 10 hr. duration:
𝐺𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 1020 √𝑃 (1 − 0.01 √𝑃)
𝑚3
𝐺𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 1020 √102 (1 − 0.01 √102) = 9261𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 50.41 ∗ 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑙
= 50.41 ∗ 106
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑙 𝑙
𝑙
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 142.21 ∗ 106 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑙
142.27 ∗ 106
10
24
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 112.804 ∗ 106 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑙
112.804 ∗ 106
Example 15: A community has an estimated population of 40 X103 capita in a period of 25

years ahead. The present population is 30 X103 capita with a daily water
consumption of 20 X 103 m3/d. The existing water treatment plant (WTP) has a
maximum design capacity of 45.6 X 103 m3/day, assuming an arithmetic
growth rate; determine for how many years this plant will reach its design
capacity.
Solution: -
Total consumption 20 ∗ 103 𝑚3
Rate of consumption = = = 0.667
𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 30 ∗ 103 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎. 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑝𝑡 − 𝑃0 40 ∗ 103 − 30 ∗ 103 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
population growth = K = = = 400
𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡0 25 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
45.6 ∗ 103 = 1.8 ∗ (30 ∗ 103 + 400 ∗ ∆t) ∗ 0.667
48
45.6 ∗ 103 − 36.02 ∗ 103 9.58 ∗ 103

∆t = = = 19.95 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 ≈ 20 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
0.48 ∗ 103 0.48 ∗ 103
Example 16: A community has an estimated population 20 year hence which is equal to
35000. The present population is 28000, and present average water
consumption is 16 *106 l/day. The existing water treatment plant has a
capacity of 5 mgd. Assuming an arithmetic rate of population growth
determine in what year the existing plant will reach its design capacity?
Solution: -
Total consumption 16 ∗ 106 𝑙
Rate of consumption = = 3
= 571.43
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 28 ∗ 10 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎. 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑙
Water treatment capacity = 5 ∗ 106 ∗ 3.78 = 18.9 ∗ 106
day
𝑙
18.9 ∗ 106
day
number of population at the end of the design period of WTP =
𝑙
571.43
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎. 𝑑𝑎𝑦
number of population at the end = 33075 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
∆𝑝 35 ∗ 103 − 28 ∗ 103 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
population growth = K = = = 350
∆𝑡 20 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟
33.075 ∗ 103 = 28 ∗ 103 + 350 𝛥𝑡
33.075 ∗ 103 − 28 ∗ 103

𝛥𝑡 = = 14.5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 ≈ 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
350
Example 17: Determine the fire flow required for a residential area consisting of homes of
ordinary construction, 2500 ft2 in area, 10 ft apart. What total volume of
water must be provided to satisfy the fire demand of this area?
Solution: -
From (Table 2 − 3 page 18 STEEL), the residential fire flow = 1500 𝑔𝑝𝑚
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐹) = 18 ∗ 1 ∗ √2500 = 900 𝑔𝑝𝑚
𝐿 𝑙
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 900 + 1500 = 2400 𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 9072 = 544320
𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟
𝑙 10 1 𝑚3
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 544320 ∗ ∗ = 227 𝑚3
ℎ𝑟 24 1000 𝑙
49
Example 18: A residential area of a city has a population density of 15000 capita per km2
and an area of 120000 m2. If the average water flow is 300 lpcd. Estimate the
maximum daily demand expected in m3/sec?
Solution: -
120000
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = = 0.12 𝑘𝑚2
10002
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 15000 ∗ 0.12 = 1800 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
𝑙 𝑚3
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 300 𝑙𝑝𝑐𝑑 ∗ 1800 = 540000 = 540
3 3 3
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 540 = 972 = 40.5 = 0.011
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐺𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 1020 √𝑃 (1 − 0.01 √𝑃)
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝐺𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 1020 √1.8 (1 − 0.01 √1.8) = 1350.114 𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 7348.94 = 0.085
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3 3 3
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.011 + 0.085 = 0.096
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐
10
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 972 + 7348.94 ∗ = 4034.1 𝑚3
24
Example 19: The population of a municipality as obtained from census is reported in below
table. Find the population of a city in 2010 using the arithmetic method,
uniform percentage method and Logistic method.
Municipality census
Year 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

Population 25000 28000 34000 42000 51000
50
Quality of water supplies
3.1 Introduction
Water that is absolutely pure is not found in nature. Figure 10 shows the hydrologic cycle in
nature. Water vapor in the air condenses about particles and, as it falls, absorbs dust and
dissolves oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases. At the ground surface it takes up silt and
other inorganic matter. A few bacteria will enter the water from the air, but at the ground surface
many more will be picked up as it runs off in streams or rivers. Small amounts of the products
of the decomposition of organic matter, nitrites, nitrates, ammonia, and carbon dioxide will go
into solution. Surface water will retain all these impurities for an indefinite period, but that part
of the rainfall which percolates into the soil will lose the suspended silt and bacteria by
filtration. The products of decomposition may also be lost in the filtration process by chemical
combinations or by the action of plants. This loss of impurities, however, is offset by the
solution of various salts which the percolating water will encounter in its path, the amount and
character depending upon the length of underground travel and the chemical make-up of the
strata traversed.
Figure 10: The hydrologic cycle

51
3.2 Impurities of Water
According to the hydraulic cycle (Figure 10), The various sources of water can be classified
into two categories which are surface sources (ponds and lakes; streams and rivers; storage
reservoirs; and oceans) and sub-surface or underground sources (springs; infiltration wells; and
wells and tube-wells). As the water is in continuous recirculation between the earth’s surface
and the atmosphere, water picks up different types of materials as it passes through the
hydrological cycle. These particles make the water not pure and are called impurities which
are suspended and dissolved in water see Figure 11.
Impurities of Water
Suspended Bocteria
colloidal
Fungi
Colloids
Protozoans
Viruses
Silt
Clay
Algae
Dissolved Salts
Organics
Gases
Figure 11: Common impurities in water
3.2.1 Suspended Impurities
Microorganisms: They may get into water from the air with dust, etc., as rain falls, or
commonly when soil polluted with human and animal wastes is washed into the water source.
The latter type of impurity in water is the most dangerous one because a good number of
microorganisms are pathogenic and cause disease.
52
Suspended solids: Minute particles of soil, clay, silt, soot particles, dead leaves and other
insoluble material get into water because of erosion from higher ground, drainage from
swamps, ponds, top soil, etc. Toxic chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides are also
included in this category. They are introduced to streams either as industrial wastes or drained
in after rain from land treated with these chemicals. Generally, suspended solids cause taste,
colour or turbidity.
Algae: Algae are minute plants that grow in still or stagnant water. Some algae are green, brown
or red, and their presence in water causes taste, colour and turbidity. Some species of algae
could be poisonous both for aquatic animals and humans. There are different types of algae
found in water:
• Asterionell – Gives water an unpleasant odour.
• Spirogyra – Is a green scum found in small ponds and polluted water. It grows in thread
like groups. It is slippery and non-toxic.
• Anabaena – Is blue- green and occurs in fishponds, pools, reservoir, and clogs filters.
Table 3-1 shows several types of suspended impurities.
Table 3-1: Types of suspended Impurities
Impurity Causes
Bacteria Disease
Algae Odor, Color, Turbidity
Protozoan Disease
Viruses Disease
Silt Darkness and Turbidity
Clay Murkiness and Turbidity
Colloids Color, Murkiness and Turbidity
3.2.2 Dissolved Impurities
Gases: Oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), etc, find their way into
water as it falls as rain or, in the case of the latter two, from the soil as water percolates through
the ground. All-natural water contains dissolved oxygen, and in certain circumstances carbon
dioxide. The presence of CO2 and H2S (but not O2) causes acidity in water. In addition, H2S
imparts a bad odour to the water.
Minerals: Minerals get into water as it percolates downward though the earth layers. The type
of minerals dissolved will depend on the nature of the specific rock formation of an area. Most
53
common dissolved minerals in water are salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, etc.
Salts of the first two elements cause hardness in water, while salts of the latter two elements
cause alkalinity. Salts of toxic elements, such as lead, arsenic, chromium, etc, get into water
mainly as industrial wastes dumped into streams.
Plant dyes: These originate from plants, which grow in or around water and cause acidity and
colour.
Table 3-2: Types of dissolved Impurities
Impurity Causes
Calcium Hardness
Magnesium Hardness
Iron Hardness, Color
Manganese Hardness, Color
Others Dissolved Solids
Bicarbonate Alkalinity
Carbonate Alkalinity
Sulfate Laxative
Chloride Taste
Fluoride Tooth Mottling
Organics Color, Taste, Odor, Toxicity
Gases
Oxygen Corrosive, Oxidizing Agent
Carbon Dioxide Acid
Hydrogen Sulfide Acid, Reducing Agent
Nitrogen None
Ammonia Caustic
3.3 Water quality characteristics
As there are different types of water sources available in nature such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs,
groundwater and springs, each of these sources has different raw water quality depending on
the environmental conditions they flow through. Water quality deals with the type and quantity
of impurities existing. This quality is considered according to certain regulations related to the
usage of water, such as drinking, industrial, agriculture … etc. The following four categories
are used to describe drinking water quality:
• Physical: Physical characteristics relate to the quality of water for domestic use. They
include colour, turbidity, temperature, and taste and odour.
54
• Chemical: Chemical characteristics of waters are sometimes evidenced by their

observed reactions, such as the comparative performance of hard and soft waters in
laundering. Most often, differences are not visible. However, in some cases, such as the
oxidation of iron, the reactions result in highly objectionable colour.
• Microbiological: Microbiological agents are very important in their relation to public
health and may also be significant in modifying the physical and chemical
characteristics of water.
• Radiological: Radiological factors must be considered in areas where there is a
possibility that the water may have encountered radioactive substances. The
radioactivity of the water is of public health concern in these cases.
The potable water is the water safe to drink, pleasant in taste and usable for various
purposes. This quality is considered according to the WHO, EPA, or Iraqi Standards,
Limitations, Specifications for drinking water. These limitations give the water
properties as:
𝑚𝑔 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛( ) =
𝐿 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
The unit used or ppm (part per million), in water ppm= (specific gravity) of
𝐿 𝑙.𝐺𝑠
𝑚𝑔
water. As Gs =1 in water and then ppm = .
𝑙
𝑘𝑔 𝑔𝑚
𝜌𝑤 = 1000 𝑚3 = 1 𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑔𝑚, 1𝑐𝑚3 = 1𝑚𝐿
= 1𝑔𝑚, 1𝐿 = 103 𝑚𝐿 → 𝑆𝑜, 1𝑚l = 1𝑔𝑚

𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 1
= 3 = 3 3
= 6
𝑙 10 𝑚𝑙 10 ∗ 10 𝑚𝑙 10
While the contaminated water is one that contains microorganisms, chemicals,
industrial or other wastes, or sewage so that it is unfit for its intended use. Thus, the raw
or treated water is analysed by testing their physical, chemical and biological
characteristics:
3.3.1 Physical Characteristics:
3.3.1.1 Turbidity:
If several suspended solids are present in water, it will appear turbid in appearance. The
turbidity depends upon fineness and concentration of particles present in water. Originally
55
turbidity was determined by measuring the depth of column of liquid required to cause the
image of a candle flame at the bottom to diffuse into a uniform glow. This was measured by
Jackson candle turbidity meter. The calibration was done based on suspensions of silica from
Fuller's earth. The depth of sample in the tube was read against the part per million (ppm) silica
scales with one ppm of suspended silica called one Jackson Turbidity unit (JTU). Because
standards were prepared from materials found in nature such as Fuller's earth, consistency in
standard formulation was difficult to achieve. These days' turbidity is measured by applying
Nephelometry, a technique to measure level of light scattered by the particles at right angles to
the incident light beam. The scattered light level is proportional to the particle concentration in
the sample. The unit of expression is Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU). The IS values for
drinking water is 5 NTU.
3.3.1.2 Colour:
Dissolved organic matter from decaying vegetation or some inorganic materials may impart
colour to the water. It can be measured by comparing the colour of water sample with other
standard glass tubes containing solutions of different standard colour intensities. The standard
unit of colour is that which is produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one
litre of distilled water. The IS value for treated water is 5 to 25 cobalt units.
3.3.1.3 Taste and Odour
Odour depends on the contact of a stimulating substance with the appropriate human receptor
cell. Most organic and some inorganic chemicals, originating from municipal or industrial
wastes, contribute taste and odour to the water. Taste and odour can be expressed in terms of
odour intensity or threshold values. A new method to estimate taste of water sample has been
developed based on flavour known as 'Flavour Profile Analysis' (FPA). The character and
intensity of taste and odour discloses the nature of pollution or the presence of microorganisms
3.3.1.4 Temperature
The increase in temperature decreases palatability, because at elevated temperatures carbon

dioxide and some other volatile gases are expelled. The ideal temperature of water for drinking
purposes is 5 to 12 °C - above 25 °C, water is not recommended for drinking.
56
3.3.2 Chemical Characteristics:
3.3.2.1 pH
pH value denotes the acidic or alkaline condition of water. It is expressed on a scale ranging
from 0 to 14, which is the common logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration. The recommended pH range for treated drinking waters is 6.5 to 8.5.
Figure 12: pH in Water Chemistry
3.3.2.2 Acidity
The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize bases. Acidity of water may be
caused by the presence of uncombine carbon dioxide, mineral acids and salts of strong acids
and weak bases. It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate. Acidity is nothing but
representation of carbon dioxide or carbonic acids. Carbon dioxide causes corrosion in public
water supply systems.
3.3.2.3 Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids. It is expressed as mg/L
in terms of calcium carbonate. The various forms of alkalinity are (a) hydroxide alkalinity, (b)
carbonate alkalinity, (c) hydroxide plus carbonate alkalinity, (d) carbonate plus bicarbonate
alkalinity, and (e) bicarbonate alkalinity, which is useful mainly in water softening and boiler
57
feed water processes. Alkalinity is an important parameter in evaluating the optimum coagulant
dosage.
3.3.2.4 Hardness
If water consumes excessive soap to produce lather, it is said to be hard. Hardness is caused by
divalent metallic cations. The principal hardness causing cations are calcium, magnesium,
strontium, ferrous and manganese ions. The major anions associated with these cations are
sulphates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and nitrates. The total hardness of water is
defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed as calcium
carbonate, in mg/L. Hardness are of two types, temporary or carbonate hardness and permanent
or noncarbonate hardness. Temporary hardness is one in which bicarbonate and carbonate ion
can be precipitated by prolonged boiling. Non-carbonate ions cannot be precipitated or
removed by boiling, hence the term permanent hardness. IS value for drinking water is 300
mg/L as CaCO3.
3.3.2.5 Chlorides
Chloride ion may be present in combination with one or more of the cations of calcium,
magnesium, iron and sodium. Chlorides of these minerals are present in water because of their
high solubility in water. Each human being consumes about six to eight grams of sodium
chloride per day, a part of which is discharged through urine and night soil. Thus, excessive
presence of chloride in water indicates sewage pollution. IS value for drinking water is 250 to
1000 mg/L.
3.3.2.6 Sulphates
Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from sulphate mineral and oxidation of sulphide.
Sulphates are associated generally with calcium, magnesium, and sodium ions. Sulphate in
drinking water causes a laxative effect and leads to scale formation in boilers. It also causes
odour and corrosion problems under aerobic conditions. Sulphate should be less than 50 mg/L,
for some industries. Desirable limit for drinking water is 150 mg/L. May be extended up to 400
mg/L.
58
3.3.2.7 Iron
Iron is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric oxide. When it encounters water, it dissolves
to form ferrous bicarbonate under favourable conditions. This ferrous bicarbonate is oxidized
into ferric hydroxide, which is a precipitate. Under anaerobic conditions, ferric ion is reduced
to soluble ferrous ion. Iron can impart bad taste to the water, causes discoloration in clothes
and incrustations in water mains. IS value for drinking water is 0.3 to 1.0 mg/L.
3.3.2.8 Solids
The sum of foreign matter present in water is termed as 'total solids'. Total solids are the matter
that remains as residue after evaporation of the sample and its subsequent drying at a defined
temperature (103 to 105 °C). Total solids consist of volatile (organic) and non-volatile
(inorganic or fixed) solids. Further, solids are divided into suspended and dissolved solids.
Solids that can settle by gravity are settleable solids. The others are non-settleable solids. IS
acceptable limit for total solids is 500 mg/L and tolerable limit is 3000 mg/Lof dissolved limits.
3.3.2.9 Nitrates
Nitrates in surface waters occur by the leaching of fertilizers from soil during surface run-off
and nitrification of organic matter. Presence of high concentration of nitrates is an indication
of pollution. Concentration of nitrates above 45 mg/L causes a disease methaemoglobin. IS
value is 45 mg/L.
3.3.3 Bacteriological Characteristics:
Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates the degree of pollution.
Water polluted by sewage contains one or more species of disease producing pathogenic
bacteria. Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and many non-pathogenic bacteria
such as E. coli, a member of coliform group, also live in the intestinal tract of human beings.
Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance to adverse condition than any
other group. So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the harmful species will
be very less. So, coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of water with sewage and
presence of pathogens.
The methods to estimate the bacterial quality of water are:
59
3.3.3.1 Standard Plate Count Test
In this test, the bacteria are made to grow as colonies, by inoculating a known volume of sample
into a solidifiable nutrient medium (Nutrient Agar), which is poured in a petridish. After
incubating (35°C) for a specified period (24 hours), the colonies of bacteria (as spots) are
counted. The bacterial density is expressed as number of colonies per 100 mL of sample.
Most Probable Number
Most probable number is a number which represents the bacterial density which is most likely
to be present. E. coli is used as indicator of pollution. E. coli ferment lactose with gas formation
with 48 hours incubation at 35°C. Based on this E. coli density in a sample is estimated by
multiple tube fermentation procedure, which consists of identification of E.coli in different
dilution combination. MPN value is calculated as follows:
• Five 10 mL (five dilution combination) tubes of a sample is tested for E.coli. If out of
five only one gives positive test for E.coli and all others negative. From the tables, MPN
value for one positive and four negative results is read which is 2.2 in present case. The
MPN value is expressed as 2.2 per 100 ml. These numbers are given by Maccardy based
on the laws of statistics.
3.3.3.2 Membrane Filter Technique
In this test a known volume of water sample is filtered through a membrane with opening less
than 0.5 microns. The bacteria present in the sample will be retained upon the filter paper. The
filter paper is put in contact of a suitable nutrient medium and kept in an incubator for 24 hours
at 35°C. The bacteria will grow upon the nutrient medium and visible colonies are counted.
Each colony represents one bacterium of the original sample. The bacterial count is expressed
as number of colonies per 100 mL of sample.
3.4 Water quality standards
High water quality is defined as water that contains no pathogenic organisms and free from
biological forms that may be aesthetically objectionable. It is clear and colourless and has no
objectionable taste or odour. It does not contain concentration of chemicals that may be
physiological harmful, aesthetically objectionable or economically damaging. It also is not
corrosive, nor does it leave excessive or undesirable deposits on water-conveying structures,
including pipes, tanks, and plumping fixtures. Any country can evaluate its positive and
60
negative implications in terms of water quality, health status and environmental conditions,
which will lead to the establishment of standards that are appropriate to local conditions.
Water quality standards are a crucial element in setting the design criteria for a water supply
project. The standards apply to both the treatment plant and the distribution system. Because
of their crucial role, The National Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was signed into law on
December 16, 1974. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was directed to establish
maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for public water systems to prevent the occurrence of
any known or anticipated adverse health effects with an adequate margin of safety.
3.4.1 Iraqi Drinking Water Standards
It is essential that each country undertake a review of its needs and capacity for drinking-water
standards. Iraqi Central Organization for Standardization and Quality Control (ICSQC, 2001)
set down standards for Drinking Water. These are shown in Table
3.4.2 World Health Organization Guidelines
The aim of general drinking water guidelines, such as those set by the World
Health Organization, is the ultimate protection of public health. They are intended
to be used as the basis for the development of national standards and the
development of risk management strategies in the context of environmental,
social, economic and cultural conditions for the different countries of the world.
(World Health Organization, WHO, 2004) set down Guidelines for Drinking
Water Quality. The guideline values are shown in table:
Characteristics Unit Iraqi 2001 WHO 2004

Colour C.U 10 15
Turbidity NTU 5 5
Coliform Organ 0.0 0.0
MPN/100 ml
Faecal Coliform 0.0 0.0
Aluminium (AL) mg/l 0.2 0.2
Arsenic (As) mg/l 0.01 0.01
Cadmium (Cd) mg/l 0.003 0.003
Chloride (Cl) mg/l 200 250
61
Chlorine (Res Cl) mg/l 0.5-2 0.6-1

Chromium (Cr+6) mg/l 0.05 0.05
Copper (Cu) mg/l 1.0 2.0
Fluoride (F) mg/l 1.0 1.5
Iron (Fe) mg/l 0.3 0.3
Lead (Pb) mg/l 0.05 0.05
Manganese (Mn) mg/l 0.1 0.05
Mercury (Hg) mg/l 0.001 -
pH (range) - 6..5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Sulphate (SO4) mg/l 200 250
Zinc (Zn) mg/l 0.5 5
3.5 Water Treatment
To use water for drinking from the available raw water in nature, it should be within drinking
specifications; if not then water treatment is required.
Water treatment, several processes that are required for the removal of:
1. Pathogenic organisms;
2. Unpleasant taste and odour
3. Colour and turbidity
4. Dissolved minerals
5. Harmful chemicals
The degree of treatment depends on:
1. Degree of contamination
2. Type of impurity
3. Size of impurity
Water treatment plants (WTP) consists of many units which are designed to remove the
impurities of different types and sizes. The most common type of these plants is the
conventional (typical or routine) treatment plant, which consists of:
1. Intake, (low pump station)
2. Screen (Coarse and fine),
3. Coagulation and flocculation, (Chemical Process)
4. Sedimentation, (Physical Process)
5. Filtration, (Clean Water)
6. Disinfection, (clean and safe water)
62
7. Storage water with high pump station (Enough Flow and Pressure).
Figure 13:Water treatment plant schedule
3.5.1 Water Treatment Philosophy
The available raw waters must be treated and purified before they can be supplied to the public
for their domestic, industrial or any other uses. The extent of treatment required to be given to
the water depends upon the characteristics and quality of the available water, and upon the
quality requirements for the intended use. The layout of conventional water treatment plant is
as follows:
63
Figure 14:surface water treatment flow chart
The typical functions of each unit operations are given in the following table:
Table 3-3:Functions of Water Treatment Units
Unit treatment Function (removal)

Aeration, chemicals use Colour, Odour, Taste
Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter and Reducing substances
64
Water Distribution Systems
4.1 Introduction
The primary purpose of this system is to transport treated water from the treatment facilities
(plants) to the consumers. This system should have sufficient capacity to meet the water supply
needs (demand) of the consumer, under all demand conditions in quantity, quality and pressure.
In some communities this system may provide water for fire demand also. Distribution system
is used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply water from its source to the point
of usage.
A complete waterworks system is required for any city which includes a source (dam, well,
river, etc….), a convey system such as pipe line or open channel (If the source is away from
the city) and a treatment plant (If the water is from surface sources). In some cases, groundwater
is also treated. In addition, the waterworks system needs in most cases a pumping station to
generate enough head to force the water through the network of street mains. Finally, a
distribution system which includes the mains, valves, service pipes, and fire hydrants is
essential to deliver the water to all consumers.
4.2 Methods of distribution
1. By gravity: This is possible when the source of supply is a lake or impounding

reservoir at some elevation above the city so that sufficient pressure can be
maintained in the mains for domestic and fire service.
2. By means of pumps and storage: In this method the excess water pumped during
periods of low consumption is stored in elevated tanks or reservoirs
3. By pumps only: In this method the pumps force water directly into the mains with
no other outlet than the water consumed.
A typical distribution system consists of: pipes, nodes and loops, by which a network will be
formed. The main components in this system are the pipes, which are in the following form
according to their size:
1. Primary feeders. The primary feeders, sometimes called the arterial mains, are the
main pipes that carry large quantities of water from the pumping plant to and from
the storage tanks as well as to the various parts of the area to be served.
65
2. Secondary feeders. The secondary feeders carry large quantities of water from the
primary feeders to the various areas to care for normal supply and firefighting.
3. Small distribution mains. The small distribution mains form the grid over the area
to supply water to the fire hydrants and service pipes of the residences and other
buildings.
4. Service pipes.
The velocities at maximum flows, including fire flow, in feeders and distribution mains usually
do not exceed 1 m/s. Normally, the sizes of distribution mains should not be less than 150 mm.
4.3 Types of networks, according to the method of connecting different types of

pipes:
The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such, their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads. There are four different types of pipe networks; any one
of which either singly or in combinations can be used for a place. The four types are ring
system, radial system, dead end system and grid system as shown Figure 15.
Figure 15: Types of pipe networks, (A) Ring system, (B) Radial system, (C) Dead end system and
(D) Grid system.
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4.3.1 Characteristics of pipes used in distributing water:
1. Adequate strength to withstand external and internal pressure.

2. Ability to resist impact loads.
3. Smooth and non-corrosive interior surface for minimum friction losses.
4. Can be provided with tight joints.
4.3.2 Types of pipes according to the materials used in their manufacture:
1. Cast iron – iron + silicon + carbon

2. Ductile – cast iron + Mg
3. Steel – iron + Cr + Ni
4. Galvanized steel – steel + Zn
5. Concrete
6. PVC- polyvinyl chloride pipes.
7. Asbestos cement-Portland cement + silicon + asbestos fibres
8. Lead.
9. Copper.
10. Glass fibre Reinforced Plastic (GRP).
11. High density polyethylene pipe (HDPE).
4.3.3 Types of Valves
A variety of valves and specialized appurtenances are used in water distribution system as
shown in Figure 16.
1. Gate Valves: Gate valves are commonly used for on-off service since they are relatively
inexpensive and offer relatively position shutoff. Gate valve are located at regular
intervals throughout distribution systems so that breaks in the system can be isolated.
The gate valves should be located at a distance between 150m to 250m in water
distribution system. It is desirable to place all valves in manholes, although smaller
values can be buried.
2. Check Valves: Check valve permit water to flow in only one direction and are
commonly used to prevent reversal of flow when pumps are switch off. Check valves
installed at the end of a suction line are called (foot valves). These prevent draining of
67
the suction line and loss of pressure when the pump is shut down. Check valves are also
installed on the discharge side of pumps to reduce hammer forces on the pump
mechanism.
3. Global and Angle Valves: are rarely used in water distribution system. Their primary
application is in household plumbing.
4. Plug valves. These valves, also known as cone valves, have a tapered plug which
turns in a tapered seat. A hole in the plug, when the valve is opened, coincides
with ports in the seat, and these, in turn, are extensions of the pipe in which
the valve is placed.
5. Butterfly Valves: butterfly valves are widely used in both low– and high– pressure
application. In large sizes, they are considerably cheaper, more compact, easier to
operate, and less subjected to wear than gate valves. They are not suitable for liquids
that contain solid materials.
6. Air–Vacuum and Air Relief Valves: They are used in long pipelines to permit release
of air which accumulates at high points and to prevent negative pressures to build up
when the lines are drained. These valves are automatically operated.
7. Regulating-Pressure Valve: Automatically reduce the pressure on the downstream side
to any desired level.
68
Figure 16: Types of valves and specialized appurtenances used in water distribution system. (A)
Gate valve, (B) Check valve, (C)Global valve, (D) Butterfly valve, (E) Plug valve, (F) Air/vacuum
air relief valve, and (G) Pressure-regulating valve.
4.4 Corrosion in distribution system and its prevention
Corrosion can be defined as the conversion of material with loss in desirable properties such
as mechanical strength. Corrosion normally occurs over entire exposed surface or may be
localized at the metal. In all types of corrosion, electron transformation must occur. the zone
69
which releases electrons is called anodic, while that accept them is called cathode, as in other
electrical circuits.
At the anode
At the cathode: -
The reduction of hydrogen ion to hydrogen gas.

Since two reactions, an oxidation and a reduction, must occur for corrosion to proceed, the
process can be slowed or stopped by interfering with either. the techniques employed include
cathode protection, anodic protection, inhibition, and application of metallic or chemical
coatings.
4.4.1 Cathodic protection
This technique forces the entire metal surface to act as a cathode. Since corrosion occurs only
at anodic areas, such procedure prevents loss of metal. cathodic protection can be provided by
either the impressed current or the galvanic technique.
4.4.2 Galvanic protection
Utilizes a sacrificial anode – a material of higher corrosion potential than that which it is desired
to protect.
4.4.3 Anodic protection
Anodic protection is a technique in which impression of an external voltage greatly reduces the
rate of corrosion of a metal.
4.4.4 Inhibition
Inhibition is affected by the deposition or adsorption of ion metallic surface. Chemicals used
for this purpose include chromates, nitrates, phosphates, molybdates, Tung states, silicates,
70
benzoates, etc. Such protection or coatings are effective in reducing corrosion in neutral or
alkaline (but no acid) solutions.
4.4.5 Metallic Coating
This coating can be applied by hot dipping, metal spraying, cladding, vapor deposition,
electroplating, metallizing, and mechanical plating. Noble (cathode) coating may produce rapid
pitting in the base when discontinuities occur.
4.4.6 Chemical coating
Include pints, coal tar preparation, asphalt epoxy materials and cement.
4.4.7 Inert materials
Such materials are sometimes substituted for traditional material which are subject to corrosion
(asbestos cement and plastic pipe are examples of such substitution).
4.5 Distribution Reservoirs
Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are the storage reservoirs that stores
treated water for supplying water during emergencies (such as during fires, repairs, etc.) and
absorbing the hourly fluctuations in the normal water demand.
4.5.1 Functions of Distribution Reservoirs:
1. To absorb the hourly variations in demand.

2. To maintain constant pressure in the distribution mains.
3. Water stored can be supplied during emergencies.
4.5.2 Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs:
1. It should be located as close as possible to the centre of demand.

2. Water level in the reservoir must be at an enough elevation to permit gravity flow at an
adequate pressure.
71
4.5.3 Types of Reservoirs
1. Underground reservoirs.
2. Small ground level reservoirs.
3. Large ground level reservoirs.
4. Overhead tanks.
4.5.4 Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
The total storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is the summation of:

1. Balancing Storage: The quantity of water required to be stored in the reservoir for
equalizing fluctuating demand against constant supply is known as the balancing
storage (or equalizing or operating storage). The balance storage can be worked out by
mass curve method.
2. Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the
storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps,
electricity, or any other mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the
total storage capacity of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply, may
be considered as enough provision for accounting this storage.
3. Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage. This
provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires. A provision
of 1 to 4 litters per person per day is enough to meet the requirement.
The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the three storages.
4.6 Design stages of water distribution systems:
1. Preparation of a master plan.

2. Topography survey of the study area
3. Hydraulic study of the existing system.
4. The improvement programs.
4.6.1 Requirements of good distribution system:
1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
72
2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient
pressure head.
3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during firefighting.
4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during
the repair of any section of the system.
5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter away or above the
sewer lines.
6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.
4.7 Water flow in pipes
In fluid dynamics, the Darcy–Weisbach equation is an empirical equation, which relates the
head loss, or pressure loss, due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average velocity
of the fluid flow for an incompressible fluid. The equation is named after Henry Darcy and
Julius Weisbach. The Darcy–Weisbach equation contains a dimensionless friction factor,
known as the Darcy friction factor.
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑙 = 𝑓 ∗ ∗ in terms of velocity 15
𝐷 2𝑔
𝐿 𝑄2 16
ℎ𝑙 = 𝑓 ∗ ∗ in terms of discharge
𝐷 2𝑔𝐴2
Where: ℎ𝑙 = Head loss = P1 –P2

V = Velocity of flow (m/s)
Q = Discharge (m3/s)
L = Pipe length (m)
g = Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
D = Diameter of the pipe (m)
P1, P2 = Pressure heads (m)
In addition to Darcy’s equation, the Hazen–Williams equation (17 or 18) is an empirical
relationship which relates the flow of water in a pipe with the physical properties of the pipe
and the pressure drop caused by friction. Noting that Hazen-Williams equation is only valid
for water flow while the Darcy’s equation should be used for other liquids or gases. Hazen-
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Williams is used in the design of water pipe systems such as water supply networks, and
irrigation systems. It is named after Allen Hazen and Gardner Stewart Williams.
𝑉 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑅 0.63 ∗ 𝑆 0.54 17
10.67∗ 𝑄1.85 ∗ 𝐿
ℎ𝑙 = 18
𝐶 1.85 ∗ 𝐷4.865
Where:
𝐾 = a conversion factor for the unit system (𝐾 = 0.849 (m/s, m) or 1.318 for ft /s, ft).
C = Hazen–William roughness coefficient which depending on the roughness of the pipe
according to its material and age, it may range from 60 to 140.
𝐷
R = the hydraulic radius (area / wetted perimeter), 𝑅 =
4
ℎ𝑙
S = the slop of the energy grade line, S = ,
𝐿
L = the length of the pipe.

hl = head loss in meters (water) over the length of pipe
L = length of pipe in meters
Q = volumetric flow rate, m3/s (cubic meters per second)
D = inside pipe diameter, m (meters)
When the pipe is full, the discharge (Q) flowing in the pipe is equal to the velocity (V)
𝜋𝐷2
multiplied by the cross-section area of the pipe ( ). By applying the velocity according to
4
the Hazen – William formula, then the discharge is written as
0.63 0.54
𝜋𝐷2
𝑄 = 0.85 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑅 ∗𝑆 ∗ 19
4
𝑄 = 0.278 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑅 0.63 ∗ 𝑆 0.54 ∗ 𝐷2.63 20
Hazen – William coefficient can be taken from the table below:
Material of the pipe Value of C
Cast Iron - new 130
5 years 120
10 years 110
20 years 90 -100
30 years 75 - 90
Concrete 120 – 140
74
PVC 150
Asbestos cement 120 - 140
According to the design criteria, V should be taken in the range 0.6 to 2.6 m/s for designing the
distribution system.
Material C Material C
ABS- Acrylamide Butadiene Styrene 130 Fibre 140
Aluminium 130 - 150 Fibre Glass Pipe - FRP 150
Asbestos Cement 140 Galvanized iron 120
Asphalt Lining 130 - 140 Glass 130
Brass 130 - 140 Lead 130 - 140
Brick sewer 90 - 100 Metal Pipes – Very to 130 - 140
extremely smooth
Cast-Iron - new unlined (CIP) 130 Plastic 130 - 150
Cast-Iron 10 years old 107 - 113 Polyethylene, PE, PEH 140
Cast-Iron 20 years old 89 - 100 Polyvinyl chloride, PVC, 150
CPVC
Cast-Iron 30 years old 75 - 90 Smooth Pipes 140
Cast-Iron 40 years old 64-83 Steel new unlined 140 - 150
Cast-Iron, asphalt coated 100 Steel, corrugated 60
Cast-Iron, cement lined 140 Steel, welded and seamless 100
Cast-Iron, bituminous lined 140 Steel, interior riveted, 110
nonprojecting rivets
Cast-Iron, sea-coated 120 Steel, projecting girth and 100
horizontal rivets
Cast-Iron, wrought plain 100 Steel, vitrified, spiral-riveted 90 - 110
Cement lining 130 - 140 Steel, welded and seamless 100
Concrete 100 - 140 Tin 130
Concrete lined, steel forms 140 Vitrified Clay 110
Concrete lined, wooden forms 120 Wrought iron, plain 100
Concrete, old 100 - 110 Wooden or Masonry Pipe - 120
Smooth
Copper 130 - 140 Wood Stave 110 - 120
Corrugated Metal 60
Ductile Iron Pipe (DIP) 140
Ductile Iron, cement lined 120
The Hazen-Williams equation can be written in other forms as shown below:
75
𝑆 = 0.00212 ∗ 𝑄1.85 ∗ 𝐷−4.865 21
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205 22

𝑄 = 27.84 ∗ 𝑆 0.54 ∗ 𝐷 2.63 23
This equations base upon values of C equal to100. This happened because Some engineers use
a value of 100 for cast-iron pipe for designing water distribution systems—considering this to
represent its relative roughness at some future time.
Nomograms shown in Figure 17 can be used to solve the Hazen-Williams formula for velocity
(or flow) when pipe size and slope of the hydraulic grade line are known, to determine the slope
of the hydraulic grade line given the flow (or velocity) and pipe size, or to find the required
pipe size given the flow and head losses.
Figure 17: Flow in old cast-iron pipes. (Hazen-Williams C = 100.)
The diagram can be used to solve the Hazen-Williams formula for velocity (or flow) when pipe
size and slope of the hydraulic grade line are known, To determine the slope of the hydraulic
76
grade line given the flow (or velocity) and pipe size, or to find the required pipe size given the
flow and head loss. To do so, aA straightedge is used to connect the known quantities and the
unknown are read at the intersection of the straightedge with the other axes. For example,
calculate the head loss for a 200-mm pipe and 1500 m in length carries a flow of 2 m3/min. To
do so, A straightedge is laid intersecting the flow on the left and the diameter on the second
line from the left (Figure 17). The loss of head per unit length or slope of the hydraulic grade
line is read from the third line and the velocity, if desired, from the fourth. The value of S is
found to be 10 x 10-3, from which the head loss is 15 m (1500/1000 *10) of water. In like
manner pipe size can be determined from a prescribed flow and head loss. The pipe selected
must, of course, be a commercially available size.
To apply above Figure to pipe for which C is other than 100, the values obtained should be
multiplied by the factors calculated from below Equations:
Given flow and diameter, find S from nomogram.
100 1.85 24
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑆100 ∗ ( )
𝐶
Given flow and S find diameter from nomogram.
100 0.38 25
𝑑𝑐 = 𝑑𝑠 ∗ ( )
𝐶
Given diameter and s, find flow from nomogram.
𝐶 26
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑄100 ∗ ( )
100
4.8 Hydraulic Analysis
This analysis is important to determine the flow (Q) and head loss (ℎ𝑙 ) in each pipe, also the
resulting pressure at critical points in the distribution system under different water supply
demands and working conditions. Some recommended pressures are shown in the table below.
Case Pressure (bar)
Houses up to 4 stories 1.8 – 2.8
Business areas 4.2
Fire fighting 5.3
There are several methods of hydraulic analysis that are:

1. Hardy Cross method,
2. Equivalent pipe method,
77
3. Circle method,
4. Electrical method
5. And Software such as PIPE++ and WATERCAD.
The analysis of water distribution system includes determining quantities of flow and head
losses in the various pipe lines, and resulting residual pressures. In any pipe network, the
following two conditions must be satisfied:
1. The algebraic sum of pressure drops around a closed loop must be zero (∑hl =0), i.e.
there can be no discontinuity in pressure.
2. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow leaving that junction; i.e. the law
of continuity must be satisfied (Q in = Q out).
Based on these two basic principles, the pipe networks are generally solved by the methods of
successive approximation. The Hardy-Cross method is widely used method of pipe network
analysis.
4.8.1 Hardy-Cross Method
This method consists of assuming a distribution of flow in the network in such a way that the
principle of continuity is satisfied at each junction. A correction to these assumed flows is then
computed successively for each pipe loop in the network, until the correction is reduced to an
acceptable correction flow magnitude (0.20 m3/min).
This method and its modifications have been used in design and analysis of water distribution
system for many years. the energy loss in any element of the system may be expressed as
ℎ𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑋 27
Where ℎ𝑖 = energy loss in the ith element.

𝑄𝑖𝑋 = flow in that element
𝐿
𝐾𝑖 = constant depending on pipe diameter, length, type, and condition. Where 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑓 ∗ 2𝑔𝐷𝐴2
10.67∗ 𝐿
when Darcy’s formula used while 𝐾𝑖 = when Hazen’s formula used.
𝐶 1.85 ∗ 𝐷 4.865
X = 1.85 to 2 normally, depending on equation used (Hazen’s or Darcy’s formula used).

According to previous assumptions:
ℎ𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 ∗ 𝑄𝑖1.85 Hazen’s formula 28
78
ℎ𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 ∗ 𝑄𝑖2 Darcy’s formula 29
For any pipe in a loop of the system, the actual flow will differ from an assumed flow by an
element Δ:
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑖𝑜 + 𝛥 30
Where
𝑄𝑖 = actual flow in pipe
𝑄𝑖𝑜 = assumed flow
𝛥 = required correction
Substituting Equation (30) in (27) gives:
𝑋−1
∫ 𝛥…………… 31
𝑖𝑜
The remaining terms in the expansion may be neglected if 𝛥 is small compared to 𝑄𝑖 for any
loop, the sum of the head losses about the loop must be equal to zero. Thus, for any loop:
𝑛
∑ 𝐾𝑖 ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑋 = 0 32
𝑖
Where 𝑛 is the number of pipes in the loop? Then, from equation (32)
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝐾𝑖 ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑋 = ∑ 𝐾𝑖 ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑜
𝑋 𝑋−1
+ ∑ 𝑋𝐾 ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑜 ∗ 𝛥=0 33
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
− ∑𝑛𝑖 𝐾𝑖 ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑜
𝑋
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖
𝛥= = 34
∑𝑛𝑖 𝑋𝐾 ∗ 𝑄𝑖𝑜
𝑋−1 ℎ
𝑋 ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑄 𝑖
𝑖𝑜
The procedure may be outlined as follows:

1. disaggregate the flow to the various blocks or other sub-areas of the community.
(identify loops)
2. concentrate the disaggregated flows at the nodes of the system.
3. Add the required fire flow at appropriate nodes.
4. select initial pipe sizes using the criteria of the size of small distribution mains is seldom
less than 150mm (6in) with cross main located at intervals of not more than 180m
79
(600ft) in high – value districts the minimum size has 200mm (8in): with line not less
than 305mm (12in) in diameter.
Note: line which provided only domestic flow may be as small as 100mm (4in) but should
not exceed 400m (1300ft) in length if it is dead–ended or 600m (2000 ft) if it is connected
to the system at both ends. Lines as small as 50 and 75mm (2 and 3in) are sometimes used
in small communities.
5. Identify flow direction clockwise or contraclockwise.
6. Assume flow at any internal pipe is consistent. The sum of the flow entering and leaving
each junction must be equal to zero.
7. Compute the head loss in each element of the system. Conventionally, clockwise flows
are positive and produce positive head loss using equation 27.
8. High attention to sign, compute the total head loss around each loop:
𝑛 𝑛
𝑥
∑ ℎ𝑖 = ∑ 𝑘𝑖 𝑄𝑖𝑜 35
𝑖 𝑖
9. Compute, without regard to sign, the sum

𝑛
𝑥−1
∑ 𝑘𝑖 𝑄𝑖𝑜 36
𝑖
10. Calculate the correction for each loop from Equation 35 and apply the correction to
each line in the loop. Lines common to two loops receive tow corrections with due
attention to sign.
11. Repeat the procedure until the corrections calculated in step 9 are less than stipulated
maximum. The flows and pressures in the initial network are then known.
12. Compare the pressures and velocities in the balanced network to the criteria of the
American water works association recommends a normal static pressure of 400 to kpa
(60 to 75 ib/in2). Since this will supply ordinary uses in buildings up to 10 stories in
height pressure in rang of 150 to 300 kpa (20-40 ib/in2) are adequate for normal use and
may be used for live supply in small towns.
13. Adjust the pipe sizes to reduce or increase velocities and pressures and repeat the
procedure until a satisfactory solution is obtained.
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14. Apply any other five flow conditions which may be critical and re-evaluate the
velocities and pressure distribution adjust the pipe sizes as necessary.
Example 1: For the given pipes network, find flow distribution and the pressure at point A.
405 mm
305 mm
Solution
Frist Iteration
Line Assumed Q D (mm) L (m) S hl (m) hl/Q
BC 10 455 1500 0.0036 5.4 0.54
CA 5 255 800 0.0165 13.2 2.64
AD -5 305 1100 -0.0069 -7.59 1.518
DB -10 405 1000 -0.00625 -6.25 0.625
Sum 4.76 5.323
From
You Figure 17 Total head
Note Given Given hl = S * L
assume divided by loss
1000
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 4.76 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = −0.48 > 0.20 : . Not o. k
𝑛 ℎ𝑖 1.85 (5.33) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋 ∑𝑖 𝑄
𝑖𝑜
2nd Iteration
Line Assumed Q D (mm) L (m) S hl (m) hl/Q
81
BC 9.51663104 455 1500 0.00324 4.86 0.51

CA 4.51663104 255 800 0.01367 10.936 2.42
AD -5.48 305 1100 -0.00817 -8.987 1.64
DB -10.48 405 1000 -0.00683 -6.83 0.65
Sum -0.021 5.22
Note Assumed Q Given Given From hl = S * L Total head
+𝛥𝑄 Figure 17 loss
divided by
1000
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −0.021 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 0.0021 < 0.20 . o. k
ℎ 1.85 (5.22) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑜
Line Assumed Q A Corrected Q hl

BC 9.52 0.002- 9.518 4.85
CA 4.52 0.002- 4.518 10.85
AD 5.48- 0.002- 5.482- -9.05
DB 10.48- 0.002- 10.482- -6.85
ℎ𝑙 𝐵𝐶𝐴 = ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐶 + ℎ𝑙𝐶𝐴 = 4.85 + 10.85 = 15.7 𝑚

ℎ𝑙 𝐵𝐷𝐴 = ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐷 + ℎ𝑙𝐷𝐴 = −9.05 + (−6.85) = −15.9 𝑚
For safety purposes 15.9m was selected as the head loss from junction B to Junction A.
Pressure at junction A = Pressure at
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 = 1000 − (9.8 ∗ 15.9) = 844 𝐾𝑝𝑎
Note that each 1m of water head equals 9.8 Kpa.
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Example 2: The following example is solved by the Hardy cross method. Determine the
residual pressure at G if the static pressure at A is 650 kPa and is it adequate
for fire supply of 170 kPa. Assume (1 bar = 100 kPa = 14.503 psi, and 1 kPa =
0.102 m of water head).
Solution
Frist Iteration
LOOP 1
Assumed Q D Length hl hl/Q
Line S
m3/min m m m m/m3/m
AB 13 0.4 1250 0.011 13.75 1.058
BH 2 0.25 1100 0.0033 3.63 1.815
HI 9.8- 0.3 1000 0.026- -26 2.653
83
IA 12- 0.3 1000 0.0378- -37.8 3.150

Sum -46.42 8.676
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −46.42 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 2.9 > 0.20 : . Not o. k
ℎ 1.85 (8.676) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑜
LOOP 2
Line S
m3/min m m m m/m3/m
BE 7.5 0.35 400 0.0075 3 0.400
EF 7 0.35 600 0.0066 3.96 0.566
FG 4.7 0.3 1000 0.00668 6.68 1.421
GH 9.3- 0.3 1250 -0.02363 -29.54 3.176
HB -2 0.25 1100 -0.0033 -3.63 1.815
Sum -19.53 7.378
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −19.53 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 1.4 > 0.20 : . Not o. k
∑ 𝑛 ℎ𝑖 1.85 (7.378) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋 𝑖𝑄
𝑖𝑜
Line Assumed Q D Length S hl hl/Q

m3/min m m m m/m3/m
BC 1.5 0.2 500 0.00581 2.91 1.937
CD 1 0.2 400 0.00276 1.10 1.104
DE 0.5- 0.2 500 -0.00076 -0.38 0.760
EB 7.5- 0.35 400 -0.0075 -3.00 0.400
Sum 0.63 4.201
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 0.63 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = −0.1 < 0.20 : . o. k
ℎ 1.85 (4.201) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑜
As just LOOP 3 satisfied the requirements. It is important to satisfy the assumptions at all
loops. Thus, a second round of calculations must be conducted to satisfy the assumptions.
Second Iteration
LOOP1
84

m3/min m m m m/m3/m
AB 15.9 0.4 1250 0.01572 19.65 1.236
BH 3.5 0.25 1100 0.0094 10.34 2.987
HI 6.9- 0.3 1000 0.0136- -13.6 1.969
IA 9.1- 0.3 1000 0.0227- -22.7 2.492
Sum -6.31 8.685
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −6.31 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 0.4 > 0.20 : . Not o. k
𝑛 ℎ𝑖 1.85 (8.685) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋 ∑𝑖 𝑄
𝑖𝑜
LOOP2
m3/min m m m m/m3/m
BE 8.9 0.35 400 0.0105 4.2 0.470
EF 8.4 0.35 600 0.0093 5.58 0.662
FG 6.1 0.3 1000 0.0108 10.8 1.762
GH 7.9- 0.3 1250 -0.0175 -21.88 2.780
HB -3.5 0.25 1100 -0.0094 -10.34 2.987
Sum -11.64 8.661
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −11.64 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 0.7 > 0.20 : . Not o. k
ℎ 1.85 (8.661) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋 ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑖
𝑄𝑖𝑜
LOOP3
m3/min m m m m/m3/m
BC 1.4 0.2 500 0.0051 2.55 1.797
CD 0.9 0.2 400 0.0023 0.92 1.001
DE 0.6- 0.2 500 -0.0011 -0.55 0.947
EB 9.0- 0.35 400 -0.0105 -4.20 0.466
Sum -1.28 4.211
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −1.28 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 0.2 = 0.20 : . o. k
𝑛 ℎ𝑖 1.85 (4.211) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋 ∑𝑖 𝑄
𝑖𝑜
Still the requirement is not satisfied and a third iteration must be conducted.
Third Iteration
85
LOOP1

Line S
m3/min m m m m/m3/m
AB 16.3 0.4 1250 0.0165 20.625 1.267
BH 3.2 0.25 1100 0.008 8.8 2.752
HI 6.5- 0.3 1000 0.0122- -12.2 1.873
IA 8.7- 0.3 1000 0.0209- -20.9 2.398
Sum -3.675 8.289
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −3.675 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 0.2 = 0.20 : . o. k
ℎ 1.85 (8.289) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑜
LOOP2
Line S
m3/min m m m m/m3/m
BE 9.5 0.35 400 0.0116 4.64 0.489
EF 9.1 0.35 600 0.0107 6.42 0.702
FG 6.8 0.3 1000 0.0132 13.2 1.928
GH 7.2- 0.3 1250 -0.0147 -18.38 2.569
HB -3.2 0.25 1100 -0.008 -8.8 2.786
Sum -2.92 8.474
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −2.92 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 0.2 = 0.20 : . o. k
∑ 𝑛 ℎ𝑖 1.85 (8.474) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋 𝑖𝑄
𝑖𝑜
LOOP3
Line S
m3/min m m m m/m3/m
BC 1.6 0.2 500 0.0066 3.30 2.084
CD 1.1 0.2 400 0.0033 1.32 1.218
DE 0.4- 0.2 500 -0.0005 -0.25 0.600
EB 9.5- 0.35 400 -0.0116 -4.64 0.486
Sum -0.27 4.389
− ∑𝑛𝑖 ℎ𝑖 −0.27 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝛥= =− = 0.03 < 0.20 : . o. k
𝑛 ℎ𝑖 1.85 (4.389) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋 ∑𝑖 𝑄
𝑖𝑜
The maximum head loss:
86
Path 1 Head loss Path 2 Head loss Path 2 Head loss

AI 20.9 AB 20.63 AB 20.63
IH 12.2 BH 8.8 BE 4.64
HG 18.3 HG 18.38 EF 6.42
FG 13.2
Total head loss (m) 51.5 46.81 44.89
Total head loss (Kpa) 505 468.72 440
Residual pressure at G 145 181.28 210
Example 3: For the pipe net shown in figure below. find the diameter of pipe (DC) if the
head losses at pipe (AB), and (BC) are equal (7.5 m) and (2.5 m) respectively.
Solution:
42 𝑚3
𝑄𝐴𝐵 = = 0.042
1000 𝑠
60 𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = = 0.06
1000 𝑠
Thus,
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝐴𝐷 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 0.06 − 0.042 = 0.018
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝑄𝐵𝐶 = 0.018 and 𝑄𝐴𝐷 = 𝑄𝐷𝐶 = 0.042
𝑠 𝑠
Know, you need to find the hl in all pipes to calculate the head loss in pipe DC and the determine
the dimeter of the pipe DC.
87
To find the hl for line AD
𝑆 = 0.00212 ∗ 𝑄1.85 ∗ 𝐷−4.865
1.85
150 −4.865
𝑆 = 0.00212 ∗ 0.018 ∗
1000
𝑆 = 0.01279
ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐷 = 𝑆𝐴𝐷 ∗ 𝐿𝐴𝐷
ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐷 = 0.01279 ∗ 500 = 6.39 𝑚
To find the hl for line AB
𝑆 = 0.00212 ∗ 𝑄1.85 ∗ 𝐷−4.865
1.85
200 −4.865
𝑆 = 0.00212 ∗ 0.042 ∗
1000
𝑆 = 0.0151
ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐵 = 𝑆𝐴𝐵 ∗ 𝐿𝐴𝐵
ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐷 = 0.0151 ∗ 500 = 7.56 𝑚
To find the hl for line BC
𝑆 = 0.00212 ∗ 𝑄1.85 ∗ 𝐷−4.865

250 −4.865
𝑆 = 0.00212 ∗ 0.0421.85 ∗
1000
𝑆 = 0.0051
ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐶 = 𝑆𝐵𝐶 ∗ 𝐿𝐵𝐶
ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐷 = 0.0051 ∗ 500 = 2.55 𝑚
According to the assumption that the head loss difference in each loop should equal to zero.
Then
∑ ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐵 + ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐶 = ∑ ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐷 + ℎ𝑙𝐷𝐶
7.56 + 2.55 = 6.39 + ℎ𝑙𝐷𝐶

ℎ𝑙𝐷𝐶 = 3.72 𝑚
88
To find the dimeter for line AD
𝑆 = 0.00212 ∗ 𝑄1.85 ∗ 𝐷−4.865

3.72
= 0.00212 ∗ 0.0181.85 ∗ 𝐷−4.865
500
𝐷 = 0.167 𝑚
𝐷 = 167 𝑚𝑚
Example 4: The following example contains nodes with different elevations and pressure
heads. Neglecting minor loses in the pipes, determine the flows in the pipes
and the pressure heads at the nodes. Note that the Pressure head at A equals
to 70 m and the discharge in l/s.
Pipe AB BC CD DE EF AF BE
L (m) 600 600 200 600 600 200 200
D (mm) 250 150 100 150 150 200 100
Node A B C D E F
Elevation 30 25 20 20 22 25
89
Example 5: In the pipe systems shown, find the distribution of flow and the pressure at A.
assume all pipes not otherwise labeled are at identical elevations?
4.8.2 Equivalent pipe method:
Computations are easier if small loops within the grid are replaced with hydraulically
equivalent pipes. For example, to determine the diameter and length of pipe
that will replace, in later computations, the system shown in Figure 18, the following
procedure can be followed:
First equivalents to internal lines in series are found. It is necessary, for
example, to find a pipe which will produce the same head loss as lines BD and DE
when carrying the same flow. Assuming a flow of 2 m3/min exists from B to E, the
head loss, from the nomogram, is:
Loss of head in BD = 0.01 x 500 = 5 m
Loss of head in DE = 0.04 x 250 = 10 m
Total loss = 15 m
Average loss of head = 15/750 = 0.02
90
Figure 18: A pipe loop
From Figure 17, a flow of 2 m3/min can be carried at a head loss of 0.02 m/m in a
pipe with a diameter of 170 mm. Since this is a hypothetical pipe the noncommercial
diameter is unimportant. Using the same procedure lines BC and CE are
found to be equivalent to a 160-mm pipe 500 m long. It is now necessary to find a
single pipe which is equivalent to the parallel lines BDE and BCE. Since the loss of
head from B to E is independent of the path, an assumption of head loss will
permit determination of the flow in each of the parallel lines. A single line which
will carry the total flow at the same head loss can then be selected. Assuming the head
loss from B to E to be 7.5 m the slope of the hydraulic grade line in BDE is
0.01 and in BCE, 0.015. From the nomogram a 170-mm line will carry 1.3 m3/min
with s = 0.01, and a 160-mm line will carry 1.4 m3/min with s = 0.015. The total
flow carried by the equivalent pipe is thus 2.7 m3/min at a total head loss of 7.5 m.
Selecting a length of 600 m for the equivalent pipe, the value of s is 7.5/600 =
0.0125, and from the nomogram the diameter of the pipe is 213 mm. It is now
possible to combine AB, BEeq, and EF. Assuming a flow of 3 m3 min:
Head loss in AB = 0.003x 300 = 0.90 m

Head loss in BE = 0.013 x 600 = 7.80 m
Head loss in EF = 0.020 x 300 = 6.00 m
Total = 14.7 m
Taking a length for the final equivalent pipe of 1200 m, the value of s is 0.01225,
from which d = 226 mm. Thus, it has been determined that a single line 226 mm in
diameter and 1200 m in length is hydraulically equivalent to the system shown in
Figure 18.
This method can be applied to many pipe systems, especially long and narrow
ones, by eliminating the smaller cross pipes. These play only a small part in
carriage of water, and their elimination from the computations has the effect of
adding a factor of safety.
91
Example 6: find the equivalent pipe with length of 2000 m for the pipes system shown in
figure below:
Solution
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
Assume 𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝐵𝐷 = 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑄𝐵𝐶 = 2
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
For Pipe BD,

𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205
250 2 0.38 ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐷 −0.205
= 0.282 ∗ ( ) ∗ ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐷 = 1.97𝑚
1000 60 600
For Pipe DE,

𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205
200 2 0.38 ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐷 −0.205
= 0.282 ∗ ( ) ∗ ℎ𝑙𝐷𝐸 = 3.91𝑚
1000 60 400
Then equivalent diameter for the tow pipes (BD and DE) is:
2 0.38 ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐷 + ℎ𝑙𝐷𝐸 −0.205
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ ( ) ∗
60 1000
2 0.38 1.97 + 3.91−0.205
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ ( ) ∗ 𝐷𝐵𝐷𝐸 = 0.222 𝑚 = 222 𝑚𝑚
60 1000
For Pipe BC,
92
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205

150 2 0.38 ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐶 −0.205
= 0.282 ∗ ( ) ∗ ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐶 = 11.92𝑚
1000 60 300
For Pipe CE,

𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205
150 2 0.38 ℎ𝑙𝐶𝐸 −0.205
= 0.282 ∗ ( ) ∗ ℎ𝑙𝐶𝐸 = 27.82 𝑚
1000 60 700
Then equivalent diameter for the tow pipes (BC and CE) is:
2 0.38 ℎ𝑙𝐵𝐶 + ℎ𝑙𝐶𝐸 −0.205
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ ( ) ∗
60 1000
2 0.38 11.92 + 27.82−0.205
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ ( ) ∗ 𝐷𝐵𝐶𝐸 = 0.150 𝑚 = 150 𝑚𝑚
60 1000
Then, you need to combine the two pipes which are BDE and BCE.
Assume the head loss between point B and point C = 5.88
To find the equivalent pipe, knew discharge must be found according to the new head loss
assumed.
Then, for pipe BDE
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205
222 0.38
5.88 −0.205 𝑚3
= 0.282 ∗ (𝑄) ∗ 𝑄𝐵𝐷𝐸 = 0.033
1000 1000 𝑠
And, for pipe BCE
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205
150 0.38
5.88 −0.205 𝑚3
= 0.282 ∗ (𝑄) ∗ 𝑄𝐵𝐶𝐸 = 0.012
1000 1000 𝑠
The total new discharge with a head loss of 5.88m to the pipe BE (the new pipe equivalent to
𝑚3
the pipes BDE and BCE) equals to 𝑄𝐵𝐸 = 0.033 + 0.012 = 0.045 𝑠
Thus, the diameter of the new pipe BE which replace the pipes BDE and BCE is found by :
0.38
5.88 −0.205
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 0.045 ∗ = 0.249 m = 249mm
1000
93
Know, you need to find a pipe that equal to the pipes AB, BE and EF.
The head loss for the three segments need to be determined.
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝐵
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205
250 0.38
ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐵 −0.205
= 0.282 ∗ 0.45 ∗( ) ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐵 = 2.58m
1000 450
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐸𝐹
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205
250 0.38
ℎ𝑙𝐸𝐹 −0.205
= 0.282 ∗ 0.45 ∗( ) ℎ𝑙𝐸𝐹 = 2.29m
1000 400
for pipe BE 5.88 was used to complete the calculations. Thus, the total head loss from A till F
equals to the summation of the head losses in the three different segments (AB, BE and EF).
ℎ𝑙𝐴𝐹 = 2.58 + 2.29 + 5.88 = 10.75m
Then the dimeter of the equivalent pipe of length 2000m can be determined by the following
equation:
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 𝑄 0.38 ∗ 𝑆 −0.205
0.38
10.75 −0.205
𝐷 = 0.282 ∗ 0.45 ∗( ) 𝐷𝐴𝐹 = 0.253 m = 253 mm
2000
94
Example 7: find the equivalent pipe of diameter 300 mm for the pipes system in figure
below:
95
Intakes and Screens
5.1 Introduction
This lecture provides a description of intakes. The general requirements for the location of
intakes and design criteria of intake structures also outlined. Besides, several types of intakes
also discussed. In addition, the screens also described in this lecture. The general requirements
for the location and the design criteria of screens are also outlined. At the end, several problems
are solved for training purposes.
5.2 Intake
5.2.1 Definition
The intake is a structure made of several parts, mainly constructed to collect raw water from
the source to water treatment plant. Intakes consist of the opening, strainer, or grating through
which the water enters and conduit conveying the water, usually by gravity, to a well. From the
well, the water is pumped to the mains or treatment plant. Intakes should be so located and
designed that possibility of interference with the supply is minimized and where uncertainty of
continuous serviceability exists, intakes should be duplicated. The following must be
considered in designing and locating intakes:
1. The sources of water supply, whether impounding reservoir, lakes, or river (including
the possibility of wide fluctuation in water level).
2. The character of the intake surroundings, depth of water, character of bottom,
navigation requirements, the effects of currents, floods, and storms upon the structure
and in scouring the bottom.
3. The location with respect to sources of pollution; and
4. The prevalence of the floating material such as ice, legs, and vegetation.
5.2.2 General requirements for the location of an intake:
1) Near to the water treatment plant (WTP).

2) Upstream waste disposal sites.
3) In pure water to avoid additional loading and/or complicated treatment.
96
4) Far away from navigation area.

5) It should be in deep water to provide sufficient quantity of water in dry weather conditions
and if expansion is required in the water treatment plant.
6) Far away from the effects of currents, erosion and deposition.
7) In meandering rivers, the best location is on the concave side.
5.2.3 Intake criteria design:
• Water velocity through foot valve = 0.15- 0.3 m/sec

• Detention time in suction well = 20 min
• Water velocity through suction pipe = 1-1.5 m/sec
• Water velocity through back wash pipe = 3 m/sec
• Water discharge through backwash pipe = 1/3 of the suction pipe
𝑉
• 𝑄=𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 where the T is the time, V is the velocity and A represents the
cross section of the area.
5.2.4 Intakes Types
5.2.4.1 Intakes from Impounding Reservoirs
The water of impounding reservoirs is likely to vary in quality at different levels, making it
usually desirable to take water from about a meter below the surface. This, with the fluctuations
of water level which may be expected in reservoirs, makes it advisable to have ports at various
heights. Where the dam is of earth, the intake is usually a concrete tower located in deep water
near the upstream toe of the dam.
97
Figure 19: Intake in impounding reservoir
5.2.4.2 Lake Intakes
The intake should be so located that danger of the pollution will be minimized. This may
require study of currents and effects of winds with particular attention to movement of sewage
or industrial wastes, if these are discharged into lake. Entering velocities less than (0.15 m/sec)
have been used successfully. To avoid offshore winds, intakes must be located at distance not
less than (600-900 m) from shore. A depth of (6-9 m) is required to avoid trouble caused by
ice jams which may solidly fill the water at shallow depths.
5.2.4.3 River intakes
They must be sufficient stable, and the water deep enough to allow a submergence of at least
1m at all times with a clear opening beneath the pipe so that any tendency to form a bar is
overcome. River intakes are especially likely to need screens to exclude large floating matter
which might injure pumps.
98
Figure 20: River intakes)
5.2.5 The intake conduit
A shore intake may also be the supply well for the suction pipe leading to the pumps. Intakes
located long distances from the pumps usually deliver their water to the pump well at the shore
end by gravity. The velocities in pipes will be low but not low enough to allow sedimentation.
Figure 21: example of intake conduit
99
5.3 Screens
5.3.1 Definition
Screening is a unit operation that removes floating and large suspended matter from water.
Screens may be classified as coarse, fine, microstrainer, depending on the size of material
removed. Screens may be located at the intake structure, raw water pump station, or water
treatment plant. The screen is a device with openings uniform in size. It is placed across the
flow to retain floating particles. It serves as a protective unit.
Figure 22: Screen Chamber
5.3.2 Types of Screens:
Screens are classified according to it shape, size and workability.

1. According to screens’ shapes, screens are classified to
• Rack
• Mesh
2. According to screens’ size, screens are classified to:
• Course opening screens (opens larger than 25 mm)
Intake ports should be equipped with a coarse screen or bar rack to prevent large objects from
entering the conveyance system. These screens consist of vertical flat bars or, in some cases a
round pipes spaced with (5-8) cm of clear opening. The velocity through the coarse screen is
100
generally less than 8 cm/s. Screens should be installed outside (on the water side) of any sluice
gate or stop log slot, to prevent debris from interfering with their operation.
• Medium: the openings between 6 mm and 25 mm
• Fine: the openings are less than 6 mm. Fine screens are used to remove smaller objects
that may damage pumps or other equipment. They may be located either at the intake
structure or at the raw water pump station. These screens consist of heavy wire mesh
with 0.5 cm square openings or circular passive screens with similar opening widths.
The screen area efficiency factor (0.5-0.6) and the typical velocity through the
effective area is in the range of (0.4-0.8) m/s.
• Microstrainer are used for the removal of plankton and algae from impounded waters.
Therefore, microstrainer installed before chemical coagulation will often improve the
performance of clarifiers.
3. According to screens workability, screens are classified to:
• Manual
• Mechanical
5.3.3 Design criteria of the screens
• Flowing velocity through the openings = 0.3 – 1.0 m/sec

• Head loss (hl) = 150 -300 mm
1 𝑉𝑠2 − 𝑉𝑐2
ℎ𝑙 = ∗
0.7 2𝑔
Where: 𝑉𝑠 is the velocity through the screen (m/s), 𝑉𝑐 is the velocity in the canal (m/s) and 𝑔
represents the acceleration gravity (m/s2)
5.4 Solved Problems
Example 1: Design a raw water intake system as a headwork to water treatment plant at
design capacity 10000 m3/hr including (10 suction pipes, 10 discharge pipes, 2
header or distributor, backwash pipe and wet well)? Assume water velocity in
suction, discharge, header and backwash pipes 1, 2.25, 2, and 3 m/sec
respectively and detention time in wet well 20 min.
Solution
Suction pipe:
101
10000 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋 2
𝑄𝑠𝑝 = 𝑉∗𝐴 = = 1000 = 0.278 = 1 ∗ ∗ 𝐷𝑠𝑝
10 ℎ𝑟 𝑠 𝑠 4
𝐷𝑠𝑝 = 0.595𝑚 ~ 0.6 𝑚
Discharge pipe:
10000 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋 2
𝑄𝑑𝑝 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = = 1000 = 0.278 = 2.25 ∗ ∗ 𝐷𝑑𝑝
10 ℎ𝑟 𝑠 𝑠 4
𝐷𝑑𝑝 = 0.396𝑚 ~ 0.4 𝑚
Header pipe:
10000 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋 2
𝑄ℎ𝑝 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = = 5000 = 1.388 = 2 ∗ ∗ 𝐷ℎ𝑝
2 ℎ𝑟 𝑠 𝑠 4
𝐷ℎ𝑝 = 0.94𝑚 ~ 1 𝑚
Backwash pipe:
1000 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋 2
𝑄𝑏𝑝 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = = 333.34 = 0.0926 = 3 ∗ ∗ 𝐷𝑏𝑝
3 ℎ𝑟 𝑠 𝑠 4
𝐷𝑏𝑝 = 0.198𝑚 ~ 0.2 𝑚
Wet well,
Assume one wet well with two department.
𝑉 𝑚3 𝑉
𝑄𝑤𝑤 = = 5 ∗ 1000 = 5000 = 𝑉 = 1666.67 𝑚3
𝑡 ℎ𝑟 20
60
Assume effective water depth = 3 m
Assume rectangular cross-section and L = 4W
𝑉 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ ∗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 1666.67 𝑚3 = 3 ∗ 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 = 555.556 𝑚2
𝐴 = 4 𝑊2 = 555.556 = 4𝑊 2 𝑊 = 11.785 ~ 12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 = 48 𝑚
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 3 + 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 (0.5) = 3.5 𝑚
102
Thus, two well wells each at dimensions of (48*12*3.5 m) should bee used.
Example 2: Design a direct intake of water treatment plant which has 3000 m3/hr
maxflow rate.
Solution
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄 = 3000 = 0.83
ℎ𝑟 𝑠
Example 3: Design a coarse screen (rack) for a flow of 0.15 m3/sec. The screen is placed in
a canal 0.6 m in width and 0.4 m in height. Use rectangular bars 10 X 30 mm
in cross section, assume width of the openings = 25 mm?
Solution:
Assume n = number of bars
the number of opening = number of bars +1
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 + 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 = 𝑛 ∗ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 + (𝑛 + 1) ∗ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
600𝑚𝑚 = 𝑛 ∗ 10 + (𝑛 + 1) ∗ 25
575
575 = 35𝑛 𝑛= 𝑛 = 16.4 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑛 = 16
35
Thus, the number of the bars equals to 16 and the number of openings equals to
17.
Then to check the velocity through the bar rack, the arear of the opening needs to
be calculated.
𝐴𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ∗ 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 600 − (10 ∗ 16) = 440𝑚𝑚 = 0.44 𝑚
𝑚3
0.15 𝑚
𝑠
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑉𝑠 = = 0.852 . This velocity within the
0.4∗0.44 𝑠
acceptable range, therefore, it is ok.

103
𝑄 0.15 𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑐 = = = 0.625
𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑙 0.6 ∗ 0.4 𝑠
1 𝑉𝑠2 − 𝑉𝑐2
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 ℎ𝑙 = ∗
0.7 2𝑔
1 0.8522 − 0.6252
= ∗( ) = 0.0244 𝑚
0.7 2 ∗ 9.81
Example 4: Design a coarse screen (rack) for a flow of 0.8 m3/sec. The screen is placed in
a channel 1.5 m in depth and 2 m width. Use square bars 13 X 13 mm in cross
section, assume size of the opening’s c/c = 80 mm?
Solution:
𝑐
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑐
80 13
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = − = 6.7 𝑐𝑚
10 10
Assume n= number of bars
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 + 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
2 𝑚 = 𝑛 ∗ 0.013 𝑚 + (𝑛 + 1) ∗ 0.067 𝑚 𝑛 = 24.16 ~ 24
Then, the number of openings is 25.
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 2𝑚
Or 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 𝑐 = = 25
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 ( 𝑐) 0.08
Number of bars = Number of spaces − 1 = 25 − 1 = 24

Assume freeboard depth for maintenance = 20 cm
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 1.5 − 0.2 1.3 𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝐴
= 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∗ 𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 ∗ 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝐴 = 25 ∗ 0.067 ∗ 1.3 = 2.178 𝑚2
𝑚3
0.8 𝑚
𝑠
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑉𝑠 = = 0.367 . This acceptable range,
2.178 𝑠
therefore, it is ok.
𝑄 0.8 𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑐 = = = 0.307
𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑙 2 ∗ 1.3 𝑠
104
1 𝑉𝑠2 − 𝑉𝑐2
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 ℎ𝑙 = ∗
0.7 2𝑔
1 0.3672 − 0.3072
= ∗( ) = 0.00206 𝑚
0.7 2 ∗ 9.81
105
Pumps and Pumping Stations
6.1 Introduction
This lecture is prepared to provide a description of pumps and pumping stations. The general
requirements for the design of pumps and pumping station are also outlined. Besides, several
types of pumps also discussed.
6.2 Pumps
A pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It lifts water from
a lower to a higher level and delivers it at high pressure. Pumps are employed in water supply
projects at various stages for following purposes:
• To lift raw water from wells.
• To deliver treated water to the consumer at desired pressure.
• To supply pressured water for fire hydrants.
• To boost up pressure in water mains.
• To fill elevated overhead water tanks.
• To back-wash filters.
• To pump chemical solutions, needed for water treatment.
For example, the low – lift pumping station uses pumps to lift water from the source of water
to the treatment plant and the high – lift pumping station employs pumps to pump the treated
water to the network of pipe which supply's water to a certain city.
6.2.1 Types of pumps
The pumps can be classified based on principle of operation as follows:

• Displacement pumps (reciprocating, rotary)
• Velocity pumps (centrifugal, turbine and jet pumps)
• Buoyancy pumps (air lift pumps)
• Impulse pumps (hydraulic rams)
6-106
The reciprocating pumps contains one piston or one plunger that pulls the water into the
cylinder in a periodical stroke. The water is then pushed out of the cylinder in discharge stroke.
The reciprocating pumps are suitable for work under large head and variable load not suitable
with water contains sand, give high efficiency under large head comparing with other pumps,
have intermittent flow rate, high initial cost and heavy weights. The reciprocating pumps need
to large area and issues high noise when working.
Rotary Pumps on the other hand contains two rotary piston which pull the water to the chamber
and then push it to the discharge pipe. Rotary pumps are suitable for small flow rates, for
moderated heads, for constant flow rate, for liquids that have not sands. It does not need valves
and can be easily operated.
The centrifugal pumps are mostly used for water and wastewater work. The inlet of the pump
is axial and the outlet is tangential. The flow is accelerated by the rotating impeller which
imparts to both radial and tangential velocity. The increase in cross-section of the volute
(casing) produces the change from velocity to pressure head. The advantages of centrifugal
pumps include high reliability and high dependence, high durability (less maintenance), low
initial cost, occupy small area, simple installation and operation, low weight, suitable for turbid
water without damage of pump, and low maintenance cost. However, the disadvantages of the
centrifugal pumps are suitable for low flow rate under high pressure, requires priming before
start of working and, thus, it is necessary to keep it always submerge in water source or by
installing foot valve below of suction pipe to avoid emptiness of water in suction pipe. The
centrifugal pump needs to be selected based on discharge pipe (discharge pipe diameter) and
the pump characteristics curve.
6.3 Work and efficiency of pumps
The work done by a pump is equal to the product of the mass flow and the total head against
which the flow is moved, which can be expressed by the following equation:
𝑃𝑤 = 𝛾 × 𝑄 × 𝐻
Head, hydraulic energy, kinetic or potential energy are defining as equivalent to the potential
energy of a column of water of specified height. The pressure may be expressed in terms of
either absolute or gauge reading:
𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.433 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9.81 𝑘𝑃𝑎
6-107
Total dynamic head (TDH) of a pump is the sum of the static suction head (SSH), the static
discharge head (SDH), the total friction head or total head loss (THL), and velocity head or
dynamic head (DH). In many water and wastewater applications the THL is negligible. The
sum of the static suction lift SSH and SDH is called the total static head TSH.
𝑇𝑆𝐻 = 𝑆𝑆𝐻 + 𝑆𝐷𝐻
Figure 23: head terms used in pumping
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑇𝐷𝐻) = 𝑇𝑆𝐻 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝐻𝐿)(𝑇𝐻𝐿 + 𝐷𝐻)
Pump capacity (Q) is a term used to describe the maximum flow rate through a pump at its
designed conditions. Its measurement is usually given in gallons per minute (gpm) or cubic
meters per hour (m3/h).
Head (H) is usually expressed in units of height such as meters or feet. The static head of a
pump is the maximum height (pressure) that can be delivered. The capability of the pump at a
certain revolution per minute (RPM) can be read from its Q-H curve (flow vs. height).
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑇𝐻)
= 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑(𝑆𝐻) + 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐻) + 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝐻𝐿)
+ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑃𝑟)
Pump water power (Pw), In the hydraulic field, the load of a pump is expressed in theory in
height of water. It is the hydraulic power communicated to the liquid of its passage through the
pump (Watt or kW).
𝑃𝑊 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐻
Where:
𝑃𝑊 is the water power (Kw),
6-108
𝐾 is a constant depends on the liquid density and units. For water at 20 ºC, K equals to
2.252*10-4 (hp, gpm and ft) or 0.163 (kW, m3/ min, m),
Q is the pump capacity (m3/sec),
And H is the total head (m).
Pump efficiency (𝐸𝑃 ) is defined as the ratio of water horsepower output from the pump to the
shaft horsepower input for the pump.
𝑃𝑊 𝑃𝑝
𝐸𝑃 = & 𝐸𝑀 = & 𝜂 = 𝐸𝑃 ∗ 𝐸𝑀
𝑃𝑝 𝑃𝑚
𝑘𝑁 𝑚3
) 𝛾(
∗ 𝑄 ( )
𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∗ 𝐻(𝑚)
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑚 ) =
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 0.745
Where, the 𝑃𝑝 is the pump power, 𝐸𝑀 is the motor efficiency, 𝑃𝑝 is the pump power, 𝑃𝑚 is the
motor power and 𝜂 is the total efficiency of the pump.
The efficiency of pumps ranges from (40%-90%) depending upon the pump design, the fluid
pumped, and the nicety with which pump and application are matched.
6.4 Centrifugal pumps
The flow is accelerated by the rotating impeller which imparts to both radial and tangential
velocity. The increase in cross-section of the volute (casing) produces the change from velocity
to pressure head. The centrifugal force makes the liquid to rise to a point
𝑠2
ℎ =
2𝑔
where h is the height above the level at the center, s is the linear speed where h is measured
D
(s = ω), D is the diameter of the impeller and ω its angular velocity.
2
6-109
Pumps of similar design by a single manufacturer constitute a series and will have similar
characteristics. For such a series of pumps
Q1 Q2
= Qαω
ω1 ∗ D31 ω2 ∗ D3 2
h1 h2
= Q α ω2
ω21 ∗ D21 ω2 2 ∗ D2 2
Pw1 Pw2
= Q α ω3
ω31 ∗ D51 ω3 2 ∗ D5 2
Q1 N1 TDH1 N12 P1 N13

= , = 2 & = 3
Q 2 N2 TDH2 N 2 p2 N 2
Where N is the number of revolutions per minute.
6.4.1 Characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps:
The performance of a centrifugal pump can be shown graphically on a characteristic curve. A

typical characteristic curve shows the total dynamic head, brake horsepower, efficiency, and
net positive suction head all plotted over the capacity range of the pump.
6-110
Figure 24:Characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps at constant speed
6-111
Figure 25:Series characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps at constant speed
6.5 Suction Lift
For a centrifugal pump to operate, the liquid must enter the centre of the impeller under
pressure, usually atmospheric pressure. This pressure is referred to as net positive suction head
(NPSH). NPSH is the total head at pump suction branch over and above the vapor pressure of
the liquid being pumped. Also, it’s a function of the system design, and represent the force
available to drive the flow into the pump. There are two values of NPSH which are the available
and the required.
NPSH required (NPSHr) is a function of the pump design and is the lowest value of NPSH at
which the pump can be guaranteed to operate without significant cavitation (Characteristic
curves may indicate the required NPSH).
The available NPSH depends on the location and of the intake system and is calculated by the
engineer. it is the minimum suction head required at the inlet of the impeller to prevent boiling
of the liquid under the reduced condition created at the impeller and smooth operator of the
impeller without cavitation.
6-112
NPSH is the sum of the barometric pressure and the static head on the pump inlet minus the
losses in the pipe and fittings and the vapor pressure of the water. In calculating NPSH values,
minimum anticipated barometric, and maximum anticipated vapor pressure should be used.
Barometric pressure may be further reduced by storm activity, and should be reduced by 1.2 ft
of water or 3.5 kPa on that account. The available NPSH should exceed the required NPSH
with a margin of safety (1 meter or more). The following equation is used to calculate the
available NPSH.
NPSH = Hb ± hs − hp – hf – hv
Where: -
Hb = atmospheric pressure at the level of pump (or is the barometric pressure at the given
altitudes) (atmospheric pressure at sea level = 10.336 m = 101.3 kpa)
hs is the static head of the liquid above the center line of the pump If the liquid level is below
the centerline, hs is negative.
hp is the absolute vapor pressure of the liquid at the pump temperature, m (hp at various
temperature are always given in appendices).
hf = total head loss due to friction, entrance, values, fitting, and special in the suction piping,
m (ft).
hv = velocity head m (ft) in suction pipe (almost ignored in design calculation).
6-113
6.6 Solved Problems
Example 1: determine the water power, pump power, and motor load for a pump system
designed to deliver 1.89m3/min against a total system head of 50m. assume
the efficiency of both pump and motor 80%.
Solution
𝑃𝑊 = 0.163 ∗ 1.89 ∗ 50 = 15.4 kW
PP = 15.4/0.8 = 19.25 kW
Pm = 19.25/0.8 = 24.06 Kw
Example 2: assume that a water pumping station at 500m elevation uses pumps which is
require30 kpa a positive suction pressure (NPSH) when delivering water at
30◦C. what is the allowable suction lift of these pumps if the entrance and
friction losses are 15 kpa.
Solution
𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 7.3 = 95.4 𝑘𝑝𝑎.
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.
𝐻𝑏 = 95.4 − 3.5 = 91.1 𝑘𝑝𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 7.4 = 4.3 𝑘𝑝𝑎
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑙. = 91.1 − 15 − 4.3 − ℎ𝑆 = 72.6 − ℎ𝑆
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑞. = 30 = 72.6 − ℎ𝑆
ℎ𝑆 = 42.6 𝑘𝑝𝑎
6-114
Example 3: a centrifugal pump is to operate against a total head of 360kpa and is to

discharge 1.1m3/min. compute the water power and motor power assuming
an efficiency of 60 percentage. If the efficiency of an electric motor is 85% and
the cost of current is 2.5 cents per kw.hr. Compute the monthly cost of
operation if the daily flow average 750m3.
Solution
𝑃𝑊 = 0.163 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐻
360
𝐻= = 36.73𝑚
9.8
𝑃𝑊 = 0.163 ∗ 1.1 ∗ 36.73 = 6.59 𝑘. 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝑃𝑊 6.59
𝑃𝑚 = = = 12.92𝑘𝑤
𝐸𝑃 . 𝐸𝑚 0.6 ∗ 0.85
750
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = 11.36 ℎ𝑟/𝑑𝑎𝑦
1.1 ∗ 60
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 12.92 ∗ 11.36 = 146.77 𝑘𝑤. ℎ𝑟/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ = 146.77 ∗ 30 = 4403.1 𝑘𝑤. ℎ𝑟/𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
2.5
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ = 4403.1 ∗ = 110.1$
100
Example 4: A centrifugal pump operates at a speed of 1150 r/min and discharges 2.3
m3/min against a head of 120 kPa. The power required is 8.2 kW. Compute (a)
the efficiency of the pump, (b) the discharge, head, and power if the pump
speed were changed to 1750 r/min.
Solution
1. 𝐻 = 120/9.81 = 12.267𝑚
𝑃𝑊 = 0.163 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐻 = 0.163 ∗ 2.3 ∗ 12.267 = 4.59 𝐾𝑤
𝑃𝑊 4.59
𝐸𝑃 = ∗ 100 = ∗ 100 = 56% 𝑂. 𝐾. (40 – 90 %)
𝑃𝑃 8.2
𝑄1 𝑄2 2.3 𝑄2
2. = → =
𝜔1 𝐷13 𝜔2 𝐷23 1150 1750
∴ 𝑄2 = 3.5 𝑚3 / min
ℎ1 ℎ2 12.267 ℎ2
2 2 = 2 2 → 11502 = 17502
𝜔1 𝐷1 𝜔2 𝐷2
∴ ℎ2 = 28.34 𝑚.
Pw1 Pw2 12.267 𝑃2
3. = 3 5 → =
ω3 5
1D 1 ω 2D 2 1150 3 17503
6-115
∴ 𝑃2 = 28.9 𝑘. 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
Example 5: Residential campus of 50,000 inhabitants and per capita consumption of 250
litres per day and assume that the water needed to fire demand for 10 hr
duration. Determine:
a) All draft water demand and fire demand?

b) Total daily water flow rate and water volume?
c) Dimension of water storage capacity (four parts) each L=8W & D= 5m?
d) NO. of duty and standby pump if available pump in Iraqi Market a centrifugal pump
operates at a speed of 1450 r/min and Q =250 m3/hr, H=40 and efficiency=55%?
e) Calculate the pump power?
f) Compute the efficiency of the pump, the discharge, head, and power if the pump speed
were changed to 2900 r/min?
Solution
a) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 0.25 × 50000 = 12500 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 × 12500 = 22500 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.48 × 12500 = 18500 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.28 × 12500 = 16000 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2.7 × 12500 = 33750 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑀𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.9 × 12500 = 11250 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐺 = 1020 × √𝑃 × (1 − 0.01√𝑃) = 1020 × √50 × (1 − 0.01√50)
𝑚3 𝑚3
= 6702.49 𝑔𝑝𝑚 = 1522.135 = 36531.247
ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑏) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 22500 + 36531.247 = 59031.247 ≈ 2460
𝑑𝑎𝑦 ℎ𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2
10
2500 + 36531.247 ∗ ( ) = 37721.353 𝑚3 ≈ 37722 𝑚3
24
37722
𝑐) 𝑉 = = 𝐿 ∗ 𝑊 ∗ 𝐷 = 8𝑊 2 ∗ 5 → 𝑊 = 15.35 𝑚,
4
𝐿 = 122.83 𝑚 & 𝐷 = 5𝑚
2460
𝑑) 𝑁𝑂. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑠 = ≈ 10
250
6-116
10
𝑁𝑂. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑠 = ≈ 3
3
𝑆𝑜, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 13 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑠 (10𝑁𝑂. 𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 + 3𝑁𝑂 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝)
250
𝑃𝑤 = 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐻 = 9.81 ∗ ∗ 40 = 27.25 ≈ 28 𝑘𝑊
3600
𝑃𝑤 28 50.9
𝑃𝑚 = = = 50.9 𝑘𝑊 → = 68.34 ℎ𝑝
𝜂 0.55 0.745
𝑄1 𝑁1 250 1450 𝑚3
𝑓) = → = → 𝑄2 = 500
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝑄2 2900 ℎ𝑟
𝐻1 𝑁1 40 14502
= → = → 𝐻2 = 160 𝑚
𝐻2 𝑁22 𝐻2 29002
𝑃1 𝑁13 50.9 14503
= → = → 𝑃2 = 407.2 𝑘𝑊
𝑃2 𝑁23 𝑃2 29003
6-117
Coagulation and Flocculation
7.1 Introduction
Coagulation is a chemical process to destabilize colloidal particles by the addition of

compounds known as coagulants.
Colloidal particles, as a result of their small size, have a very large ratio of surface area to
volume. Most colloidal particle in water are negatively charged. The surface charge on
colloidal particles is the major contributor to their long – term stability. Particles which might
otherwise settle or coalesce are mutually repelled by their like charge
7.2 Type of coagulants used in water treatment:
1. Alum, Al2(SO4)3.18H2O
𝐴𝑙2 (SO4 )3 ∙ 18H2 O + 3Ca(OH)2 → ⏟
2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + ⏟
3𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 18𝐻2 𝑂
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
2. Ferric Sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3

Fe2 (SO4 )3 + 3Ca(HCO3 )2 → 2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3 + 3𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 6𝐶𝑂2
3. Ferric Chloride, Fe(Cl)3
2𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 + 3𝐶𝑎 (𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 → 2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaCl2 + 6CO2
4. Ferrous Sulfate, FeSO4.7H2O
𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂4 ∙ 7𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 7𝐻2 𝑂
5. Polyelectrolytes
7.3 How does the coagulant work:
1. Dissolution
2. Hydrolysis
3. Polymerization
7.3.1 The chemical reaction governing the coagulation process
𝐴𝑙2 (SO4 )3 ∙ XH2 O + 3Ca(HCO

⏟ 3 )2 → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)
⏟ 3 + 3𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑋𝐻2 𝑂 + 6𝐶𝑂2
𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑐
7-118
Lime CaO is to be added to the treated water for:

1. To control the decrease in pH due to the generation CO2 from the reaction
2. Also if the alkalinity of the treated water is not enough for the reaction
𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
𝐴𝑙2 (SO4 )3 ∙ XH2 O + 3Ca(𝑂𝐻)2 → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 3𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑋𝐻2 𝑂
7.3.2 Coagulation by the Jar Test:
The coagulation is studied by the Jar Test which is: a procedure to study the effect of chemical
addition on the stability of the suspended particles. It is a practical control of coagulation to
find the required dose or dosage of chemicals to be added.
The results of this test can help in the design of the coagulation and flocculation process in 3
stages:
1. Flash mixer
Rapid mixing for the dispersion of the added chemicals with water. This requires a high
degree of turbulence and power but short detention time.
2. Flocculator
Slow mixing in which destabilized particles are brought into contact in order agglomerate.
This is done in a tank designed with
A. By using baffled channels or (static or hydraulic flocculate):
In this type of flocculation, the slow mixing is obtained by construction baffles the
flocculation. There are two type of baffles arrangement: slow mixing due to passing water
below and above baffles, and slow mixing due to passing water around baffles.
B. By using paddles:
The slow mixing is obtained by using large paddle wheel mixer. The paddles are mounted
either vertically or horizontally.
7-119
3. Sedimentation tank or Clarifier

For the settlement of the flocculent particles.
7.4 The Power and the velocity gradient (G)
Baddle basins
Power (P) is required for the mixing process which is determined from
𝑣𝑑 3
𝑃 = 𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑤 ∑ 𝐴
2
Where:
CD = drag coefficient (related to the dimensions of the tank as shown in the table)
Length/ width (L/W) CD
Less than 5 1.2
Less than 20 1.5
More than 20 1.9
ρw = density of water
∑ 𝐴 = total area of the rotating paddles (the blades)
vd = differential (relative) velocity of the paddles (vp) to the flow
velocity of the paddles (vp) = π d rpm
vd = differential velocity of paddle blades = 0.75 *vp
Where:
d = diameter of rotation and,
rpm = rotation/min
The velocity gradient (G) should be determined to control the mixing process.
7-120
G is the degree of mixing which is the shear stress taking place inside the flow. The higher G
is more violent (stronger) the mixing will be and shorter time is required for mixing. The
𝑃 0.5
velocity gradient is determined by: 𝐺 = (𝑣𝑜𝑙∙ )
𝜇𝑤
Where:
P = power for mixing
vol. = volume of the tank
µw = viscosity of water
Baffled basins
𝜌𝑤∗𝑔∗ℎ
P= = µ ∗ 𝐺2
𝑡
𝜌𝑤 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ ℎ
𝐺=√
µ∗𝑡
t: detention time.
Q: flow rate m3/sec
h: head loss (m)
p: power in put per unit volume
𝜌w: density of fluid
7-121
7.5 Design criteria
i. Coagulation or Flash mixer

1. Depth = (2-3) m
2. Detention time = 10 – 20 sec or 30 – 60 sec, max. = 1 min.
3. L= (1.5 – 2) w
4. W (revolution speed) ≥ 100 rpm
5. G = 500 – 1000 sec-1
6. Gt or GT (no. of generated particles) = 30*103 – 60*103
ii. Flocculator
1. G = 10 – 80 sec-1
2. Detention time = 20 – 60 min
3. Gt or GT = 10*103 – 20 *104
4. Area of one paddle = 10 – 30 % the cross section area of the tank
5. Velocity of the flow (vf) = 0.15 – 0.5 m/min
6. Velocity of the paddles (vp) = 0.10 – 1.0 m/sec with 20 – 30% losses
7. Diameter of rotation (d) = 0.2 – 0.5 w
8. Depth = (1.5 – 2) * diameter of paddle
7.6 Solved Problems
Example 1: Design a flash mixing tank (coagulation tank) if Q = 0.10 m3/sec.
Solution:
V = Q *t
let t = 1 min.
7-122
V = 1 * 60 * 0.1 = 6 m3.
Let D = 2.5 m → (2 – 3) m.
Vol. = As * D
𝑉𝑜𝑙 6
:. 𝐴𝑠 = = 2.5 = 2.40 𝑚2
𝐷
So, let L = 2W → L = (1.5 – 2) W

:. 𝐴𝑠 = 𝐿 ∗ 𝑤 → 2.40 = 2w 2 → w 2 = 1.2
W ≈ 1.10 m, L = 2.20 m (rectangular tank)
*If squared tank (L = w)
:. 𝐴𝑠 = 𝐿 ∗ 𝐿 → 2.40 = L2 → L = 1.55 m
*If circular tank
𝜋 𝜋
:. 𝐴𝑠 = 4 𝐷2 → 2.40 = 𝐷2 → D ≈ 1.75 m
4
Example 2: A water plant treating 12,000 m3/day uses alum at a rate of 20 mg/L. Determine
the daily usage and the storage volume required if a minimum of one-month’s
supply is desired and deliveries are bi-weekly. Alum has a density (bulk)
approximately equal to that of water.
Solution:
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔 𝐿 𝐾𝑔
𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝑄 ∗ 𝐶 = 12000 ∗ 20 ∗ 103 3 10−6
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐿 𝑚 𝑚𝑔
𝐾𝑔
= 240
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ = 𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ∗ 30
𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝐾𝑔 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐾𝑔
= 240 ∗ 30 = 7200
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 7200
𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 − 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑙𝑦 = =
2 2
𝐾𝑔
= 3600
𝑏𝑖 − 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑙𝑦
𝐾𝑔
𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 − 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑙𝑦 3600
𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝐾𝑔
1000 3
𝑚
𝑚3
= 36
7-123
𝑚3
𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 36 ∗ 2 = 72
𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
Example 3: In a baffled basin the rate of flow of water is 12 m3/min the detention time is
40 min and the head loss is 1 m. Calculate: 1-the power input 2- the value of
G and Gt. µ= 1.004 * 10-3 gm /cm sec.
Solution:
𝜌∗𝑔∗ℎ 1000∗9.81∗1 watt
1. 𝑃 = = = 4.1
𝑡 40∗60 m3
𝑃 4.1
2. G =√ = √ = 64 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ok (10 – 80)
𝜇 1.004∗10−3
G.t = 64 * (40 * 60) sec = 153600 = 15.36 * 104 OK (10*103 – 20*104)
Example 4: A water treatment plant is to process 30000 m3/d. The flocculation basin having
four flocculators with transverse paddle units. The width of flocculation basin
is 10 m and 4 m depth. Determine:
1. Basin dimensions by using upper limits of specifications.
2. Power requirements.
(rotational speed = 4 r/min, ρ = 998.2 Kg/m3, µ = 1.002*10-3 Kg/m.s, CD = 1.8, paddle
diameter = 3.25 m).
Solution:
1. 20 min ≤ t ≤ 60 min
Let t = 60 min
𝑚3 1ℎ𝑟 1𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝑄 ∗ 𝑡 = 30000 ∗ 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗ ∗ = 1250 𝑚3
𝑑 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑟
1250
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = = 31.25 𝑚
10 ∗ 4
2. Area of blades = (10 – 30) % * cross-section area of flocculation basin
Let Area of blades = 30% * (10*4) m2 = 12 m2
𝜋 ∗ 3.25 ∗ 4 𝑚
Linear velocity of paddle blades = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑 ∗ 𝑟𝑝𝑚 = = 0.68
60 𝑠
Differential velocity of paddle (vd) = 0.75 * 0.68 = 0.51 m/s
𝐶𝐷 ∗ 𝜌𝑤 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝑑 3 1.8 ∗ 998.2 ∗ 12 ∗ (0.51)3 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝑊
𝑃= = = 1430.05 3 = 1.43 3
2 2 𝑚 𝑚
7-124
Example 5: A flocculation tank is fitted with paddle impellers 6 m long mounted on two
horizontal shafts perpendicular to the flow and rotating at a speed of 4 rpm,
each shaft is pitted with two paddles 20 cm wide fitted opposite each other, the
center of the paddle is 2 m from the center of the shaft. The rate of flow of
water is 10.5 m3/min and the detention time is (40 min). The coefficient of
drag is 1.4 the mean velocity of the water is one fourth the paddle velocity.
calculate:
1- The rate of the paddle area and the cross section area of tank expressed as
percentage.
2- The velocity differential for the paddles.
3- The power and energy require.
4- The volume of G and Gt. ( let µ = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )g/cm. sec.
Solution:
Volume = Q * t = 10.5 * 40 = 420 m3
Depth = (1.5 – 2) * diameter of paddle.
Let depth = 2 * (4) = 8 m
Vol.= As * depth
420 = 𝐴𝑠 ∗ 8 → 𝐴𝑠 = 52.5 𝑚2
Let w = 6+1 = 7 m
:. 52.5 = 7 *L
:. L = 7.5 < (4 + 4 +( 3 *0.5) + (0.1*4)) = 9.9 m Net area
Let depth = 1.5 * (4) = 6 m, 420 = As * 6
𝐴𝑠 = 70 𝑚2 → 70 = 7𝐿
L = 10 m ≥ 9.9 (OK)
:. Use tank of (L*W*d) = (10 * 7 * 6)
Paddle area rotating in the cross- section = 0.2 * 6 * 2 = 2.4 m2
7-125
Cross- section area of tank = w*d =7 * 6 =42 m2.

2.4
:. * 100 = 5.7 % < (10 – 30) % (OK).
42
𝜋∗(4)∗( 4 )
The liner velocity of paddle blades = 𝜋 𝑑 𝑟𝑝𝑚 = = 0.837 m/sec
60
Velocity deferential for paddle = 0.75 * 0.837 = 0.63 m/sec.

Total area of paddles = 0.2 * 6 * 4 = 4.8 m2
𝑐𝑑.𝐴.𝜌𝑤.𝑣𝑑3 1.4 ( 4.8)(1000)(0.63)3
Total power input = = = 840 watt = 0.84 KW
2 2
𝜌 840 1
G = √µ .𝑣𝑜𝑙. = √1.004∗ 10−3 ∗420 = 44.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 10 ≤ G ≤ 80) OK
Example 6: A rectangular flocculator is design with 3 rotating paddles, to treat 393 m3/hr
flow during 60 min. the power required for mixing is 138 watts. The tank is of
dimensions L = 3H and W = 2H, where H is the depth of the tank. Assume the
area of one paddle is 10% the cross sectional area of the tank and temperature
= 20 oc. Find:
1) dimensions of the tank L, W and H (m).
2) Rotation per minute (rpm) of the paddles, assume 20% losses in velocity and
diameter of rotation = 0.2W.
3) Velocity gradient (sec-1).
4) Check the design at temperature 5 oc and 30 oc.
Solution:
1. Vol. = Q * t = A * H
𝑚3
393
ℎ𝑟 ∗ 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗ 60 = (𝐿 ∗ 𝑊) ∗ 𝐻 → 393 = (3𝐻 ∗ 2𝐻) ∗ 𝐻 → 393 = 6𝐻 3 →
60 ∗ 60
𝐻 ≅ 4 𝑚 → 𝐿 = 3 ∗ 4 = 12 𝑚 . 𝑊 = 2 ∗ 4 = 8 𝑚
2. Diameter of rotation = 0.2 * W = 0.2 * 8 = 1.6 m
20% losses in velocity = The liner velocity of paddle blades = 0.1 m/sec (vp = 0.10 – 1.0 m/sec
with 20 – 30% losses)
𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣𝑝 = 𝜋 𝑑 𝑟𝑝𝑚 → 0.1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∗ 60 min = 𝜋 ∗ 1.6 𝑚 ∗ 𝑟𝑝𝑚 → 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.2 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝜌 138 1
3. G = √µ .𝑣𝑜𝑙. = √1.005∗ 10−3∗(4∗8∗12) = 18.91 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 10 ≤ G ≤ 80) OK at T = 20 oC
𝜌 138 1
4. G = √µ .𝑣𝑜𝑙. = √1.519∗ 10−3∗(4∗8∗12) = 15.38 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 10 ≤ G ≤ 80) OK at T = 5 oC
𝜌 138 1
G = √µ .𝑣𝑜𝑙. = √8.010∗ 10−4 ∗(4∗8∗12) = 21.18 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 10 ≤ G ≤ 80) OK at T = 30 oC
7-126
Example 7: A water plant treating 30000 m3/day. The rapid mixing is used tank blend 35
mg/L of alum with the flow and is to have a detention time of 2 min. The tank
is to have a square cross-section with vertical shaft and a flat blade impeller.
Determine the following:
1- Quantity of alum added (Kg/day)
2- Dimensions of tank by using upper limits of specifications.
Example 8: A flocculation basin is designed to treat water of 1 m3/s flow rate. The length of
the basin is 30 m and width is 12.25 m and the basin depth is 4.5 m. The basin
is provided by four axes (shafts) a long its length, each shafts has two blades,
the width of each blade is 0.3 m with 12 m length, the distance between the
center of shaft and the center of each blade is 2 m, the coefficient of drag is 1.8,
the velocity of blade in the basin 2.5 rpm. use ( µ = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) N.s/m2, ρ =
1000 Kg/m3. calculate:
1- The power requirement in unit of (KW).
2- Flocculation time in unit of (min).
3- The volume of G of each blade.
Example 9: A rectangular flocculator is to be designed with one rotating paddle, assume
dimension time is 20 min, Gt = 15*103, CD = 1.2, rpm = 2, dia./w = 0.5, 25%
losses in velocity, area of one paddle = 20% cross section area. Find:
3. Dimensions of the tank L, W and H (m).
4. Power for mixing (kW).
5. Velocity gradient (sec-1).
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Plain Sedimentation
8.1 Introduction
This lecture is prepared to provide a description of the water clarification (sedimentation)

process. The general requirements for the design of the sedimentation tank are also outlined.
Besides, the sedimentation theory, the design criteria and the types of sedimentation tanks also
discussed.
8.2 Water Treatment-Clarification Process
Process Function
Chemical sedimentation Removal of colloidal particles
Aeration, chemical oxidizing agents, and adsorbents Removal of taste and odours
Softening Removal of dissolvent cations-generally
calcium and magnesium
Stabilization Prevent corrosion or deposition in
distribution system.
8.3 Sedimentation theory
Sedimentation is the separation of impurities known as discrete particles from the flowing fluid
(flow) by the action of natural forces (gravity). This process takes place in a basin known as
the sedimentation tank or the clarifier.
Discrete particles are the particles that do not change in size, shape or in weight when falling
freely through the flowing flow.
Forces acting on the falling particle:
Assume that the particle is a sphere with diameter (d)
𝐹𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹𝑔 – 𝐹𝑏
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑔 ∗ 𝜌𝑠 ∗ 𝑉
𝐹𝑏 = 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑔 ∗ 𝜌𝑤 ∗ 𝑉
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝜋𝑑𝑠3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 = =
3 6
8-128
𝜌𝑠 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 (𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠)

𝜌𝑤 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑔 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐹𝑖 = ∗ (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 )
6
𝐶𝐷 ∗ 𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝜌𝑤
𝐹𝑑 = 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑑 =
2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒.
𝜋𝑑𝑠3
𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝐴 =
4
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑠:
𝑚 ∗ 𝑑𝑉𝑠
= 𝐹𝑖 − 𝐹𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐹𝑖 = 𝐹𝑑
4 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 ) 4 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑉𝑠 = √ = √
3𝐶𝐷 𝜌𝑤 3𝐶𝐷
𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

𝜌𝑠
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝐺𝑠 =
𝜌𝑤
24 24𝜇𝑤
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠; 𝐶𝐷 = = 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 0.5
𝑅𝑒 𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 ∗ 𝜌𝑤
24 3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠; 𝐶𝐷 = + + 0.34 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 0.5 < 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 1000
𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠; 𝐶𝐷 = 0.4 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅𝑒 > 1000

𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 ∗ 𝜌𝑤
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇𝑤
𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 ∶ ( 𝜇𝑤 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟) 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 = 0.1
𝑐𝑚 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 100 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐. 𝑝 = 10−2 𝑝 which can be found in table 1- appendix 4 in
water supply and sewerage.
𝑔 ∗ 𝑑𝑠2 (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 )
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑉𝑠 =
18 ∗ 𝜇𝑤
𝑔 ∗ 𝑑𝑠2 ∗ 𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)
= 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎.
18 ∗ 𝜇𝑤
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Stokes’ law used for spherical particles falling under laminar (quiescent) conditions.
The design of sedimentation tanks is generally based upon the concept of the ideal
sedimentation as shown in the figure below.
The particle entering the basin will have a horizontal velocity equal to the velocity of the flow
(Vf) and a settling velocity (Vs) according to Stocks velocity. For the particle to be removed
from the flow, its resultant velocity should be equal the resultant velocity (V) which will carry
it to the bottom of the tank.
𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦: 𝑖𝑓 (𝑉𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 𝑉𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤) , (𝑉𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠
= 𝑉𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑎𝑤) ,
(𝑉𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 = √𝑉𝑓2 + 𝑉𝑠2 & 𝑉𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = √𝑉𝑓2 + 𝑉𝑠2
So, the particles will be removed 100% if (𝑉𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
Considering the velocity vector triangle and the dimensions of the tank (L= length, H = height
and W = width).
𝑄 𝑄
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉𝑓 = =
𝐴𝑐 𝑊 ∗ 𝐻
If particle is to be removed, it's settling velocity and horizontal velocity (V𝑓) must be such that
their resultant, (V), will carry it to the bottom of the tank before the outlet zone is reached, all
particles with the same settling velocity will be removed.
𝑉𝑓 𝐿 𝑉𝑓 ∗ 𝐻 𝑄 𝐻 𝑄 𝑄
= 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉𝑠 = = ∗ = =
𝑉𝑠 𝐻 𝐿 𝑊∗𝐻 𝐿 𝑊 ∗ 𝐿 𝐴𝑠
Where:
Q: The discharge entering the tank;
Ac: The cross-sectional area of the tank perpendicular to the flow = 𝑊 × 𝐻
As: The surface area= 𝑊 × 𝐿
Surface overflow rate (SOR or Vs) is numerically equal to the flow divide by the plan or
surface area of the basin, but which physically represents the settling velocity of the smallest
particle to be 100% removed from the flow or to be settled. Any particle of (Vs) larger or equal
to SOR will settle (𝑉𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 ≥ 𝑆𝑂𝑅), and while those which settle at lower velocities
8-130
will be removed in direct proportion to the ratio of their settling velocity to (Vs), so, if Vs is
smaller than SOR, it will not settle (𝑉𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 < 𝑆𝑂𝑅).
Weir Overflow Rates is the flow rate of the clarifier effluent per the length of the overflow
weir. It is argued that if the weir loading rates exceed the recommended values, the velocity
of currents approaching the weirs may be such that excessive solids are carried over the weir.
8.4 Ideal sedimentation
Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases:
1. Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).
2. Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank (underflow).
The following characteristics exhibit in an ideal sedimentation process:
1. The flow is evenly distributed across the tank;
2. The particles are evenly distributed in the flow.
Purpose of Settling:
1. To remove coarse dispersed phase.
2. To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
3. To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
4. To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking filters.
Principle of Settling:
• Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water tend
to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
• Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
• Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called
the detention period.
An ideal sedimentation basin is divided into the five zones:
• Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section
such that the flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.
• Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
• Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.
• Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet weir.
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• Freeboard zone: The distance between normal water level and the top of a structure,
such as a dam, that impounds or restrains water.
8.5 Inlet and Outlet Arrangement:
Inlet devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform velocities.
A baffle should be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project several feet
below the water surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow;
Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities
suitable for settling in the basin and to minimize short-circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable, and
at least equivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank. However, peripheral weirs are not
acceptable as they tend to cause excessive short-circuiting.
8.6 Types of Settling:
Discrete particle settling: Particles settle individually without interaction with neighbouring
particles.
Flocculent Particles: Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at a faster
rate.
Hindered or Zone settling: The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with individual
particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.
Compression: The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only occur
through compaction of the structure.
8.7 Types of sedimentation tanks:
1. Shape: rectangular, square, circular (cylindrical);
8-132
• Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously. The

intermittent tanks also called quiescent type tanks are those which store water for a
certain period and keep it in complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow
velocity is only reduced and the water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an
intermittent type.
• b) Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. Long narrow
rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are generally preferred to the circular tanks with
radial or spiral flow.
2. Direction of flow: horizontal, radial, vertical;
3. Detention time: full and with draw, continuous flow;
4. Plain sedimentation, sedimentation with chemicals
8.8 Design criteria
1. SOR: 20 – 80 m/d.
2. Detention time: 2- 6 hr (Average 3 – 4 hr).
3. Depth or height (H): 2-6 m (Average 3 – 4 m).
4. Inlet velocity (Vf): 0.15 – 0.5 m/min.
5. In rectangular tanks L/W = (2/1 – 5/1), maximum L is less than 100 m.
6. In circular tanks Diameter (D) maximum D should be less than 50m, inlet diameter less
than 10% of the D.
𝑄
7. Weir loading rate (𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ): 120 − 250 m3/m/d.
8. scouring velocity (Vh) is the horizontal velocity that will re-suspend the settled particles
8 ∗ 𝛽 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)
𝑉ℎ = √ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 = 0.04 – 0.06 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = 0.02 – 0.03
𝑓
It is hard to reach ideal settling in sedimentation tanks because the variable inlet flowing
velocity, the variable temperature inside the tank that will give different ρw and μw , the
unsimilar particle distribution and the short circuiting due to the shape of the tank.
8-133
8-134
8.9 Solved Problems
Example 1: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 393 m3/hr flows. Assume the
smallest particle to be 100% removed is 0.03 mm in diameter, detention time
= 3hr, inlet flowing velocity = 0.15 m/min, temperature= 20 oC and Gs= 1.65.
Find:
1) H, W and L of the tank.
2) Volume of the settled sludge per day (m3/d) if the influent suspended solids
(SS) concentration is 200 mg/L, the sludge is 5% in solid content and the
removal efficiency is 80% in the tank.
3) Discuss the effect of temperature changes, T=5 oC in winter and T = 33 oC in
summer.
4) The dimensions of a circular sedimentation tank for the same example. H.W
Solution:
1) H, W and L of the tank.
𝑘𝑔
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 642 𝜌𝑤 = 0.9982 × 103 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
𝜇𝑤 = 1.008 × 10−3
𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2
𝑔𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)𝑑𝑠2 (9.81 × 0.9982 × 103 × (1.65 − 1) × (0.03 × 10−3 ))
𝑉𝑠 = =
18𝜇𝑤 18 × 1.008 × 10−3
𝑚 𝑚
= 3.176 × 10−4 = 27.39 = 𝑆𝑂𝑅
sec 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
𝑄 𝑄 × 24393
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = ⇛ 𝐴𝑆 = = ℎ𝑟 = 344.36 𝑚2
𝐴𝑆 𝑆𝑂𝑅 𝑚3
27.39
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑄= ⇛ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑠 × 𝐻 = 𝑄 × 𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 344.36 × 𝐻 = 393 × 3ℎ𝑟 ⇛ 𝐻 = 3.42 𝑚 𝑂. 𝐾
ℎ𝑟
𝐿 𝑚
𝑉𝑓 = ⇛ 𝐿 = 0.15 × 3ℎ𝑟 × 60 = 27𝑚
𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑠 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 ⇛ 344.36 = 27 × 𝑊 ⇛ 𝑊 = 12.75𝑚
𝐿 27
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘: = = 2.12 𝑂. 𝐾
𝑊 12.75
𝑄
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑊𝐿𝑅) =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑊 = 12.75 𝑚
8-135
𝑚3
𝑄 393 × 24
𝑊𝐿𝑅 = = ℎ𝑟 = 739.76 𝑚3 /𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 12.75 𝑚
> 250 𝑚3 /𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑂. 𝐾
393 × 24
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 250 𝑚3/𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = ⇛ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 37.7
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
≈ 38 𝑚
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦:
𝛽
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2
𝑓
8 ∗ 𝛽 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)
𝑉ℎ = √ = √8 × 2 × 9.81 × (1.65 − 1)(0.03 × 10 − 3) =
𝑓
𝑚
= 0.055 = 3.319 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑒
∴ 𝑉𝑓 = 0.15𝑚/ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉ℎ > 𝑣𝑓 𝑂. 𝐾
2) Total amount of suspended solids in the effluent:
𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 103 𝑘𝑔
200 × 393 × 6 × 24 = 1886.4
𝐿 ℎ𝑟 10 𝑑𝑎𝑦
80% 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 (𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘)
𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 = 0.8 × 1886.4 = 1509 = 𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
5 𝑤𝑠 1509 𝑘𝑔
= = ⇛ 𝑤𝑤 = 28671
100 𝑤𝑠 + 𝑤𝑤 1509 + 𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑤
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 = & 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑤
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜌𝑤 = 998.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑎𝑡 𝑇 = 200𝐶 ≈ 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 + 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
1509 28671 𝑚3 30 𝑚3
= + = 29.58 ≈
1.65 × 103 103 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
3) Settling velocity changeability with temperature or water mass density and viscosity and
compare it with the design criteria:
8-136
Season Temperature Water mass density Water viscosity
(0C) ρw (𝑘𝑔/𝑚
3
μw (𝑘𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐)
Winter 5 0.9999 × 103 1.519 × 10−3
Summer 33 0.9957 × 103 0.7983 × 10−3
So, for sedimentation tank design the best water temperature degree at winter temperature
(50C), and then increase the settling velocity with increase temperature due to (𝑉𝑠 > 𝑆𝑂𝑅).
8-137
Example 2: A settling tank is designed for an overflow rate of 4000 litter per m2 per hour.
What percentage of particles of diameter (a) 0.05 mm (b) 0.02 mm, will be
removed in the tank at 100C? Assume specific gravity of particles SG = 2.65.
Solution:
8-138
Example 3: Find the diameter of the particles with specific gravity of 1.2 removed in a tank
having a surface area of 250 m2 and treating 8 million litres per day (MLD)?
Assume temperature 260C and specific gravity of particles S.G = 2.65.
Solution:
Example 4: Design a sedimentation tank to treat 0.10 m3/sec.
This is a HW.
8-139
Water Filtration
9.1 Introduction
This lecture is prepared to provide basic information regarding water filtration process. The
general requirements for the design of the filtration unit are also outlined. The types of filters
according to process workability and media are presented. Besides, the design criteria of
filtration unit also presented.
9.2 Filtration definition
Filtration is defined as the process of the separation of non-settleable solids from water by
passing it through a porous media. Filtration also removes from water: colour, taste, odour,
iron, manganese and microorganisms such as bacteria. In water treatment plants this is done in
a unit known as the filter. The filter is a unit that contains a bed of a porous media such as sand
and gravel which removes small particles from the water.
9.3 Theory of Filtration
The mechanisms by which granular filtration media remove impurities from water are complex.
Common mechanisms include straining, sedimentation, interception, Brownian diffusion and
inertia (Figure 26).
1. Straining: some colloidal particles are too large to pass through pore spaces in the filter
media bed. These particles become trapped and are removed.
2. Sedimentation: water flowing through the filter bed is usually laminar with the velocity
and direction constantly changing because of the obstruction by the media grains. The
mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of gravity and the associate settling velocity
of the particle, which causes it to cross the streamlines and reach the collector.
3. Interception: Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a large enough
particle follows the streamline that lies very close to the media surface it will hit the
media grain and be captured.
4. Brownian diffusion: Diffusion towards media granules occurs for very small particles,
such as viruses. Particles move randomly within the fluid, due to thermal gradients.
This mechanism is only important for particles with diameters < 1 micron.
140
5. Inertia or impaction: Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast
enough to travel off their streamlines and bump into media grains.
Figure 26: Filtration mechanisms
9.4 Types of Filters
Filter types commonly utilized in water treatment are classified based on filtration rate, driving
force, filter media and direction of flow.
1. According to filtration, water treatment filters can be classified to slow filters and rapid
filters. The main difference between both types is the filtration rate. For example, the
filtration rate in slow sand filters ranges between 9.6 – 36 m/day while it ranges from
120 to 240 m/day in rapid sand filters. Besides, the filter media particles and voids are
normally larger in rapid filters than slow filter. For instance, the effective size of slow
sand filter media falls within the range of 0.1 – 0.3 mm while the effective size of rapid
sand filters media ranges between 0.45 and 0.55 mm.
2. According to diving force, water treatment filters can be classified to gravity filters and
pressure filters. The major differences between gravity and pressure filters are the head
required to force the water through the media bed and the type of vessel used to contain
the filter unit.
141
3. According to direction of flow, filters are classified as downflow or upflow. Downflow

filters are the type most used in water treatment in water treatment. In this type of
system, the flow through the media bed is downward. In upflow filters, the water flows
upward through the media bed. This type of system is rarely used in granular filters, but
it is sometimes used in granular activated carbon beds.
4. According to filter’s media, filters are classified to mono-media filters and multimedia
filters. Mono-media filter contain one layer of granular material such as sand or
anthracite. Multimedia filters consist of two or more layers of different granular
materials, with different densities. Anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are usually used.
The different layers combined may provide more versatile collection than a single sand
layer. Because of the differences in densities, the layers stay neatly separated, even after
backwashing.
9.5 Filter Media
The choice of a filter medium is dictated by the durability required, the desired degree of
purification, and the length of filter run and ease of backwash sought. The ideal medium should
have such a size and be of such material that it will provide a satisfactory effluent, return a
maximum quantity of solids, and be readily cleaned with a minimum of wash water.
• Sand: Sand, either fine or course, is generally used as filter media. The size of the sand
is measured and expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size, i.e. D10
may be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample
of sand by weight will pass. The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of
particles is measured and expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient. The
uniformity coefficient, i.e. (𝐷𝑈 =𝐷60/𝐷10) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size
in mm through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size
of the sand.
• Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water
to move freely to the underdrains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly
upwards.
• Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthracite is used as filter media.
Anthracite is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without
smoke or flames. It is cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.
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Table 9-1 shows the difference between course and fine filter media while
Table 9-1: difference between fine and course filter media
Fine material Coarse material

Better effluent Better utilization of the storage capacity of the filter.
High head loss in upper layers of the bed. Permit deeper penetration of the floc.
Short filter runs. Longer filter runs.
Most difficult in cleaning upon backwash Easier cleaning upon backwash
Single – medium– filters: utilize a single material, most commonly well – graded sand.
However, in a single – media filter, larger grains settle faster than smaller grains in a
phenomenon called (stratification or reverse) gradation after backwashing. Reverse gradation
is the major disadvantage of the single – medium filter. This problem can be minimized by
specifying a layer – diameter medium with a uniformity coefficient close to unity (less than
1.40) and by using a deep medium.
Sand Anthracite Gravel

Clean, hard, and resistance. Hard, rounded, durable, free
from flat, thin, and contain no
foreign material.
Not lose more than 5% by
weight after being placed in
40% hydrochloric acid for 24
hr.
Sand depth 600-700 mm. Anthracite depth 600-700 mm.
Effective size of 0.45-0.55 Effective size of 0.7 mm. Effective size between 0.8 to 2
mm. mm.
Uniformity coefficient not less Uniformity coefficient of 1.75 Uniformity coefficient of not
than 1.2 and not exceed 1.7. or less. over 1.7.
Another solution to the problem of reverse gradation is the dual – media filter. Typical dual
media filters utilize anthracite coal and quartz sand as filter media. The anthracite with a
specific gravity of 1.55 is lighter than the sand which has a specific gravity of 2.65. Therefore,
a large anthracite grain has the same settling velocity as a much smaller sand grain. This
characteristic allows coal grains to be placed on top of smaller sand grains to create a gradation.
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Mixed media filters are similar to dual – media filters, except that several materials are used.
Typically, three materials are used: anthracite with specific gravity of 1.55, sand with a specific
gravity of 2.65, and garnet with a specific gravity of 4.05. Mixed – media filters are basically
improved dual – media filters, with increased filters is much higher than that of dual – media
filters, because garnet is quite expensive.
9.6 Slow Sand Filters
Slow sand filters are used in water purification for treating raw water to produce a potable
product. Slow sand filters work through the formation of a gelatinous layer (or biofilm) called
the hypogeal layer in the top few millimetres of the fine sand layer. The hypogeal layer is
formed in the first 10–20 days of operation and consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and a range
of aquatic insect larvae. As an epigeal biofilm ages, more algae tend to develop and larger
aquatic organisms may be present including some Annelid worms. The surface biofilm is the
layer that provides the effective purification in potable water treatment, the underlying sand
providing the support medium for this biological treatment layer. As water passes through the
hypogeal layer, particles of foreign matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and soluble
organic material is adsorbed. The contaminants are metabolized by the bacteria, fungi and
protozoa. The water produced from an exemplary slow sand filter is of excellent quality with
90–99% bacterial cell count reduction.
Figure 27: Slow Sand Filters
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9.6.1 Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• In slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes:
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
• During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical
processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer on
the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the
spaces between the sand grains.
• As this layer develops, it becomes living quarters of vast numbers of microorganisms which
break down organic material retained from the water, converting it into water, carbon
dioxide and other oxides.
• Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it passes
through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below. The purification
mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the filter
bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes purified and
contains less organic material.
• When the microorganisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter. They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low
turbidity and low bacterial contents.
9.6.2 Advantages and disadvantages of slow sand filter
SSF require little or no mechanical power, chemicals or replaceable parts, minimal operator
training and only periodic maintenance, and appropriate technology for poor and isolated areas.
However, due to the low filtration rate, slow sand filters require extensive land area for a large
municipal system. Many municipal systems in the U.S. initially used slow sand filters, but as
cities have grown, and because of their need to treat high-turbidity source waters, they
subsequently installed rapid sand filters, due to increased demand for drinking water.
145
9.7 Rapid Sand Filters (RSF)
The rapid sand filter or rapid gravity filter is a type of filter used in water purification and is
commonly used in municipal drinking water facilities as part of a multiple-stage treatment
system. Rapid sand filters are typically designed as part of multi-stage treatment systems used
by large municipalities. These systems are complex and expensive to operate and maintain, and
therefore less suitable for small communities and developing nations. The filtration system
requires a relatively small land area in proportion to the population served, and the design is
less sensitive to changes in raw water quality, e.g. turbidity, than slow sand filters.
Figure 28: Rapid Sand Filters
Essential characteristics of a rapid filter:

• The turbidity of water applied to the filters should not exceed 10 units and preferably 5
units,
• High rate of filtration, 120 to 240 m/day,
• Washing the filter units by revising flow of filtered water upward through the filter to
remove mud and other impurities which have lodged.
Filter component:
• Water head: Clearance, 600-900 mm in depth.
• Filter bed (Sand layer), 600- 1200 mm in depth. The objectives of this layer:
146
▪ Coarse to retain large quantity of solid particles.

▪ Fine to prevent the passage of small solid particles.
▪ Deep layer to allow long filtration run.
▪ Graded to permit good backwash cleaning.
▪ Properties: Effective size (D10) = 0.45 -0.55 mm, Uniformity coefficient
(Cu)= D60/D10 =1.2-1.7.
• Gravel layer (bed), 400-600 mm in depth. The objectives of this layer:
▪ Support the filter bed (sand layer).
▪ Permit the filtered water to move freely towards the underdrain system.
▪ Allows the washing water to move uniformly upwards to the filter bed.
▪ Properties: clean, free from flat and thin shapes, hard, round, durable
and ρs = 1600 kg/m3
• Underdrain system: The objectives of this layer:
▪ To collect the filtered water.
▪ To distribute the washing water evenly.
9.7.1 Operation Problems in RSFs
• Air Binding:
When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head of water percolating through the filter
is generally very small. However, the loss of head goes on increasing as more and more
impurities get trapped into it. A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered
by the filter media exceeds the static head of water above the bed. Most of this resistance is
offered by the top 10 to 15 cm sand layer. The bottom sand acts like a vacuum, and water is
sucked through the filter media rather than getting filtered through it. The negative pressure so
developed, tends to release the dissolved air and other gases present in water. The formation of
bubbles takes place which stick to the sand grains. This phenomenon is known as Air Binding
as the air binds the filter and stops its functioning. To avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned
as soon as the head loss exceeds the optimum allowable value.
• Mud Accumulation:
Mud balls are formed by the filter media cementing together with the floc that the filter is
supposed to remove. If the filter is backwashed effectively, the mud balls are broken apart and
removed. As the balls gain weight, they will settle to the bottom of the filter and occupy
147
valuable filter volume. This will cause the flow to increase in the areas of the filter that have
not been plugged. Additional problems, such as filter cracking and separation of the media
from the filter walls may also be the result of mud-ball formation.
• Filter Bed Shrinkage
Filter bed shrinkage or compaction can result from ineffective backwashing. Media grains in a
clean filter rest directly against each other with very little compaction. Filter media in a dirty
filter are surrounded by a soft layer which causes it to compact. This causes filter bed cracking
and separation of the filter media from the walls of the filter. When the filter is cracked, it is
obvious that the filter will short circuit. The flow will seek the crack and go straight through,
resulting in excessive turbidity in the effluent. Remedial measures to prevent cracking of filters
and formation of mud balls by:
✓ Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and washing off the particles.
✓ Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda.
✓ Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter sand.
• Separation of Gravel
Separation of the gravel is caused by the backwash valve opening too quickly; as a result, the
supporting gravel is forced to the top of the filter. This could also be caused by the filter
underdrain being plugged, causing uneven distribution of the backwash water. When this
happens, a boil occurs from the increased velocity in the filter. The filter media will start
washing into the filter underdrain system and be removed from the filter. If displacement has
occurred, the filter media must be removed from the filter and the filter rebuilt by the placement
of each grade of media in its proper place.
Figure 29: Separation of Gravel
148
9.7.2 Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter
Backwashing of the filters is the single most important operation in the maintenance of the
filters. If the filter is not backwashed effectively, problems may occur that may be impossible
to correct without totally replacing the filter media.
• For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the next filter run. If the water
applied to a filter is of very good quality, the filter runs can be very long. Some filters can
operate longer than one week before needing to be backwashed. However, this is not
recommended as long filter runs can cause the filter media to pack down so that it is difficult
to expand the bed during the backwash.
• Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This treated water is generally
taken from elevated storage tanks or pumped in from the clear well.
• The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and agitate the filter media and
suspend the floc in the water for removal. However, if the filter backwash rate is too high,
media will be washed from the filter into the troughs and out of the filter.
9.7.3 When is Backwashing Needed?
The filter should be backwashed when the following conditions have been met:
• The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces water at the desired rate;
• And/or floc starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the filter effluent increases;
• And/or the filter run reaches a given hour of operation.
9.8 Slow Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters
• Base material: In SSF, it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while in

RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm.
• Filter sand: In SSF, the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity
coefficient between 1.8 to 3.0. In RSF, the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55 and
uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
• Rate of filtration: In SSF, it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/m2 of filter area while in RSF
it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/m2 of filter area.
• Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite
flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.
149
• Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF. However, water may be
disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF.
• Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done to
clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without compressed air.
• Loss of head: In case of SSF, approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is the final
limit when cleaning is required. For RSF, 0.3 m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5 m is the
final limit when cleaning is required.
Item SSF RSF
Particle Size: 3-65 mm Particle Size: 30-40 mm

Base material
Depth: 20-75 cm Depth: 60-90 cm
D10: 0.2-0.4 mm D10: 0.35-0.55 mm

Filter sand
CU: 1.8-3 CU: 1.2-1.8
Filtration rate 2.4-4.8 m/day 120-360 m/day
not flexible for meeting flexible for meeting reasonable

Flexibility
variation in demand variations in demand
water may be disinfected

Disinfection is a must after
Post treatment required lightly to make it completely
RSF
safe
Scrapping and removing of the To clean RSF, sand is agitated
Method of cleaning top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer are and backwashed with or
done to clean SSF without compressed air
10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.3m is the initial loss, and 2.5
Loss of head 0.8 to 1.2m is the final limit to 3.5m is the final limit when
when cleaning is required cleaning is required
9.9 Hydraulics of filters
9.9.1 Head loss in clean filter bed
There are many equations that may be used in the calculation of head loss in filter such as:
150
• Carmen – Kozen equation:

2
𝑓 1−𝛼 𝐿 𝑣𝑓
• 𝐻= . . .
∅ 𝛼 𝑑 𝑔
1−𝛼
• 𝑓 = 150 + 1.75
𝑅𝑒
• Rose equation:
1.067 1 𝐿𝑣𝑓2
• 𝐻 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ ∅
∗ 𝛼4 ∗ 𝑑.𝑔
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑑
Where:
H: head loss in clean filter bed (m)
𝑓: friction factor
𝐴° 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
Ø: shape factor, Ø = = , the highest value is 1, it
𝐴 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
depends on the shape of media particle

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
α: porosity dimensionless, it depends on void ratio in media, 𝛼 = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑑−𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎
L: length of filtering media (thickness)

𝑃𝑤 𝑑 𝑣𝑓
Re: Reynolds number for flow around a sphere, dimensionless. Re =
μ
𝑃𝑤 = fluid density in kg/m3,

𝑄𝑓
𝑣𝑓 = filtration rate (superficial velocity) in m/s, 𝑣𝑓 = 𝐴𝑠
As = surface area of the filter

d = media grain diameter in m
Qf = filter discharge m3/s
μ = dynamic viscosity of fluid, kg/m·s
μ
Note; k = ρ and k = kinematic viscosity (m2/s),
w
24 3
Cd: 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = + + 0.34
𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒
Table 9-2:Typical values of Ø (particle shape factor)

Material Ø
Mice flakes 0.28
Crushed glass 0.65
151
Angular sand 0.73

Worn sand 0.89
Spherical 1
Example 1: Determine the head loss in a filter bed composed of 30 cm of uniform

anthracite with an average size of 1.6 mm and 30 cm of uniform sand with
average size of 0.5 mm for filtration rate of 160 l/m2.min. Assume that the
operating temperature is 20˚C, use Rose equation. Assume φ=1, α= 0.4,
µ=1.003*10-3 kg/m·s.
Solution
Head loss for anthracite
1.067 1 𝐿𝑣𝑓2
𝐻 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ ∗ 4∗
∅ 𝛼 𝑑. 𝑔
160
1000 𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = = 2.67 ∗ 10−3
60 𝑠
𝑃𝑤 𝑑𝑣𝑓
Re =
μ
1.6
1000 ∗ 2.67 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 1000
𝑅𝑒 = = 4.26
1.003 ∗ 10−3
24 3 24 3
𝐶𝑑 = + 0.5
+ 0.34 = ( )+( ) + 0.34 = 7.43
𝑅𝑒 (𝑅𝑒) 4.26 4.260.5
1.067 1 0.3 ∗ (2.67 ∗ 10−3 )2
𝐻 = 7.43 ∗ ( ∗ ∗ = 0.042 𝑚
1 (0.4)4 0.0016 ∗ 9.81
Head loss for sand
0.5
1000 ∗ 2.67 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 1000
𝑅𝑒 = = 1.33
1.003 ∗ 10−3
24 3 24 3
𝐶𝑑 = + + 0.34 = ( ) + ( ) + 0.34 = 20.08
𝑅𝑒 (𝑅𝑒)0.5 1.33 1.330.5
1.067 1 0.3 ∗ (2.67 ∗ 10 − 3)2
𝐻 = 20.08 ∗ ∗ ∗ = 0.365 m
1 0.44 0.0005 ∗ 9.81
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0.042 + 0.365
= 0.407𝑚
152
Example 2: A filter bed is made of 0.4 mm size angular sand has on overall depth of 750
mm and porosity of 42 percent, use the Rose formula to estimate the head loss
of the clean bed at a filtration rate of 120 m/ day (Kinematic viscosity of water
= 1.01 * 10-10 m2/s).
Solution
𝑚 120 𝑚
𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 120 = = 1.39 ∗ 10−3
𝑑 24 ∗ 60 ∗ 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣𝑓 ∗ 𝑑 1.39 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 4 ∗ 10−4
Re = = = 0.5
𝑘 1.01 ∗ 10−6
24 3 24 3
𝐶𝑑 = + 0.5
+ 0.34 = ( ) + ( 0.5 ) + 0.34 = 48.01
𝑅𝑒 (𝑅𝑒) 0.5 0.5
1.067 1 𝐿𝑣𝑓2
𝐻 = 48.01 ∗ ∗ 4∗
∅ 𝛼 𝑑. 𝑔
750
1.067 1 (1000) ∗ (1.39 ∗ 10−3 )2
𝐻 = 48.01 ∗ ∗ ∗
0.73 0.424 9.81 ∗ (4 ∗ 10−4 )
𝐻 = 0.833 𝑚
9.9.2 Head loss during filtration (nonclean filter bed)
(𝐻)𝑡 = 𝑣𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 )
(𝐻)𝑡 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡), 𝑚
𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ; 𝑚3 /𝑚2
Example 3: A filter has a head loss of 0.3 m when clean (newly washed), and 1.3 m after
24 hrs of filtration at a rate of 1.5 l/s.m. Estimate the head loss both
immediately after backwash and 10 hrs later, if the filtration rate is changed
to 2 l/s.m2.
Solution
153
Estimate the values of a and b:

(𝐻)𝑡 = 𝑣𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 )
1.5
0.3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 ∗ 0)
1000
1.5 1.5
1.3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 ∗ ∗ 24 ∗ 3600)
1000 1000
By solving the 2 equations simultaneously, a=200, b = 5.14
2
𝐻0 = (200 + 5.14 ∗ 0) 𝐻0 = 0.4 𝑚
1000
2 2
𝐻10 = (200 + 5.14 ∗ ∗ 10 ∗ 3600) 𝐻0 = 1.88 𝑚
1000 1000
9.9.3 Filter cleaning or Backwashing
A filter cell must be cleaned when either (1) the head less through the filter exceeds the design
value (2) turbidity break through causes the effluent quality to be less than a minimum
acceptable level, or (3) a pre-selected maximum filter run time has passed since it was last
cleaned. Filter units are cleaned by backwashing which involves passing water upward through
the filter media at a velocity sufficient to expand the bed and wash out the accumulated solids.
The particles become separated and the space between them become greater, increasing the
porosity.
Filtered water passes upward through the bed at such a velocity that it causes the sand bed to
expand until its thickness is (25 to 40) percent greater than during filtering. The expansion of
granular bed during backwash can be calculated as follow. The velocity which just begins to
expand the bed is: -
0.3682 (𝐷60 )1.82 {𝜌𝑤 (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 )}0.98
𝑣𝑏 =
μ0.88
The backwash discharge can be calculated through:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑏
Qb = As ∗ 𝑣𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑏 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑤
The expansion during backwash is calculated using the following equations:

𝐿𝑒 1−α 1−α
= = 𝑣
𝐿 1 − α0.22
𝑒 1 − ( 𝑉𝑏 )0.22
𝑠
Where:
154
Le = Height of the expanded filter bed when backwashed

L= Height of the filter bed.
α = Porosity of the clean filter bed.
αe = Porosity of the expanded filter bed. 25 𝑡𝑜 40% ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑣𝑏 = Backwash velocity rate (m/min).
Vs = Settling velocity of the filter media (Stoke ‘s settling velocity).
𝐷60 = 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 60% 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐷60 = 𝐷10 ∗ 𝑈𝐶
𝜌𝑠 = density of the medium
𝜌𝑤 = density of the water
μ = dynamic viscosity of fluid, kg/m·s
The rising wash water, after passing through the media, flows into wash water troughs. The
lips of the troughs are horizontal and are all placed at the same height, usually at a distance
equal to the rate of wash water rise per minute, (600 to 900 mm), above the sand level. In small
units the troughs discharge to a gullet on one side, while in large units they discharge into a
central gullet which divided the unit into two section. The troughs must be made of such
capacity that the sides will act as free–falling weirs for the wash water. A freeboard of (50 to
100) mm is provided at the upper end. Trough may slope toward the outlets but usually are
horizontal. The dimensions of wash water troughs can be obtained from the following formula.
3 𝑞𝑡2
𝑌 = 1.73 ∗ √
𝑔 ∗ 𝑏2
In which: -
𝑚3 𝑄𝑏
𝑞𝑡 = 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ ( ) , (𝑞𝑡 = )
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑠
b= Width of the trough (m).
y = Height of the trough (m).
g = Acceleration of gravity (m/ sec2).
9.10 RSF Design Criteria
• Filtration rate (vf) = 120 -360 m/day.

• Backwash rate (vb) = 0.15 -0.9 m/min (216-1296 m/day).
• Surface area (As) = 20 – 30 m2
155
• L/ W = (1-2).
• Washing time = 5 -15 min.
• Horizontal distance for backwash water to reach the trough is not to exceed 1m.
• Filtration run = 12-72 hr (if the turbidity of the influent is: a. Low–long run, b. High–
short run).
• Total head loss = 2.7 – 3.7 m
9.11 Solved Problems
Example 4: A WTP is designed to treat 48,000 m3/day. For filtration 12 RSFs are used,
each filter is designed with 2 troughs of a square cross-sectional area. The
filtration rate is 160 m/day and the backwash rate is 864 m/day. Find
1) Dimensions of each filter, L and W (m) without washing? Also filter depth?
2) Dimensions of each trough, y and b (m) and gullet?
3) Volume of water (m3) to wash 2 filters at the same time for 5 minutes?
Solution
1. Dimensions of each filter, L and W (m) with or without washing? Also filter depth?
∵ 𝑛𝑏 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 (𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑛𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)
𝑄𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 48 × 103 𝑚3
𝑄𝑓 = = = 4000
𝑛 − 𝑛𝑏 12 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
4000
𝑑𝑎𝑦 2
𝑄𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓 ∗ 𝐴𝑠 ⇛ 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑚 = 25 𝑚
160
𝑑𝑎𝑦
For two troughs, W=4 m, assuming maximum horizontal flow for backwashing water to reach
the trough = 1 m
25
∴ 𝐿 = = 6.25 𝑚
4
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
= 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 (0.5𝑚) + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (1𝑚) + 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 (1𝑚)
+ 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟(0.6𝑚) + 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (0.4𝑚) = 3.5 𝑚
𝑆𝑜, 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿 = 6.25 𝑚, 𝑊 = 4 𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 = 3.5 𝑚)
2. Dimensions of each trough, y and b (m) and gullet?
Trough dimension
156
2 864
𝑄𝑏 𝐴𝑠 ∗ 𝑣𝑏 25 𝑚 ∗ (24 ∗ 3600) 𝑚3
𝑞𝑡 = = = = 0.125
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑠 2 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑠 𝑦 = 𝑏 (𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ)
3 𝑞𝑡2
𝑌 = 1.73 ∗ √
𝑔 ∗ 𝑏2
𝑞𝑡2
𝑌 5 = 1.73 ∗
𝑔
5
0.1252
𝑌 = 1.73 ∗ = 𝑦 0.38𝑚 = 𝑏
9.81
Gullet dimension
2 864
𝑄𝑏 𝐴𝑠 ∗ 𝑣𝑏 25 𝑚 ∗ (24 ∗ 3600) 𝑚3
𝑞𝐺 = = = = 0.25
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 1 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑠 𝑦 = 𝑏 (𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐺𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡)
3 𝑞𝐺2
𝑌 = 1.73 ∗ √
𝑔 ∗ 𝑏2
𝑞𝐺2
𝑌 5 = 1.73 ∗
𝑔
5
0.252
𝑌 = 1.73 ∗ = 𝑦 0.505𝑚 = 𝑏
9.81
3. Volume of water (m3) to wash 2 filters at the same time for 5 minutes?
𝑚 5𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑄𝑏 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑛𝑏 = 864 ∗ 25 𝑚2 ∗ ∗2
𝑑𝑎𝑦 60 ∗ 24
𝑊𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 150 𝑚3
150
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 75 𝑚3
2
Note: The ratio of water washing amount for one filter does not exceed 7% of the water
filtration amount.
𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4000 ∗ 1 = 4000 𝑚3
𝑑𝑎𝑦
75
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ∗ 100 = 1.875% < 7% 𝑂. 𝐾
4000
157
Example 5: A city has a population of 100,000 capita with an average rate of demand of
160 L/cap.day. Find the area of rapid sand filter? Assume an average filtration
rate of 120 m3/m2.day of filter area, the filter length equal 1.5 width and filter
area not exceed 40 m2.
Solution
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.8 ∗ 160 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 100000 = 28800 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
28800
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = = 240 𝑚2
120
240
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = = 8 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
30
𝐴𝑠 = 30 = 𝐿 ∗ 𝑊 = 1.5𝑊 2
𝑊 ≈ 4.47 𝑚 & 𝐿 = 6.7𝑚
Example 6: A flat bottom trough is to receive the wash water from a section of the filter
which is 2 m wide and 3 m long. The wash water rate is 700 liters per min per
m2. If the water is to have a depth of 25 cm at the upper end of the trough,
what should be the dimensions of the trough?
Solution
𝐿 𝑚3
𝑄𝑏 = 𝑣𝑏 ∗ 𝐴𝑠 = 700 ∗ 2 ∗ 3 = 4200 = 4.2 = 0.07 𝑚3 / sec
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3 𝑞𝑡2
𝑌 = 1.73 ∗ √
𝑔 ∗ 𝑏2
3 0.072
0.25 = 1.73 ∗ √
9.81 ∗ 𝑏 2
𝑏 = 0.406 𝑚
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 = 5 𝑐𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 = 25 + 5 = 30 𝑐𝑚
Example 7: Design a rapid sand filters of water treatment plant of flow rate of 1000 m3
/hr.
Solution
𝑚
𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑓 = 120
𝑑
158
𝑄 1000 ∗ 24
𝐴𝑠 = = = 200 𝑚2
𝑣𝑓 120
𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 10 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠
200
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 20 𝑚2
10
𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4𝑚.
20
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 5𝑚2
4
𝐿 5
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 = = 1.25 ∴ 𝑂. 𝐾
𝑊 4
Backwash process
𝑚
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑏 = 0.5 , 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0.3 ≤ 𝑣𝑏 ≤ 0.6
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚 𝑚3
𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑄𝑏 = 0.5 ∗ 20 𝑚2 = 10
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑈𝑠𝑒 5 min 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛, (5 − 15)
𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐾 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = (10 ) ∗ 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 50 𝑚3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟
𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐾 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2 ∗ 50 = 100 𝑚3
H.W.
Example 8: A rapid filter plant is to treat 23,000 m3 per day at a rate of 120 m/day.
Determine the size and number of units required if the filtration rate is not to
exceed 180 m/day with one filter being back-washed, nor 240 m/day with one
filter out of service and one filter being backwashed. How much water would
be required to backwash one filter if the wash is at 1 m/min and continues for
10 min?
Example 9: A rapid filter plant has units with a capacity of 8000 m3/day at a rate of 120
m/day. What should be the capacity of the elevated storage tank if it is to hold
sufficient for two consecutive 5-min washes at
a rate of 0.8 m/min?
159
Water Disinfection
10.1 Introduction
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These
bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing these
bacteria is known as Disinfection or Sterilization, or, is the killing of microorganisms causing
diseases.
10.2 Methods of disinfection
1. Treatment with chlorine (Chlorination).

2. Treatment with Ozone (Ozonation).
3. Treatment with Iodine and Bromine.
4. Treatment with Ultraviolet irradiation.
5. Extreme values of pH.
6. Treatment with ultrasonic waves.
7. Treatment with oxidizing agents (Potassium permanganate).
8. Boiling of water.
9. Chlorine dioxide.
10.2.1 Chlorination:
Chlorination is a cheap and reliable process, not difficult in handling. Chlorine is a disinfect
that destroys the enzymes of the bacterial cells and enters to attack the intracellular system.
Chlorine may remove colour and iron also the destruction of taste and odour. The efficiency of
chlorine is reduced by increasing pH and at low water temperature (less than 24 0C).
10.2.1.1 Chlorine in water:
Chlorine and water react:
HOCl and OCl accomplish the disinfection process. Since the concentration of these
components is a function of the hydrogen ion concentration, so the efficiency of disinfection is
160
affected by pH. Chlorine and its products are most effective at low pH. Under pH = 3, molecular
chlorine maybe present. Chlorine existing in water as HOCl, OCl and molecular chlorine is
defined as free available chlorine.
Free available chlorine will react with nitrogenous compounds like ammonia to form
chloramines. The reaction of ammonia with HOCl is shown below:
Chlorine in water reacting with ammonia, nitrogenous compounds and organic matter is
defined as combined available chlorine. The above compounds are less active than free
available chlorine as disinfecting agents, but may maintain residuals for longer time than free
chlorine.
10.2.1.2 Chlorine Demand
Chlorine Demand = Chlorine added – Residual chlorine

It is the difference between the mount of chlorine added and the mount present as residual
either Free or Combined after a contact time.
Chlorine demand to kill microorganism = C * t
Where:
C = Concentration of the disinfect (chlorine) and
t = Contact time between the microorganism and the disinfect (chlorine).
Residual chlorine is the remaining chlorine after disinfection in water. This may be necessary
in the distribution system and storage tanks to protect water in the pipes from any pollution.
10.2.1.3 What is used in chlorination?
a. Chlorine gas, chlorine is obtained in pressurized cylinders ranging in weight from 45 to

1000 kg.
b. Hypo-chlorination, chemical compounds such as Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl (laundry
bleach) and Calcium Hypochlorite Ca(OCl)2. 4H2O.
Hypochlorites are useful in disinfecting waters of reservoirs and swimming pools also in
controlling algae growth. Hypochlorites in water will give free available chlorine:
161
10.2.1.4 Chlorination is classified according to its point application as:
a. Plain Chlorination is used with no other treatment. Chlorine is added to the water from
the source. The dose added depends on the degree of contamination. About 0.5 mg/L or
more is used for disinfection and obtain residual chlorine free or combined.
b. Pre-chlorination, applying chlorine before any other treatment. It may be added to the
suction pipe of the raw water pumps or in the flash mixer. Its advantages:
i. Improve the coagulation process.
ii. Reduce taste and odor caused by organic sludge in sedimentation tanks.
iii. Killing algae and other microorganisms, so filters may remain clean to obtain long
filtration runs.
A dose of 5 – 10 mg/L is used to obtain 0.1 – 0.5 mg/L residual chlorine free or combined.
c. Post-chlorination, applying chlorine at the end of the treatment process. A contact time
for about 30 minutes is required for disinfection when adding 0.25 – 0.5 mg/L chlorine
dose to obtain 0.1 – 0.2 mg/L residual chlorine. In Iraq a dose of 1 -2 mg/L is added to
obtain 0.1 – 0.5 mg/L residual.
The combination of pre-and post-chlorination may be needed if the raw water is highly
polluted. Also in some cases chlorine is injected into the distribution system to maintain the
desired residual.
d. Breakpoint chlorination, chlorine is consumed in oxidizing many compounds present in
water. No chlorine can be measured until the initial chlorine demand is satisfied. Then
chlorine reacts and may form combined chlorine residual (some are odorous and
undesirable like (chlorophenols). These combines increase with the addition of chlorine
dose until a maximum combined residual is reached. Further addition of chlorine will cause
a decrease in the combined residual. This is the Breakpoint chlorination, at this point the
combined are oxidized to oxides. After this point, free chlorine residual is present. A
chlorine dose of 7 – 10 mg/L in order to obtain free chlorine about 0.5 mg/L.
The breakpoint indicates complete oxidation of the chloramines and other chlorine
combinations, and the residual above the breakpoint is mostly free available chlorine.
162
e. Super chlorination/Dechlorination, is adding a high chlorine dose for quick disinfection,

this will produce high residues, so dechlorination should be applied afterward. For
dechlorination: aeration, adding chemicals, using activated carbon (adsorbent) may be
applied.
10.2.2 Ozone
Ozone: It's manufactured by electrical discharge into cooled dried air. Approximately 1% of
the atmospheric oxygen is converted to O3 at an energy consumption of 0.025 kWh per gram
O3. The mixture of air and ozone is transferred into water either by bubbling it through the bulk
solution or by permitting droplets of water to fall through a rising column of gas.
Advantage
1. It is effective as oxidizing agent and germicide, in destruction of organic matter which
might produce tastes and odors, and in oxidation or iron and manganese.
2. More rapid in action than other oxidizing agents with small dose (0.25 – 1.5) mg/L at low
contact time (45 sec – 2 min).
3. It is not particularly sensitive to pH within range of pH (5-8), but is significantly affected
by temperature.
Disadvantage
1. It's restricted of use.
2. On-site generation
3. Its cost relative to chlorine.
4. It is not providing residual disinfection in water distribution system.
163
10.2.3 Chlorine dioxide
Chlorine dioxide: It is produced by the chlorination of sodium chlorite in a ratio of 1 mole

chlorine to 2 moles chlorite, and the result compound (ClO2).
Advantage
1. It is effective as oxidizing agent and germicide, in destruction of organic matter which
might produce tastes and odors, and in oxidation or iron and manganese.
2. It does not react with ammonia.
3. More rapid in action and appears to be able to oxidize organics without formation of
halogenated hydrocarbons.
4. It is unaffected by pH within the normal range encountered in water.
5. It is relatively persistent at ordinary temperatures and can provide residual protection.
Disadvantage
1. It's restricted of use.
2. On-site generation
3. Its cost relative to chlorine.
10.3 Solved Problems
Example 1: Chlorine usage in the treatment of 20 MLD of water is 8 kg/day. The residual after
10-minute contact is 0.2 mg/L. Compute the dosage in milligrams per liter and
chlorine demand of water? Design the two chlorine contact tank each L= 4W,
effective depth = 2 m, detention time = 30 min? Also, calculate the total numbers
of paths and baffles if clear width of path not more than 2 m?
Solution:
8 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = 0.4 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
20 × 106 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.4 − 0.2 = 0.2 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
20000
𝑉 = 𝑄∗𝑡= × 30 = 208.3 𝑚3 →
2 × 24 × 60
208.3
𝐴 = = 104.17 𝑚2 → 𝐴 = 4𝑊 2 → 𝑊 = √104.17/4 = 5.1 𝑚 & 𝐿 = 20.4 𝑚
2
So, the chlorine contact tank dimensions (20.4 x 5.1 x 2.5) m
5.1
𝑁𝑂. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 = = 2.55 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 3
2
164
5.1
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ = = 1.7 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝐾
3
𝑁𝑂. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑙 = 3 − 1 = 2
Example 2: Calculate the quantity of bleaching powder required per day for disinfecting 4
MLD. The dose of chlorine has to be 0.5 ppm and the bleaching powder contains
30% of available chlorine?
Solution:
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (0.5 𝑚𝑔/𝐿× 4 × 106𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦)/106 = 2 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
2
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑒𝑟 = (30 × 100) = 6.67 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Example 3: Chlorine usage in the treatment of 25000 m 3/day is 9 kg/day. The residual chlorine
after 10 minutes' contact is 0.2 mg/L. Calculate the dosage in milligrams per liter
and chlorine demand of the water?
Solution:
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 25 × 106 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 9 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦

9 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 0.36 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
25 × 106 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.36 − 0.2 = 0.16 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
Example 4: A new water main is disinfected using a 50 mg/L chlorine dosage by applying a 2
percent hypochlorite solution. (a) How many kilograms of dry hypochlorite
powder, containing 70 percent available chlorine, must be dissolved in 100 liters
of water to make a 2 percent (20000 mg/L) solution? (b) At what rate should this
solution be applied to the water entering the main (400 L of water volume) to
provide a concentration of 50 mg/L? (c) If 34000 liters of water are used to fill the
main at a dosage of 50 mg/L, how many liters of hypochlorite solution are used?
Solution:
𝑘𝑔
100 𝐿×1 ×20000×10−6
a. K𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2% 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐿
=
0.7
𝑘𝑔
2.86 100 𝐿
50 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2% 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
b. 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 50 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 = 20000 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 = = 2.5 × 10−3
400 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
c. 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 34000 𝐿 × 2.5 × 10−3 = 85 𝐿

165
Example 5: Results of chlorine demand test on a raw water are given below. Determine the
break-point dosage and the chlorine demand?
Sample Chlorine Residual chlorine

No. dosage (mg/L) after 10 min (mg/L)
1 0.2 0.18
2 0.4 0.34
3 0.6 0.48
4 0.8 0.46
5 0.9 0.27
6 1 0.18
7 1.2 0.38
8 1.4 0.58
9 1.6 0.78
Solution:
Sample Chlorine Residual chlorine Chlorine
No. dosage (mg/L) after 10 min (mg/L) demand (mg/L)
1 0.2 0.18 0.02
2 0.4 0.34 0.06
3 0.6 0.48 0.12
4 0.8 0.46 0.34
5 0.9 0.27 0.63
6 1 0.18 0.82
7 1.2 0.38 0.82
8 1.4 0.58 0.82
9 1.6 0.78 0.82
Figure bellows the curve plotted the basis of the above data.
166
From the curve, we find that break point occurs at point D, at which the applied chlorine = 1
mg/L.
So, the break point dosage = 1.0 mg/L
Chlorine demand at break point = 1.0 - 0.18 = 0.82 mg/L
It is observed that since the slope of curve C is 450, the chlorine demand (= 0.82 mg/L) remains
constant after break point, since all additional chlorine added after point D appears as free
chlorine.
Even from the data, at a dose of 1.2 mg/L, the residual chlorine = 0.38 mg/L.
Hence, residual chlorine = 1.2 – 0.38 = 0.82 mg/L.
167
Special Treatments: Hardness Removal or Water Softening
11.1 Introduction
Water hardness is a measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium salts in water. Calcium
and magnesium enter water mainly through the weathering of rocks. The more calcium and
magnesium in water, the harder the water. Water hardness is usually expressed in milligrams
per liter (mg/L) of dissolved calcium and magnesium carbonate.
The formation of hardness in natural water
Water with high content of hardness:

1. Leaves a deposit known as the scale when water is heated.
2. Does not lather with soap; this is due to the reaction of Ca+2 and Mg+2 with soap:
The soap will not react with the dirt but will form with hardness undesirable precipitates
(scum). So, hardness is defined as the total amount of polyvalent cations mainly Ca+2 and Mg+2
found in water. Fe, Mn, Al and Zn may cause hardness to a lesser degree (low concentrations
in nature). Hence hardness is the total concentration of Ca+2 and Mg+2 in water expressed in
mg/L as CaCO3.
Water is classified according to concentration of hardness:
168
Hard water: The water containing sulfates, chlorides and bicarbonate of calcium and
magnesium dissolved in it. These materials react with soap, causing a precipitation which
appears as a scum or curd on the water surface.
11.2 Type of hardness:
a. Temporary or carbonate hardness caused by carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and

magnesium: Ca(HCO3)2 & Mg(HCO3)2 (Boiling the water or by adding lime).
b. Permanent or noncarbonated hardness caused by sulfate (CaSO4 & MgSO4) and chloride
(CaCl2 & MgCl2). The chlorides of magnesium and calcium are very corrosive to steam
boilers and quickly cause pitting and grooving of boiler tubes while the sulfates of calcium
and magnesium also cause scale in boilers. In steam boilers the carbonate and bicarbonate
will release carbon dioxide and cause corrosion of the tube sodium sulfate may cause
foaming in boilers if present in large amounts, (Caustic soda or soda ash).
11.3 Softening Processes:
1. Heating the water.

2. Lime-Soda method: Lime CaO, Soda ash Na2CO3.
3. Caustic Soda method: NaOH.
4. Ion Exchange of Zeolite method.
The advantage of water softening: Reduction of soap consumption, lowered cost in maintains
plumbing fixtures, and improved taste of cooked food.
11.3.1 Ion Exchange method:
It means the reversible interchange of ions between a solid phase and a liquid phase. For water
softening, water (liquid) is passed through a filter (solid) containing the ion exchange material.
This material could be a natural material known as zeolite (green sand) Na2O: Al2O3: SiO2
(Na2X), or synthetic material could be known as resin which is higher in the exchange capacity.
Zeolites are complex of aluminum, silica and soda, some forms of which are synthetic and
others are naturally occurring.
The Filtration Process:
169
By this process Ca and Mg (hardness) will be removed from water and replaced by an
equivalent amount of Na. When the ion exchange material or filter is saturated with the
hardness ions (exhausted from its ions), then the hardness will pass through the filter with no
change. This is called as the Break through point. At this time the filter needs to be
regenerated or to remove the hardness from the filter. This process is to wash the filter with
brine water containing Na.
The Regeneration Process:
11.3.1.1 Advantages of the zeolite method:
1. A compacted unit easy to operate.

2. No sludge is formed.
3. The product is zero hardness water which is used in industry (textile) or in boilers.
4. May remove iron (Fe) from water.
11.3.1.2 The ion exchange capacity of a filter is expressed in:
1. Kilo grain of hardness to be removed per m3 volume of the filter, kilo grain / m3.
2. Equivalent hardness/m3, eq/m3.
3. Kilo gram, kg/m3.
Where, kilo grain = equivalent hardness (kg = 2.2 lb and lb = 7 kilo grain).
11.4 Design criteria
1. Height of the filter: 0.5 – 2.0 m.

2. Filtration rate: 120 – 240 m/day
3. Salt for regeneration: 125 – 150 gm/eq. hardness to be removed.
4. Brine solution: 5 – 10%
5. Washing time: 5 – 15 min
170
6. Capacity of zeolite: 135 – 250 eq hardness/m3 or 9 – 20 kg/m3.

7. Capacity of Resin: 275 – 550 eq hardness/m3 or 20 – 36 kg/m3
Q 𝑇 × Desired hardness = Q𝑃 × Influent hardness + Q𝑍 × Zero hardness

Desired hardness
Q𝑃 /Q 𝑇 = = % By pass
Influent hardness
Break through point or time mean Ca, Mg will appear in the effluent from the zeolite filter.
𝑉 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
Break through time = =
𝑄 𝑄𝑧 × 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Capacity of zeolite × Volume of the zeolite filter
Break through time =
Total amount of hardness to be remove at time (t)
kilo grain (eq. hardness)
3 × m3
Break through time = m = time
𝑚3 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑚3
Note: Brine solution (5%) for regeneration represent:
Salt Water
5 100
138 X
X= Weight of water (kg) for 5% solution.

𝑥
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝜌𝑤
171
11.5 Membrane filtration:
It’s a physicochemical separation technique that used difference permeability as a separation

mechanism. Water is pumped against the membrane surface resulting in the production of
product and waste streams.
Membrane is a synthetic material less than 1 mm thick, semi-permeable (highly permeable to
some components in the feed stream and less permeable to others).
1. Microfiltration (M.F): A membrane separation process in which particles greater than
about 20 nanometers in diameter are screened out of a liquid in which they are suspended.
2. Ultra-filtration (U.F): Filtration through a filter capable of removing very minute
(ultramicroscopic) particles. The filtration of a colloidal substance through a semi-
permeable medium that allows only the passage of small molecules.
3. Nano-filtration (N.F): Nano-filtration is a relatively recent membrane filtration process
used most often with low total dissolved solids water such as surface water and fresh
groundwater, with the purpose of softening and removal of disinfection by-product
precursors such as natural organic matter and synthetic. Pressure-driven filtration through
a membrane that removes particles of about two nanometers or larger.
11.6 Reverse osmosis:
It is perhaps the best demonstrated technology for saline water conservation. If a semi-
permeable membrane separates two bodies of water with differing salt concentrations the water
will flow from less to more concentrated. The flow can be halted by applying pressure equal to
the osmotic pressure of the concentrated solution, and reversed by exceeding that pressure. In
practice the pressure ranges from 5-50 times the osmotic pressure of the water. Reverse osmosis
systems include the membrane, a support structure, a pressure vessel and a pump.
Reverse osmosis is not easily applied to seawater although development of new membrane
materials and configurations and use multistage processes. The cost of treating brackish water
by this technique ranged (0.06 – 0.25) $/m3.
Advantage:
1. Remove suspended with no coagulation up to a turbidly 200 NTU.
2. Very high removal in microorganisms.
3. Less space required than conventional filtration (1 m2 floor area =100 m2 membrane area).
4. High quality of filtered water.
172
Item Membrane filter Conventional filter

Filtration rate (vf) 0.03 – 0.17 m/hr 5 – 15 m/hr
Pressure 0.2 – 2 bar 0.18 – 0.3 bar
Filtration run 30 – 90 min 30 – 90 min
Backwash 1 – 5 min 5 – 15 min
1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa
11.7 Solved Problem
Example 1: Design a cylindrical softener to be used in a textile factory. The influent flow is 500
m3/day with hardness of 246 mg/L as CaCO3. The softener is supplied with zeolite
of an exchange capacity of 250 kilo-grain /m3. Find height (H) and diameter (D)
of the softener (assume H=D)?
Solution:
Assume break through time = 1 day
The amount of hardness to be removed = Flow (Q) X Concentration = Loading rate
m3 mg
500 × 246 L × 103
day
Loading rate = = 123 for one day process
106
= 123 × 2.2 × 7 = 1894 kilo grain/day
Loading rate 1894 kilo grain/day
Volume of zeolite required = =
Zeolite exchange capacity 250 kilo grain/m3
= 7.6 𝑚3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
3 7.6 𝑚3
Diameter (D) = √ 𝜋 = 2.13 𝑚 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝐻)
4
Total capacity of exchange = Capacity × Volume
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚3 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 250 3
× 7.6 = 1900
𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
In this problem the break through time is one day (24 hours).
Different conditions may appear that will change the break through time:
1. Increasing or decreasing in influent hardness.
2. Increasing or decreasing in influent flow.
3. Increasing or decreasing the exchange capacity (Changing the zeolite material).
173
For the same problem above, the hardness increased from 246 to 400 mg/L as CaCO3
400 × 500 × 2.2 × 7 × 103 kilograin
Loading rate = 6
= 3080 for one day process
10 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Available volume for exchange = 7.6 X 250 =1900 k grain/day
Available volume or capacity for exchange
Break through time (BT) =
Loading rate
1900 𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= = 0.616 day
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
3080 𝑘
𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 14.90 hour (Every 15 hr the filter must be regenerated)
If a new zeolite is used of a capacity from 250 to 480 kgrain/m3. Find break through time:
m3 mg
500 × 246 L × 103
day
Loading rate = = 123 for one day process
106
= 123 × 2.2 × 7 = 1894 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Loading rate 1894 kilo grain/day
Zeolite exchange capacity 480 kilo grain/m3
3 3.945 𝑚3
Diameter (D) = √ 𝜋 = 1.713 𝑚 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝐻)
4
Total capacity of exchange = Capacity × Volume
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚3 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 480 3
× 3.945 = 1893.6
𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Total capacity for exchange
Loading rate
𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
480 × 3.945 𝑚3
= 𝑚3 = 0.999 day
𝑘 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
1894
𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 23.995 hour (Every day the filter must be regenerated)
174
Example 2: Design soft water softener as shown in the figure. The zeolite capacity is 235 eq.
hardness/m3. Find:
1) Surface area of the filter?
2) Amount of salt used for regeneration, assume 150 gm/eq. hardness is required?
3) Volume of water for regeneration (10% solution)?
Solution:
1) Mass Balance (Output)
𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
60 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 × 240 = 𝑄𝑝 × 300 + 𝑄𝑍 × 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝐿 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐿
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑚3 60 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 𝑚3
𝑄𝑝 = 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 × = 240 × = 48
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑦 300 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑄𝑧 = 𝑄𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑄𝑝 = 240 − 48 = 192 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
192 × 300 𝐿 × 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 (𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒) =
106
𝑘𝑔
= 57.7 = 57.7 × 2.2 × 7 = 887.04 𝑘𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 887.04 𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
887.04 eq. hardness/day
Volume of zeolite = = 3.77 𝑚3
235 eq. hardness/𝑚3
3.77
Surface area As = = 1.52 𝑚2
2.5
2) Amount of salt required for regeneration:
175
𝑒𝑞. ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
gm 887.04
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Amount of salt required for regeneration = 150 ×
eq. hardness 1000
kg
= 133.056
𝑑𝑎𝑦
3) Weight of water for 10% brine solution:
Water Salt
100 10
X 133
X = 1330 kg
For ρw = 103 kg/m3
Volume of water = 1330/103 = 1.33 m3
Example 3: For water softening, a cylindrical zeolite filter is used with capacity 48 kg/m 3, in a
water system designed for treating 500 m3/day. In this system 30% by-pass is used
and the influent has hardness 500 mg/L as CaCO 3. Find the:
a) Number of filters need if each filter has 0.5 m diameter and 2 m height if the
one-day break through time?
b) Determine the desired effluent hardness?
c) Break through time (hr) if the hardness of the influent reach 750 mg/L as
CaCO3?
Solution:
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝑇 = 500 . 𝑄𝑝 = 0.3 × 500 = 150 . 𝑄𝑧 = 0.7 × 500 = 350
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 48 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = 48 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 2.2 × 7 = 739.2 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
The amount of hardness (kg/day) = flow rate (m3/day) * concentration (kg/m3)
m3 kg 𝑘𝑔
Loading rate = 350 × 500 3 × 10−3 = 175 × 2.2 × 7 = 2695 kilograin/day
day m 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Loading rate 2695 kilograin/day
Zeolite exchange capacity 739.2 kilograin/m3
π
Volume of each filter = × 0.52 × 2 = 0.3925 𝑚3
4
3.645
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = = 9.286 ≈ 10 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
0.3925
176
350 × 0 + 150 × 500

Effluent hardness = = 150 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
500
If the hardness increased to 750 mg/L as CaCO3

m3 kg
Loading rate = 350 × 750 3 × 10−3 × 2.2 × 7
day m
kilograin
= 4042.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
day
Loading rate
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
739.2 × 3.645 𝑚3
= 𝑚3 = 0.666 day
4042.5
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Example 4: For water softening, a cylindrical zeolite filter is used with capacity 60 kg/m3, in a
water system designed for treating 1560 m3/day. In this system 20% by-pass is
used and the influent has hardness 360 mg/L as CaCO3. Find the:
a) Effluent hardness from the softener if the final desired hardness is 75 mg/L
as CaCO3?
b) Number of filters need if each filter has 0.8 m diameter and 2 m height if the
one-day break through time?
c) Break through time (hr) if the hardness of the influent reach 750 mg/L as
CaCO3?
Solution:
𝑄𝑇 = 1560 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦, 𝑄𝑝 = 0.2 × 1560 = 312 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦, 𝑄𝑧 = 0.8 × 1560 = 1248 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
a) 𝑄𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙 × 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙 = 𝑄𝑝 × 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙 + 𝑄𝑧 × 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑍 𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐿 ⟹ 1560 × 75 = 312 × 360 + 1248 ×
𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑍 𝐸𝐹𝐹𝐿
Effluent hardness from the softener = 3.75 mg/L

177
b) Case 1: 20% by-pass:

Zeolite capacity, 𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 60 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = 60 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 2.2 × 7 = 924 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
m3 kg kg kg
Loading rate = 1248 × 360 3 × 10−3 = 499.28 = 499.28 × 2.2 × 7
day m day day
kilograin
= 6918.912
day
Loading rate 6918.912 kilograin/day
Zeolite exchange capacity 924 kilograin/m3
π
4
7.488
1.0048
c) Case 2: 0% by-pass:
Zeolite capacity, 𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 60 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = 60 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 2.2 × 7 = 924 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑚3
m3 kg kg kg
Loading rate = 1560 × 360 3 × 10−3 = 561.6 = 561.6 × 2.2 × 7
day m day day
kilograin
= 8648.64
day
Loading rate 8648.64 kilograin/day
Zeolite exchange capacity 924 kilograin/m3
π
4
9.36
1.0048
178
If the hardness increased to 750 mg/L as CaCO3
m3 kg
Loading rate = 1248 × 750 3 × 10−3 × 2.2 × 7
day m
kilograin
= 14414.4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
day
Loading rate
924 × 7.488 𝑚3
= 𝑚3 = 0.48 day
14414.4
𝑑𝑎𝑦
179
WASTEWATER
ENGINEERING
180
Introduction to Wastewater or Sewage
1.1 Introduction
This lecture is prepared to introduce wastewater or sewage. The lecture also provides
definitions to main terms used with wastewater engineering. The main parts of wastewater
collection system are outlined as well as the types of wastewater flowing in the sewer system.
Besides, the characteristics of wastewater and the determination of organic matters also
presented.
1.2 Definitions
Wastewater is the liquid waste generated from various activities (residential, industrial,
commercial and public areas) due to the consumption of potable water. It is collected and
transmitted in a pipe system known as the sewer system. This wastewater contains impurities
and/or pollutants in the form of solids, liquids and gases in concentrations that are harmful to
the environment. Below are the main terms used in wastewater engineering.
1. Sewer: Sewer is a network of pipes with deferent sizes and materials aims to carry and
transports wastewater from the source of generation to a disposal or treatment location,
generally closed but normally not flowing full.
2. Sewage: The sewage is the liquid conveyed by the sewer system. It may consist of one
or a mixture of liquid wastes such as residential and commercial wastewater.
3. Sewerage: Sewerage is the art applied for collecting, treating, and disposing of sewage.
It includes sewage collection from occupied areas and conveying them to a point of
disposal. In addition, it consists of the treatment and disposal of the sewage as the liquid
wastes requires treatment before it can be discharged into a body of water. Otherwise,
disposing wastewater without treatment could endanger the public health and cause
offensive condition.
4. Sewerage Works: Sewerage works is a comprehensive term refers to all structures and
procedures required for collecting, treating, and disposing of sewage.
5. Sewage Treatment: Sewage treatment covers any process to which sewage is subjected
in order to remove or alter its objectionable constituents to render it to less dangerous
181
or offensive waste. Treatment should produce an effluent containing not more than 20
mg/L BOD5 and 30 mg/L suspended solids (SS).
6. Sewage Disposal: disposal is the act of sewage dumping to a body of water which may
be done with or without previous treatment. Noting that the degree of treatment required
depends upon the water quality standards applicable to the receiving stream and the
flow and quality of both the stream and waste.
1.3 Main Parts of Sewer System
Sewer refers to the network of pipes that transports sewage from the source to the disposal site.
There are several types of sewer systems including combined sewers, separate sewers and
simplified sewers. Combined and separate sewers are the most found systems in urban areas.
Combined Sewer is designed to carry domestic sewage and storm sewage, while the separate
sewers transport storm sewage separately from domestic sewage.
Figure 30: combined and separated sewer systems
The main parts of sewer system are outlined below:

• House Sewer is a pipe conveying sewage from the plumbing system of a single building
to a common sewer or point of immediate disposal.
• Lateral Sewer the pipe that has no other common sewer discharging into it.
• Sub-main Sewer is one that receives the discharge of a number of lateral sewers.
• Main Sewer, also known as a trunk sewer, refers to the pipe that receives the discharge
of one or more sub-main sewers.
182
• Sewer Outfall receives the discharge from the collecting system and conducts it to a
treatment plant or point of final disposal.
• Intercepting Sewer is one that cuts transversely a number of other sewers to intercept
dry weather flow, with or without a determined quantity of storm water, if used in a
combined system.
• Relief Sewer is a sewer that built to carry the flows in excess of the capacity of an
existing sewer; also, a sewer intended to carry a portion of the flow from a district in
which the existing sewers are of insufficient capacity.
1.4 Types of Wastewater Flowing in the Sewer System
Figure 31 shows the most common types of wastewater flowing the sewer system.
Figure 31: Types of waste waster
• Municipal, Sanitary or Domestic sewage is the liquid wastes directed away from
residences, business buildings, and institutions.
• Industrial wastewater refers to the liquid wasted from industrial establishments.
• Runoff or Storm sewage is runoff from precipitation that is collected in a system of
pipes or open channels.
• Infiltration: Groundwater entering sanitary sewers through defective pipe joints and
broken pipes. Infiltration occurs when local groundwater elevation is higher than the
sewer pipe. Gravel bedding materials in sewer pipe trenches act as a French drain.
Groundwater flows parallel to the sewer until it reaches the area of damaged pipe. In
areas of low groundwater, sewage may exfiltration into groundwater from a leaking
sewer.
183
1.5 Quality-Characteristic of Wastewater:
Sewage is more than 99.9 percent water and the rest, less than 0.1 percent, contains a wide
variety of dissolved and suspended impurities. Although amounting to a very small fraction of
the sewage by weight, the nature of these impurities and the large volumes of sewage in which
they are carried make disposal of domestic wastewater a significant technical problem. The
principal impurities are putrescible organic materials and plant nutrients, but domestic sewage
is also very likely to contain disease-causing microbes. Industrial wastewater usually contains
specific and readily identifiable chemical compounds, depending on the nature of the industrial
process. Figure 32 summaries the three main characteristic of wastewater.
Figure 32: Characteristic of Wastewater
• Physical Characteristics
a) Turbidity
b) Colour
c) Odour
d) Total solids
e) Temperature
• Chemical Characteristics due to Chemical Impurities

a) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
b) Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
c) Nitrogen
d) Phosphorus
184
e) Chlorides
f) Sulphates
g) Alkalinity
h) pH
i) Heavy Metals
j) Trace Elements
k) Priority Pollutants
• Biological Characteristics due to Contaminants

a) · Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
b) · Oxygen required for nitrification
c) · Microbial population
1.5.1 Principal pollutants
• Inorganic materials:
In organic materials includes suspended solids and dissolved solids. Suspended solids include
sand, silt, clay particles and grits (glass, gravel, etc.) while the dissolved solids consist of toxic
and nontoxic material. Nontoxic solids contain different types of cations salts (Ca, Mg, Mn,
Al, Fe, Na, K) and anion salts (HCO3, CO3, SO4, Cl, PO4, and NO3). The Toxic minerals include
Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ag, Ni, Zn.
• Gases
The main gases of concern in wastewater treatment plants are methane (NH4), hydrogen
sulphide(H2S), and oxygen (or the lack thereof). Hydrogen sulphide and methane are the by-
products of the decomposition of organic materials that exist in the waste flows. The build-up
of these gases may lead to the lack of oxygen, or in some cases, explosion when coupled with
a source of ignition. But the number of gas hazards present may be too numerous to name. The
potential for an unlimited number of toxic or explosive gases exists from the chemicals that
may be spilled or dumped into the waste system from the industrial base in the community.
• Microbes
Sewage contains many millions of microorganisms per gallon. Most are coliform bacteria from
the human intestinal tract, and domestic sewage is also likely to carry other microbes.
Coliforms are used as indicators of sewage pollution. A high coliform count usually indicates
recent sewage pollution.
• Organic materials:
185
The organic materials are the materials containing C, H, O, N, S, and P in their compounds.
These compounds are suspended and dissolved materials in wastewater, which are solids,
liquids and gases. Like: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oil, grease, phenols, pesticides,
detergents, etc.
The main content in wastewater is the organic matter which is considered a main pollutant that
is harmful to the environment. The environment can deal with these materials by the
decomposition process done by the organisms depending on:
1. Type of the organic matter,
2. Concentration of the dissolved oxygen in the water,
3. Type of organisms, and
4. The environment conditions.
Generally, there are two processes of organic decomposition that anaerobic and aerobic. In
aerobic process, aerobic organisms utilize considerable amounts of oxygen in decomposing
organic matter to a relatively stable humus under suitable environmental conditions.
Organic matter + O2 + organisms New calls + CO2 + H2O + SO4 + NO3 + NH3
In anaerobic decomposition, Organic compounds break down by the action of living organisms
that do not require air, and develop intermediate compounds including methane, organic acids,
hydrogen sulphide and other substances, many of which have strong odours. These compounds
accumulate and are not metabolized further in the anaerobic environment.
Organic matter + organisms New calls + CO2 + H2O + N2 + NH3 + CH4 + H2S
Table 1-1 shows typical domestic sewage characteristic.
Table 1-1: Typical domestic sewage characteristic
Parameter mg/L Weak Medium Strong

Total dissolved solids 270 500 860
Total suspended solids 120 210 400
BOD5 110 190 350
COD 250 430 800
TOC 80 140 260
Total N 20 40 70
Total P 4 7 12
Chloride 30 50 90
Sulphate 20 30 50
186
1.6 Determination of the Concentration of Organic Matter:
1. BOD (Biochemical oxygen demand): The oxygen utilized by the microorganisms, under
aerobic conditions to stabilize (decompose) the biodegradable organic matter. The
concentration of organic matter = the amount of oxygen consumed.
2. COD (Chemical oxygen demand): The oxygen equivalent of organic matter that is
oxidized by a strong chemical oxidant. The organic matter is destroyed by a mixture of
chromic and sulfuric acids then are converted to CO2 and water.
3. TOC (Total organic carbon): To convert the organic carbon of the organic matter to
carbon dioxide CO2 by using heat, oxygen, ultraviolet radiation and chemical oxidant.
𝐵𝑂𝐷 𝐵𝑂𝐷
Type of wastewater
𝐶𝑂𝐷 𝑇𝑂𝐶
Untreated 0.3 – 0.8 1.2 – 2.0
Treated 0.1 – 0.3 0.2 – 0.5
The standard BOD test:

1. Put the wastewater in 2 bottles.
2. Determine the dissolved oxygen in bottle 1 (DO1)
3. Put bottle 2 in the incubator at temperature 20 oC for 5 days. The bacterial will grow
and decompose the organic matter in the wastewater utilizing the dissolve oxygen (DO1).
4. Determine the remaining dissolved oxygen in bottle 2 (DO2).
5. Calculate BOD in the wastewater = DO1 – DO2
Note: Dissolved oxygen is measured by
a. Chemical reaction – using 2 bottles
b. Using an electrode – one bottle.
The standard test is at temperature 20 oC as this is the optimum temperature for the bacteria to
grow. The carbonic organic matter needs about 20 days for complete degradation. But through
the 5 days' incubation time about 70% of this organic matter will decompose. This is explained
by the following:
187
The decomposition of organic matter is a 1st order reaction:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= −𝐾1 𝑦 → = − 𝐾1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑦
By integration
ln 𝑦 = − 𝐾1 𝑡 + 𝑐 (1)
At t = 0, y = L
So, c = ln L and eq.1 will be:
𝑦
ln 𝑦 = − 𝐾1 𝑡 + ln 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 ln = − 𝐾1 𝑡
𝐿
𝑦
= 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐿 𝑒 −𝐾1 𝑡
𝐿
y: The non-degradable (remaining) organic matter at time t (mg/L).
L: The ultimate organic matter at time 0 = BODu (mg/L).
K1: Degradation rate (day-1) (reaction rate constant at 20 oC, d-1 (for domestic wastewater K =
0.2 to 0.3 d. for domestic sewage K1 = 0.23 day-1 at T = 20 oC
t: Time for decomposition (day).
The oxygen utilized or organic matter decomposed through time t (day) at temperature T (OC)
will be:
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 − 𝑦 = 𝐿 − 𝐿 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 )
To change the rate from any temperature to 20 oC, the following formula can be used:
(K1(T) = K1(20) × 1.047(𝑇−20) )
The values of K1 and L may be determined from a series of BOD measurements. Thomas
developed the approximate formula which can linearized as
2
1
𝑡 3 1 𝑘3
( ) = ( 𝐾1 𝐿 )−3 + ( 1 1 ) ∗ 𝑡
𝐵𝑂𝐷
(6𝐿)3
1
1
𝑡
By plotting (𝐵𝑂𝐷) vs. t, a straight line may be obtained with intercept equals to ( 𝐾1 𝐿 )−3 at t
3
2
𝑘13
= 0, and slope ( 1 ).
(6𝐿)3
188
1.7 Solved Problems
Example 1: The results from the laboratory show that the BOD 1-30 = 110 mg/L for a
wastewater sample. Find: 1- ultimate BOD (BODu), 2- BOD5-20?
Solution
1- K1(T) = K1(20) × 1.047(𝑇−20) → K1(30) = 0.23 × 1.047(30−20)
K1(30) = 0.364 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷1−30 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾(1−30) 𝑡 )
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
110 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙364 ×1) ) → 𝐿 = 360.527
𝐿 𝐿
2- 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾(1−20) 𝑡 )
𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 360.527 × (1 − 𝑒 −(0.23 ×5) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 246.371
𝐿
Example 2: If the waste with ultimate BODu equal 190 mg/L and K1-20 = 0.23 day-1 is
discharge to a stream at an average temperature 25oC:- a) compute the BOD
would be exerted in 3 and 5 days at temperature 20 and 25 oC, (𝐵𝑂𝐷3−20),
(𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20), (𝐵𝑂𝐷3−25), (𝐵𝑂𝐷5−25)? b) Compute the organic loading in (kg/day)
for (𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 ) if the flowrate 50 m3/hr?
Solution
a) 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾(1−20) 𝑡 )
𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 190 × (1 − 𝑒 −(0.23 ×5) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 129.839
𝐿
𝐵𝑂𝐷3−20 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾(1−20) 𝑡 )
𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷3−20 = 190 × (1 − 𝑒 −(0.23 ×3) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷3−20 = 94.7
𝐿
K1(25) = K1(20) × 1.047(𝑇−20) → K1(25) = 0.23 × 1.047(25−20)
K1(25) = 0.289 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝐵𝑂𝐷3−25 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾(1−25) 𝑡 )
𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷3−25 = 190 × (1 − 𝑒 −(0.289 ×3) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷3−25 = 110.16
𝐿
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−25 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾(1−25) 𝑡 )
𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−25 = 190 × (1 − 𝑒 −(0.289 ×5) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−25 = 145.208
𝐿
𝑚𝑔
b) 𝑂𝑟g𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑘𝑔 / 𝑑𝑎𝑦, 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 129.939 , Q = 50 m3/hr
𝐿
189
𝑘𝑔
Organic load = 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 × 𝑄
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑔 −3
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
Organic load = (129.839 × 10 ) 3 × (50 × 24)
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘𝑔 kg
Organic load = 155.807
Example 3: The biochemical oxygen demand of wastewater during five days at

temperature of 20 oc is 190 mg/L, if the value of K1= 0.25 day-1. determine the
biochemical oxygen demand through one day, then through five days under
temperature degree of 13 oc?
Solution
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾(5−20) 𝑡 )
→
𝑚𝑔
190 = 𝐿 × (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙25 ×5) ) → 𝐿 = 266.295
𝐿
K1(13) = K1(20) × 1.047(13−20) → K1(13) = 0.25 × 1.047(13−20)
K1(13) = 0.181 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷1−13 = 266.295 ∗ (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙181 ×1) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷1−13 = 44.08
𝐿
𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷5−13 = 266.295 × (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙181 ×5) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−13 = 158.56
𝐿
Example 4: Determine the ratio of BOD10 to BOD5 if the rate of reaction is 0.20 day-1?
Solution
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1 𝑡 ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷10 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 )
𝐵𝑂𝐷10 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙20 ×10) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷10 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −2 )
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1 𝑡 ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1 𝑡 )
𝐵𝑂𝐷5 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙20 ×5) ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −1 )
𝐵𝑂𝐷10 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −2 ) 0 ∙ 865
= =
𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) 0 ∙ 632
𝐵𝑂𝐷10
= 1 ∙ 369
𝐵𝑂𝐷5
190
Example 5: The following data are to be used to determine the value of K and L for the waste
tested.
Time, days 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15

BOD, mg/1 5 20 90 160 200 220 260 285 320
Solution
The data is first plotted as shown below to determine if the oxygen uptake began immediately
or if a lag (delay) was evident. From the plot it appears that the time of beginning which best
fits the data is t0 = 0.8. The times at which the BOD data were taken are thus corrected by this
amount:
Figure 33: BOD exerted vs. time
Time, days Corrected time, days BOD, mg/1 (t/BOD)1/3

0.5 5
1.0 1-0.8 = 0.2 20 0.22
2.0 2-0.8= 1.2 90 0.24
3.0 2.2 160 0.24
4.0 3.2 200 0.25
5.0 4.2 220 0.27
7.0 6.2 260 0.29
10.0 9.2 285 0.32
15.0 14.2 320 0.35
1
𝑡 3
(𝐵𝑂𝐷) is plotted vs. t as shown in the figure below.
191
2
−
1 𝑘13
From the figure, ( 𝐾1 𝐿 ) 3 = 0.22 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 slope ( 1 ) = 0.0108
(6𝐿)3
By Solving these identities simultaneously,

K1 = 0.295 day-1
L = 319 mg/1
Thus,
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1 𝑡 )
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡 = 319 (1 − 𝑒 −0.295(𝑡−0.8) )
H.W.
Example 6: A BOD determination yields the following data. Determine the value of K1 and
L for this waste.
Time, days 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 11 13
BOD, mg/1 4 12 19 21 23 27 30 35 35
Example 7: The biochemical oxygen demand of wastewater during seven days at

temperature of 20 oc is 200 mg/L, if the value of K1= 0.3 day-1. determine the
biochemical oxygen demand through two day, then through seven days under
temperature degree of 10 oc?
192
Quantity of wastewater
2.1 Introduction
This lecture is prepared to provide a basic information regarding the estimation of the quantity
of sanitary and storm sewage.
2.2 Quantity of Sewage
Sewage is defined as a combination of the liquid wasted from (A) residences, business
buildings, institutions; and industrial establishments and (B) ground, surface, and storm water
that may be admitted to or find its way into the sewers. Type (A) sewage is frequently known
as sanitary (domestic) sewage and industrial waste while Type (B) is known as storm sewage.
Sewers are classified according to the type of sewage that they are designed to carry. Sanitary
sewers carry sanitary sewage and the industrial wastes produced by the community. Storm
sewers are designed to carry the surface and storm water which runs off the area that they serve.
Combined sewers carry all types of sewage in the same conduits.
2.3 Quantity of Sanitary Sewage
Sanitary sewage and industrial waste will obviously be derived largely from the water supply.
The proportion of the water consumed which reach the sewer will must be decided upon after
careful consideration of local conditions. Although the sewage may vary in individual cities
from 70-130 percent of the water consumed, designers frequently assume that the average rate
of sewage flow, including a moderate allowance for infiltration, equal the average rate of water
consumption. It is usually specified that 80% – 90% of the drinking water supplied to one
person (capita) through one day equals to quantity of wastewater generated. The percentage of
industrial wastewater is estimated by 75% from daily water consumed in industry.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑄𝑎𝑣 ) = (0.8 − 0.9) ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑃

Where:
𝑄: Water consumed by one person for one day,
𝑃: Population.
193
2.3.1 Infiltration and Inflow
Infiltration is the water that enters sewers through poor joints, cracked pipes, and the walls of
manholes. Inflow enters through perforated manhole covers, roof drains, and drains from
flooded cellars during runoff events. In wet weather, infiltration greatly increases as
groundwater levels rise. Sewers located below the groundwater table have high probability of
infiltration. Sewers that are constructed in or close to stream beds are likely to have high
infiltration.
The amount of infiltration to be expected will depend upon the care with which the sewer
system is constructed, the height of the groundwater table, and the character of the soil. Sewer
size apparently has little effect. Infiltration rates are likely to vary from 35 to 115 m3/km of
Sewer length per day in old systems, but even higher rates have been noted where sewers are
below the water table and are poorly constructed. Engineers are liberal in estimating the
infiltration for design purposes.
2.3.2 Fluctuations in Dry Weather Flow
In order to design a sewer system for a city, an estimate must be made of the fluctuations to be
expected in the flow. This is of importance, as the sewers must be large enough to accommodate
the maximum rate. Since dry weather flow depends on the quantity of water used, and as there
are fluctuations in rate of water consumption, there will be fluctuations in dry weather flow
also. In general, it can be assumed that:
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑄𝑀𝑎𝑥) = (1.5 − 2) ∗ 𝑄𝑎𝑣
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑛 ) = (0.5 − 0.67) ∗ 𝑄𝑎𝑣
Wastewater fluctuations in various cities indicates that the peak for a small residential area is
likely to be 225 percent of the average for that day. For commercial area the peak may reach
150 percent of the average and for industrial areas somewhat less. The flow in the outfall line
of a sewer system serving a city having a normal population and commercial and industrial
activities will have a peak flow of about 150 percent of the daily average. The following
formula are used to estimate the maximum rate of domestic sewage flow from small areas:
14
𝑀 =1+
4 + √𝑃
Where:
194
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝑀: Ratio of the maximum sewage flow to the average (𝑀 = ).
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑃: Population served in thousands.

The maximum sewage flow will be the hourly maximum, or the peak rate of the maximum day
plus the maximum infiltration. The Maximum sewage flow can also be found through the
following equation when the seasonal variation is taken in to consideration.
4
𝑀1 = 6 ∗𝑛
√𝑃
Where:
𝑛 represents the seasonal variation coefficient (values range from 1.2 to 1.4 and the
recommended value is 1.20). Therefore, the above equation can be written as follow.
4.80
M1 = 6
√𝑃
On the other hand, the minimum rates of sewage flow are useful in the design of sewage
pumping plants and occasionally to investigate the velocities in sewers during low flow
periods. Generally, the minimum flow may be taken as 50 percent of the average. The following
formula can be used to estimate the ratio of minimum flow to average flow
6
𝑀2 = 0 ∙ 2 ∗ √𝑃
Where: M2 is the ratio of minimum flow (Qmin) to average flow (Qavg).
Table 2-1 shows the minimum flow requirement for deigning purposes of the sewer system
parts.
Table 2-1: Minimum flow requirements for the design of sewer
Sanitary sewer type Flow (L per capita/day)

Laterals and sub main sewers 1500 including normal infiltration
950 including normal infiltration + industrial wastes if known to be
Main, trunk, and outfall sewers
in large amounts.
195
2.4 Design periods and use of sewage flow data
Design period
Detail Design criteria
(year)
It is necessary to estimate maximum population densities
Design of a sewer expected in various districts and locations of commercial and
indefinite
system industrial districts together with maximum rates of sewage flow
per second and maximum infiltration per day.
Sewage pumping Rate of flow required are average daily, peak, and minimum
10
plant flow rates, including infiltration.
Sewage treatment Flow rate required are average and peak rates, both include
15 – 20
plant infiltration.
2.5 Amount of Storm Sewage
The first step in design of sewers is the estimation of the flow which they will receive. Section
2.3 considers the variation in flow in sanitary sewers, while this section presents methods of
estimating storm flow from urban areas.
2.5.1 Factors Influencing the Quantity of Surface Runoff
1. Area
This factor is very important and it has a large effect on surface runoff. In order to know
the entering amount of rain water to manhole of system, it is necessary to divide the total
catchment area into small areas nearby each manhole.
2. Time of concentration
It is defined as the required time to the surface runoff from the remote (farthest) point to
reach the region or point under consideration. The time of concentration includes two parts;
the first part is called (inlet time) while the second part is called time of flow from the
farther region to the point under consideration.
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑡𝑐 ) = 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡𝑖 ) + 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡𝑓 )
196
Figure 34: 1) inlet time and 2) inlet time and flow time
• Inlet time (ti): Time required for rainwater to flow from the most remote distance in
the catchment area to reach the collecting point and produce the maximum
discharge. The time of inlet depends on surface slop and length of traveled path to
inlet of sewage system. It also depends on rainfall intensity and duration. It is
normal assumed that values of inlet time ranges between 5-30 minutes. However, it
is usually taking between 5 to 15 minutes. The Iraqi engineers normally specify
time of inlet by 15 minutes for project in middle and south of Iraq due to its flat
surface, and 10 minutes for project in north of Iraq because of high slope of its
surface. Alternatively, a nomogram (Figure 35) can be used to calculate the inlet
time. However, this procedure neglects the effect of rainfall intensity, but is
adequate for most urban drainage projects.
197
Figure 35: Overland flow time
• Flowing time (tf): Time required for the flowing discharge inside the sewer to reach
the collecting point; the time of flow can be determined by using the following
formula.
𝐿
𝑡𝑓 =
𝑉
Where 𝑡𝑓 represents time of flow and, L is length of pipe to be design and V is the average
flow velocity.
3. Storm rainfall Occurrence

The determination of rainwater is depended on rainfall intensity estimation for storm which
occurred at certain period. The rainfall intensity for storms occurred one time through twenty
years greater than that of storms occurred one time through ten years, and latest has greater
intensity than that happened one time through five years etc. The rainfall intensity of 2 to 10
198
years occurrence is used with residential region for both separate and combined system. For
industrial and commercial regions, the rainfall intensity is determined for 10 to 50 years
occurrence. To avoid flooding, it is necessary to design of rainwater system for fifty year or
more.
4. Rainfall intensity
Rainfall intensity is defined as the rainwater quantity per unit time (minute, hour, or day) which
is presented in mm/h or cm/hr. The intensity can be found though using intensity duration
curves (Figure 36) which are in the form of equations:
𝑎
𝑖 (𝑚𝑚) =
ℎ𝑟 𝑏+𝑡
Where:
𝑎 & 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠).
𝑚𝑚
𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( ℎ𝑟 ).
Figure 36: Rainfall intensity curves derived from storm records
5. Runoff Coefficient (C)

It is one of the important factors on determination of rainwater (surface runoff) flow through
system. Runoff coefficient depending on the surface type and building areas. Table 2-2 shows
runoff coefficients for several type of surfaces and several types of regions.
199
Table 2-2: Runoff coefficients for different areas
2.5.2 Rational formula
The rational method is the simplest of the methods used in storm sewer design to calculate the
quantity of storm water. Although it was widely used in the past, this method not be applied to
area larger than 3 km2.
𝑄 = 𝐶∗𝑖∗𝐴
Q: Runoff discharge.
A: Catchment area.
C: Runoff coefficient.
𝑖 = Rainfall intensity.
200
2.6 Solved problems
Example 1: Determine the upper and lower limits, and the daily average sewage flow
rates for city of population of (200000) capita. The daily water consumption
per capita is (250 l).
Solution
𝑙
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 0.85 ∗ 250 ( ) ∗ 200000 capita
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
𝑙
= 42.5 ∗ 106
𝑑
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑀1 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒
4 ∙ 80 6 6
= 1 ∗ 42 ∙ 5 ∗ 10 = 1.985 ∗ 42.5 ∗ 10
200000 6
( 1000 )
l
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 84.31 ∗ 106 d
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑀2 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒
1
= 0.2 ∗ ( 200)6 ∗ 42.5 ∗ 106 = 0.484 ∗ 42.5 ∗ 106
l
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 20.57 ∗ 106
d
Example 2: Determine the runoff coefficient for an area of 0.20 km2 using the values in
Table 2-2? Noting that 3000 m2 is covered by building, 5000 m2 by paved
driveways and walks, 2000 m2 by Portland cement street and the remaining
area is flat, heavy soil, covered by grass lawn.
Solution
Surface Runoff Area (A) Area ratio Runoff coefficient for
coefficient, C 𝑨 𝑨
( ) an area (𝑪 ∗ )
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
(Table 2-2)
Roofs 0.70 – 0.95 3000 3000 0.0105 – 0.01425
200000
= 0.015
Driveways and 0.75 – 0.85 5000 5000
= 0.025 0.01875 – 0.02125
200000
walks
Street 0.8 – 0.95 2000 2000 0.008 – 0.0095
200000
= 0.01
Grass lawn 0.13 – 0.17 200000 - (3000 + 5000 190000 0.1235 – 0.1615
= 0.95
200000
+ 2000) = 190000
𝑪𝑨𝒗𝒈 0.16 – 0.21
201
Example 3: Find the runoff discharge (m3/min) for an area 200,000 m2 where i = 95
mm/hr. The area consists of: 30% roofs (C =0.7), 20% asphalt pavements
(C=0.85), 10% paved sidewalks (C=0.75) and the remaining are lawns (C =
0.18) of heavy soil covered with grass 5% in slope?
Solution
The average runoff coefficient,
𝐶𝐴𝑣𝑔 = (30% ∗ 0.7) + (20% ∗ 0.85) + (10% ∗ 0.75) + (40% ∗ 0.18)
𝐶𝐴𝑣𝑔 = 0.21 + 0.17 + 0.075 + 0.072 = 0.527
95 𝑚
𝑄 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑖 ∗ 𝐴 = 0.527 × ( ) × 200000
1000 ℎ𝑟
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄 = 10013 = 166.883
ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Example 4: Find the runoff discharge (m3/sec) for the catchment region of area 100,000
m2. The remote distance = 60 m, the surface is grass of slope 4%, C = 0.35 and
𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟎
𝒊 = 𝒕+𝟑𝟎 ? Also, the diameter of the sewer pipes to carry this discharge at full
flow condition; assume the flowing velocity is 1 m/sec?
Solution
From Figure 35, with distance = 60 m, C = 0.35, Slope = 4%,
The inlet time = 15 minute = time of concentration due to flow time = 0.
5230 5230 𝑚𝑚
i = = = 116.2
t + 30 15 + 30 ℎ𝑟
116.2 𝑚
𝑄 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑖 ∗ 𝐴 = 0.35 ∗ ( ) ∗ 100000
1000 ℎ𝑟
𝑚3
𝑄 = 4067 = 1.13 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
ℎ𝑟
𝑚 𝜋
𝑄 =𝑣∗𝐴 → 1.13 = 1 ∗ ∗ 𝐷2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 4
𝐷 = 1.199 𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 1200 𝑚𝑚
202
Example 5: Find the maximum runoff for rains x, y, and z on an impervious soil of 1
hectare, and 30 minutes time of concentration? Noting that storm X has a
duration of 15 minutes and rainfall intensity of 1 mm/min, storm Y has
duration of 30 minutes and rainfall intensity of 0.62 mm/min and storm Z has
duration of 60 min and rainfall intensity of 0.35 mm/min.
Solution
𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐶 = 0.9
𝐴 = 1 ∗ 104 = 104 𝑚2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑥
1
𝑖= = 1.67 ∗ 10−5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1000 ∗ 60
−5 4
𝑚2
𝑄 = 0.9 ∗ 1.67 ∗ 10 ∗ 10 = 0.15
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 < 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑄𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠
0.167 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.15 𝑚3

= 𝑄𝑀𝑎𝑥∙ = 15 ∗ = 0.075
30 15 30 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑌
0.62 𝑚
𝑖= = 1.03 ∗ 10−5
1000 ∗ 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚3
𝑄𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 0.9 ∗ 1.03 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 104 = 0.093
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑍
0.35 10−5 𝑚
𝑖= = 0.58 ∗
1000 ∗ 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚3
𝑄𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 0.9 ∗ 0.58 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 104 = 0.052
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 > 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓
203
Example 6: For the given plan, find the diameter of the sewer pipe 2 at full flow condition
𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟎
with flowing velocity 1m/sec. Use common intensity method if ( 𝒊 = 𝒕+𝟑𝟎 )?
Item Area (m2) C ti (min) for roof

A 7000 0.5 10
B 8000 0.6 11
D 10000 0.3 16
E 15000 0.6 14
pipe Flowing time (tf)

1 5.5
2 1.5
Solution
To find t for each area where flow will reach points
Area ti (min) for roof tf (min) for pipe tc (min) = ti + tf
A 10 5.5 + 1.5 =7 17
B 11 5.5 + 1.5 =7 18
D 16 1.5 17.5
E 14 0 14
5230 5230 𝑚𝑚
i = = = 108.958
t + 30 18 + 30 ℎ𝑟
Runoff discharge reaching collecting points is from area A, B, and C, using common intensity method
𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑖 ∑ 𝐴𝑦 𝐶𝑦
𝑦=1
𝑛
𝑄 = 0.108958 ∗ ∑(7000 ∗ 0.5 + 8000 ∗ 0.6 + 10000 ∗ 0.3 + 15000 ∗ 0.6)

𝑦=1
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄 = 2211.847 = 0.614
ℎ𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
204
𝑚 𝜋
𝑄 =𝑣∗𝐴 → 0.614 = 1 ∗ ∗ 𝐷2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 4
𝐷 = 0.884 𝑚 , 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 900 𝑚𝑚
𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟎
Example 7: Find Q at each collection point, use i (mm/hr) = 𝒕+𝟑𝟎 , Q = CiA
Solution:
5230 1 𝑚3
𝑄1 = 0.5 ∗ ∗ ∗ 7000 = 0.127
10 + 30 1000 ∗ 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡2 = 11 𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑡2 = 10 + 1.5 = 11.5 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑐2 = 11.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛
5230 1 𝑚3
Q2 = ( 0.5 ∗ 7000 + 0.6 ∗ 8000 ) ∗ ∗ = 0.29
11.5 + 30 1000 ∗ 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡3 = 9 𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑡3 = 11 + 2 = 13 𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑡3 = 10 + 1.5 + 2

= 13.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑐3 = 13.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛
5230 1
Q3 = (0.5 ∗ 7000 + 0.6 ∗ 8000 + 0.3 ∗ 10000) ∗ ∗
13.5 + 30 1000 ∗ 3600
𝑚3
𝑄3 = 0.377
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡4 = 16 𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑡4 = 9 + 1.5 = 10.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑡4 = 11 + 2 + 1.5

= 14 .5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑐4 = 16 𝑚𝑖𝑛
5230 1
Q4 = (0.5 ∗ 7000 + 0.6 ∗ 8000 + 0.3 ∗ 10000 + 0.6 ∗ 15000) ∗ 16+30 ∗ 1000∗3600
𝑚3
𝑄4 = 0.641
𝑠𝑒𝑐
205
Example 8: An urban area has an area of 100000 m2 and a runoff coefficient of 0.45.
Using duration of 25 minutes and the curve of Figure 36. compute the runoff
resulting from point rainfalls with a recurrence interval of 5 and 15 years?
Solution
𝐴 = 100000 𝑚2 , 𝐶 = 0.45
𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 25 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 5 & 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 36,
𝑚𝑚
𝑖 = 81.5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
ℎ𝑟
𝑚𝑚
𝑖 = 109.375 𝑓𝑜𝑟 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
ℎ𝑟
𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑟 5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟: 𝑄 𝑚3 = 0.278 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑖 ∗ 𝐴𝑚2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ℎ𝑟
100000
𝑄𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒 = 0.278 ∗ 0.45 ∗ 81.25 ∗ = 1.016 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
106
𝐹𝑜𝑟 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟: 𝑄𝑚3 / sec = 0.278 ∗ 𝐶 ∗ 𝑖 ∗ 𝐴𝑚2
𝑄𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.278 ∗ 0.45 ∗ 109.375 ∗ 0.1 = 1.368 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
H.W
Example 9: A residential urban area has the following proportions of various areas: Roofs,
25 percent; asphalt pavement, 14 percent; concrete sidewalk, 5 percent;
gravel driveways, 7 percent; grassy lawns with average soil and little slope, 49
percent. Compute the runoff coefficient for the whole area using the values of
Table 2-2?
𝒎𝒎 𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟎
Example 10: find Q at each collection point? use 𝒊 ( 𝒉𝒓 ) = 𝒕+𝟑𝟎
206
Sewer systems
3.1 Introduction
This lecture was prepared to provide essential information regarding sewer systems. This
include the components of sewer systems, sewer type and sewer materials. In addition, the flow
in sewer systems and the design criteria of sewer network also discussed.
3.2 Sewerage system
Sewer systems are divided according to sewage type and flow type.
• According to sewage type, there are two type of sewage. Sanitary sewers carry sanitary
sewage and industrial wastes after treatment produced by the community and only such
ground, surface, and storm water as may enter through poor joints, around manhole
covers, and through deficiencies. Storm sewers are designed to carry the surface and
storm water which runs in the same conduits.
• Sewer systems are mainly divided to combined and separated according to flow type.
Combined system requires only one pipe to carry both dry weather flow and wet
weather flow, which is an important consideration in streets which are crowded with
underground pipe for water, telephone, electric cables and other utilities. On the other
hand, two pipes are used, one to carry dry flow and another pipe to carry wet flow. It is
used in rainy cities which the quantities of domestic wastewater in only a small fraction
of the storm water. Table 3-1 provides a comparison between both types
Figure 37: Types of sewer systems
207
Table 3-1: Comparison of characteristics of combined wastewater with other sources
Parameter Unit Rainwater Runoff Combined Domestic

wastewater wastewater
Total suspended mg/L <1 67 – 101 270 – 550 120 – 370
solids TSS
BOD mg/L 1 – 13 8 – 10 60 – 220 120 – 380
COD mg/L 9 – 16 40 – 73 260 – 480 260 – 900
Coliform Bacteria MPN/100 ml 103 – 104 105 – 106 105 – 107
Nitrate mg/L 0.05 – 1.0 0.43 – 0.91
Phosphorous mg/L 0.02 – 0.15 0.67 – 1.66 1.2 – 2.8 4 – 12
Copper Cu µg/L 27 – 33
Lead Pb µg/L 0 - 70 30 – 144 140 - 600
Zinc Zn µg/L 135 - 226
3.3 Material of Sewers
The most common type of materials used in sewer pipes are:

• Clay pipes
• Plain concrete pipes
• Reinforced concrete pipes
• Asbestos cement pipes
• Plastic truss pipes
• Plastic truss pipes
• Un-plasticized polyvinylchloride pipes (UPVC).
• Cast iron (CI) and ductile iron pipe (DI).
• Glass reinforced plastic pipe (GRP).
• High density polyethylene pipe (HDPE)
3.4 Strength and Loading of Vitrified Clay Pipes
Clay pipe is made of clay or shale which has been ground, wet, molded, dried, and burned in a
kiln. Near the end of the burning process, sodium chloride is added to the kiln and vaporizes to
form a hard-waterproof glaze by reacting with the pipe surface. The burning itself produces a
fusion, or vitrification, of the clay, making it very hard and dense. Vitrified glazed clay pipe is
not subject to mineral or bacterial corrosion. The static load produced on buried pipe may be
calculated using an equation of the form:
208
𝑊 = 𝐶𝑤𝐵 2
Where:
W is the load on the pipe per unit length,
w is the weight of the fill material per unit volume,
B is the width of the trench just below the top of the pipe (which for ease of joining is generally
not less than one- and one-half pipe diameters plus 300 mm), and
C is a coefficient which depends upon the depth of the trench, the character of the construction,
and the fill material. For ordinary trench construction the value of C can be calculated from:
𝜄
1 − 𝑒 −2 𝐾 𝜇 𝐻/𝐵
𝐶=
2 𝐾 𝜇𝜄
H is the depth of fill above the pipe,
B is as identified above,
K is the ratio of active lateral pressure to vertical pressure, and
µ' is the coefficient of sliding friction between the fill material and the sides of the trench.
The product Kµ' ranges from 0.1 to 0.16 for most soils (Table 3.2).
Table 3-2: Value of the product Kµ'
Soil type Maximum value of Kµ'

Cohesion less granular material 0.192
Sand and gravel 0.165
Saturated top soil 0.150
Clay 0.130
Saturated clay 0.110
3.5 Corrosion in sewers:
Organic matter may accumulate in the sewer pipe as the result of low flowing velocity (d/D
less than 0.3) or/and the accumulation of grease and oil on the surface of the wastewater. The
organic matter will undergo anaerobic decomposition. This will form fatty acids (low pH) and
the reduction of sulfates that will produce H2S. The H2S can be oxidized into sulfuric acid
H2SO4 that will lead to the destruction of the crown.
Serval techniques can be used to control the corrosion:
1. Control the flowing velocity where d/D should be more than 0.3.
2. Ventilation.
3. Flushing the sewer system from any depositions.
209
4. Chlorination.
5. Lining the crown with protective material.
Figure 38: Sewer pipes corrosion
3.6 Flow in sewers:
For design the flowing velocity is according to Manning formula as the flow in this system is
by gravity where the pipes are laid by appropriate slopes.
1 2 1
𝑉( 𝑚 ) = ∗ 𝑅3 ∗ 𝑆 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛
V: Flowing velocity (m/sec)
𝐷
R: Hydraulic radius when full flow, 𝑅 = (𝑚)
4
ℎ𝑙
S: Slope = hydraulic gradient, 𝑆 = 𝐿
n: Roughness coefficient depending on the material of the pipe.
Table 3-3: Roughness coefficient of different material of pipes

Material of the pipe n
Plastic 0.009
Cement 0.01
Cast iron 0.012
Steel, Concrete, Clay 0.013
Brick, vitrified clay, concrete, and UPVC 0.015
GRP 0.016
210
3.6.1 For full flow conditions

1 2 1 𝜋
𝑄(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐) = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = ∗ 𝑅3 ∗ 𝑆 2 ∗ ∗ 𝐷2
𝑛 4
1 𝐷 0.67 𝜋 0.310
𝑄(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐) = ∗( ) ∗ 𝑆 0.5 ∗ ∗ 𝐷2 = ∗ 𝐷2.67 ∗ 𝑆 0.5
𝑛 4 4 𝑛
For n = 0.013:
𝑄(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐) = 23.846 ∗ 𝐷2.67 ∗ 𝑆 0.5
2 1
𝑉(𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐) = 30.385 ∗ 𝐷3 ∗ 𝑆 2
3.6.2 For partial flow
q: Actual flowing discharges.

v: Actual flowing velocity.
d: Actual depth of flow.
The following table is used for partial flow design
Table 3-4:Partial Flow Elements
𝑑/𝐷 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

𝑞/𝑄 0.15 0.26 0.42 0.56 0.71 0.85 0.98 1.0
𝑣/𝑉 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.88 0.95 1.02 1.04 1.0
Design criteria:
1- Sewers should run partially full.
2- Maximum velocity in sewers should not exceed the velocity that damage the sewer
which is 2.4 m/s
3- A velocity of not less than 0.6 m/s is required in sanitary sewers in order to prevent
settlement of the sewage solids for DWF.
4- A minimum allowable velocity of 0.9 m/s is desirable WWF
5- The ratio of actual flow depth (d) to full flow depth (D) should be equal of more
than 0.3. This is very important as it helps to determine the invert drop (branch and
main sewer) and, also, to reduce the danger of back up.
211
Figure 39: Hydraulic elements of circular pipes.
3.7 Solved problems
Example 1: A 610-mm (24-in) sewer is to be placed in an ordinary trench 3.66 m

(12 ft) deep, 1.22 m (4 ft) wide which will be backfilled with wet clay weighing
1920 kg/m3 (120 lb/ft3). Determine the load upon the pipe?
Solution
From Table 3-2, wet clay, 𝐾 𝜇 𝜄 = 0.110
212
𝑊 = 𝐶𝑤𝐵 2
𝜄𝐻
1 − 𝑒 −2 𝐾 𝜇 𝐵
𝐶=
2 𝐾 𝜇𝜄
3.66
1 − 𝑒 −2∗ 0.110∗(1.22)
𝐶= = 2.20
2 ∗ 0.110
𝑊 = 2.20 ∗ 1920 ∗ 1.222
𝑘𝑔
= 6287
𝑚
Example 2: Find the diameter of the sewer to carry 3.4 m3/min at a slope of 0.003
(assume full flow, n =0.013)?
Solution
1 2 1
𝑄(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐) = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = ∗ 𝑅3 ∗ 𝑆 2 ∗ 𝐴 =
𝑛
2
1 𝐷 3 1 𝜋
= ∗ ( ) ∗ (0.003)2 ∗ ( ∗ 𝐷2 )
0.013 4 4
3.4 𝑚3 8
= 1.307 ∗ 𝐷3
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚3 8
0.0567 = 1.307 ∗ 𝐷3
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐷 = 0.308𝑚 𝑠𝑜 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐷 = 300 𝑚𝑚
Example 3: A sewer is to carry 25 m3/min wastewater at a slope of 0.003 (assume n =

0.013) Find 1- Standard size (mm), 2- actual flowing velocity (m/sec), 3- depth
of flow
Design diameter 100 150 200 250 300 400 450 500 600
Nominal diameter 110 160 210 255 305 400 450 500 630
Design diameter 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1400 1600 1800
Nominal diameter 710 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1400 1600 1800
Solution
m3 𝑚3
𝑄 = 25 = 0.4167
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑄(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐) = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴
1 2 1
= ∗ 𝑅3 ∗ 𝑆 2 ∗ 𝐴
𝑛
213
2
1 𝐷 3 1 𝜋
= ∗ ( ) ∗ (0.003)2 ∗ ( ∗ 𝐷2 )
0.013 4 4
m3 8
0.4167 = 1.307 ∗ 𝐷 3
s
𝐷 = 0.651 𝑚
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 700 𝑚𝑚
Full flow:
1 2 1
𝑉( 𝑚 ) = ∗ 𝑅3 ∗ 𝑆 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛
2
1 0.7 3 1 𝑚
= ∗ ( ) ∗ (0.003)2 = 1.311
0.013 4 𝑠
𝑄 𝑚3 = 𝑉∗𝐴
( )
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜋 𝑚3
= 1.311 ∗ ∗ 0.72 = 0.505
4 𝑠
Partial Flow:
for 25 m3/min in pipe diameter 700 mm.
𝑞 0.4167
= = 0.825
𝑄 0.505
From hydraulic elements figure or tableFigure 39, find:
𝑑
= 0.77 > 0.3
𝐷
𝑑 = 0.539 𝑚𝑚
𝑣
= 1.0
𝑉
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 = 1.311 > 0.6 0. 𝑘
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐
214
Example 4: Find the diameter of sewer 3 in the figure given. Use the common intensity
method as (𝑖 = 1200/ (𝑡 + 86)), Assume n=0.013.
Solution:
Area Distance (m) ti (min) Flowing time (tf) tc (min)
A 224 10.6 0 10.6
B 142 13.8 0 13.8 (control)
1200 1200 𝑚𝑚
i = = = 12.02
t + 86 13.8 + 86 ℎ𝑟
Runoff discharge:
𝑄 = 𝐶∗𝑖∗𝐴
𝑄 = 12.02 ∗ 10−3 ∗ (200 ∗ 100 ∗ 0.95 + 100 ∗ 100 ∗ 0.55)
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄 = 294.49 = 0.082
ℎ𝑟 𝑠
Full flow:
For sewer 1
Q= v∗A
m π
Q=2 ∗ ∗ 0. 32
s 4
m3
Q = 0 ∙ 1414
s
For sewer 2
𝑚 𝜋
𝑄 = 1.5 ∗ ∗ 0.42
𝑠 4
𝑚3
= 0.1885
𝑠
Actual flow:
215
From Figure 39, find the hydraulic elements of sewer:

sewer 1:
𝑑
= 0.6 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.18 𝑚
𝐷
𝑞 𝑚3
= 0.56 ⟹ 𝑞 = 0.56 ∗ 0.1414 = 0.0792
𝑄 𝑠
𝑣
= 0.88 ⟹ 𝑣 = 0.88 ∗ 2
𝑉
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 = 1.76 > 0.9 0. 𝑘
𝑠 𝑠
sewer 2:
𝑑
= 0.8 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.8 ∗ 0.4 = 0.32 𝑚
𝐷
𝑞 𝑚3
= 0.85 ⟹ 𝑞 = 0.85 ∗ 0.1885 = 0.16
𝑄 𝑠
𝑣 𝑚 𝑚
= 1.00 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑉 = 1.5 > 0.9 0. 𝑘
𝑉 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐
sewer 3:
q 3 = Runoff + q1 + q 2
𝑚3
= 0.082 + 0.0792 + 0.16 = 0.3212
𝑠
𝑑 𝑞
= 0.6 ⟹ = 0.4
𝐷 𝑄
0.3212 𝑚3
𝑄= = 0.803
0.4 𝑠
𝑣
= 0.8 ⟹ 𝑣 = 0.8 ∗ 1.53
𝑉
𝑚 𝑚
= 1.224 > 0.9 0. 𝑘
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 ⟹ 0.803 = 1.53 ∗ ∗ 𝐷2
4
⟹ 𝐷 = 0.817 𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐷 = 800 𝑚𝑚
Sewer Q (m3/sec) q (m3/sec) D (m) d (m) V (m/sec) v (m/sec)
1 0.1414 0.0792 0.3 0.18 2 1.76
2 0.1885 0.16 0.4 0.32 1.5 1.5
3 0.803 0.3212 0.8 0.4 1.53 1.224
216
Example 5: At what height (y) above the invert of the main should the branch sewer be
connected?
Solution
For branch sewer:
Full flow
2
1 2 1 1 0.7 3 1 𝑚
𝑉( 𝑚 ) = ∗ 𝑅3 ∗ 𝑆 2 = ∗ ( ) ∗ (0.001)2 = 0.761
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 0.013 4 𝑠
𝜋 2
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄 𝑚3 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = 0.761 ∗ ∗ 0.7 = 0.293 = 17.58
(
𝑠𝑒𝑐
) 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚𝑖𝑛
For partial flow:

𝑞 16 𝑚3
= = 0.91
𝑄 17.58 𝑠
𝑑
= 0.84 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.84 ∗ 0.7 = 0.588 𝑚
𝐷
𝑣
= 1.03 ⟹ 𝑣 = 1.03 ∗ 0.761
𝑉
𝑚 𝑚
= 0.784 > 0.6 0. 𝑘
For main sewer:
Full flow
2
1 2 1 1 2 3 1 𝑚
𝑉( 𝑚 ) = ∗ 𝑅3 ∗ 𝑆 2 = ∗ ( ) ∗ (0.0002)2 = 0.685
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 0.013 4 𝑠
𝜋 2 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄 𝑚3 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = 0.685 ∗ ∗ 2 = 2.152 = 129.12
(
𝑠𝑒𝑐
) 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚𝑖𝑛
For partial flow:

𝑞 93.5 𝑚3
= = 0.724
𝑄 129.12 𝑠
217
𝑑
= 0.71 ⟹ 𝑑 = 0.71 ∗ 2 = 1.42 𝑚
𝐷
𝑣 𝑚 𝑚
= 0.95 ⟹ 𝑣 = 0.95 ∗ 0.685 = 0.65 > 0.6 0. 𝑘
𝑉 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑦 = 𝑑𝑚 − 𝑑𝑏 = 1.42 − 0.588 = 0.832 𝑚
Example 6: Design the sewage network with all important information supported in figure
below. Assume all sewers are at slope 0.003 and roughness coefficient n =
0.13. The hydraulic elements as below, a) Design the sewer network? b)
Design the profile sewer (longitudinal section)? Assume invert to invert value =
25 mm. Note, the following conditions have to be met d/D ≤ 0.75 & q/Q ≤ 0.9.
Solution:
Sewer 1 & 3:
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑞1 = 𝑞3 = 0.4 + 0.4 = 0.8 = 0.013
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑑 𝑞 𝑚3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 = 0.5 → = 0.5 → 𝑄 = 0.026
𝐷 𝑄 𝑠
0.026 = 23.846 ∗ 𝐷2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5
𝐷 = 0.230 𝑚 = 230 𝑚𝑚
Standard size 200, 250 mm
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐷 = 200 𝑚𝑚
𝑚3
𝑄200 = 23.846 ∗ (0.2)2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.018
𝑠
𝑚
𝑉200 = 30.385 ∗ (0.2)0.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.566
𝑠𝑒𝑐
218
𝑄 4 ∗ 0.018 𝑚
𝑜𝑟 𝑉200 = = 2
= 0.566
𝐴 𝜋 ∗ 0.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑞 0.013 𝑑
= = 0.72 & = 0.63 𝑂. 𝐾
𝑄 0.018 𝐷
𝑣 𝑚
= 1.11 → 𝑣 = 1.11 ∗ 0.566 = 0.63
𝑉 𝑠
For D = 250 mm
𝑚3
𝑄250 = 23.846 ∗ (0.25)2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.032
𝑠
𝑞 0.013 𝑑
= = 0.41 & = 0.44 𝑂. 𝐾
𝑄 0.032 𝐷
𝑚
𝑉250 = 30.385 ∗ (0.25)0.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.657
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 𝑚
= 0.94 → 𝑣 = 0.94 ∗ 0.657 = 0.62
𝑉 𝑠
AS both sizes 200mm and 250mm meet the condition, Size 200mm is selected for installation
cost reduction.
Sewer 2 & 4:
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑞2 = 𝑞4 = 0.8 + 0.4 + 0.4 = 1.6 = 0.027
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑑 𝑞 𝑚3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 = 0.5 → = 0.5 → 𝑄 = 0.054
𝐷 𝑄 𝑠
0.054 = 23.846 ∗ 𝐷2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5
𝐷 = 0.303 𝑚 = 303 𝑚𝑚
Standard size 305 mm

𝑚3
𝑄305 = 23.846 ∗ (0.305)2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.055
𝑠
𝑚
𝑉305 = 30.385 ∗ (0.305)0.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.75
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑞 0.027 𝑑
= = 0.49 & = 0.49 𝑂. 𝐾
𝑄 0.055 𝐷
𝑣 𝑚
= 1 → 𝑣 = 1 ∗ 0.75 = 0.75
𝑉 𝑠
Sewer 5:
219
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑞5 = 1.6 + 1.6 = 3.2 = 0.053
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑑 𝑞 𝑚3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 = 0.6 → = 0.68 → 𝑄 = 0.078
𝐷 𝑄 𝑠
0.078 = 23.846 ∗ 𝐷2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5
𝐷 = 0.348 𝑚 = 348 𝑚𝑚
𝑚3
𝑄305 = 23.846 ∗ (0.305)2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.055
𝑠
𝑞 0.053 𝑑
= = 0.96 & = 0.77 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑂𝐾
𝑄 0.055 𝐷
𝑚3
𝑄380 = 23.846 ∗ (0.380)2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.099
𝑠
𝑞 0.053 𝑑
= = 0.54 & = 0.52 𝑂𝐾
𝑄 0.099 𝐷
𝑚
𝑉380 = 30.385 ∗ (0.380)0.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.87
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 𝑚
= 1.03 → 𝑣 = 1.03 ∗ 0.87 = 0.89 → 𝐷 = 380 𝑚𝑚
𝑉 𝑠
Sewer 6 & 7:
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑞6 = 𝑞7 = 1.2 = 0.02
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑑 𝑞 𝑚3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 = 0.6 → = 0.68 → 𝑄 = 0.03
𝐷 𝑄 𝑠
0.03 = 23.846 ∗ 𝐷2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5
𝐷 = 0.243 𝑚 = 243 𝑚𝑚
𝑚3
𝑄200 = 23.846 ∗ (0.2)2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.018
𝑠
𝑞 0.02
= = 1.1 𝑛𝑜 𝑂. 𝐾 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑄 0.018
220
𝑚3
𝑄250 = 23.846 ∗ (0.03)0.5 = 0.032
𝑠
𝑞 0.02 𝑑
= = 0.63 & = 0.57 𝑂𝐾
𝑄 0.032 𝐷
𝑚
𝑉250 = 30.385 ∗ (0.250)2.67 ∗ (0.003)0.5 = 0.657
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 𝑚
= 1.06 → 𝑣 = 1.06 ∗ 0.657 = 0.696
𝑉 𝑠
Sewer 8:
𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑞8 = 3.2 + 1.2 + 1.2 = 5.6 = 0.093
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝑑 𝑞 𝑚3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 = 0.7 → = 0.85 → 𝑄 = 0.109
𝐷 𝑄 𝑠
0.109 = 23.846 ∗ 𝐷2∙67 ∗ (0.003)0∙5
𝐷 = 0.394 𝑚 = 394 𝑚𝑚
𝑚3
𝑄380 = 23.846 ∗ (0.380)2∙67 ∗ (0.003)0∙5 = 0.099
𝑠
𝑞 0.093 𝑑
= = 0.94 , = 0.78 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑂𝐾
𝑄 0.099 𝐷
For D = 460 mm
𝑚3
𝑄460 = 23.846 ∗ (0.460)2∙67 ∗ (0.003)0∙5 = 0.164
𝑠
𝑞 0.093 𝑑
= = 0.57 & = 0.54 𝑂𝐾
𝑄 0.164 𝐷
𝑚
𝑉460 = 30.385 ∗ (0.460)0∙67 ∗ (0.003)0∙5 = 0.99
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 𝑚
= 1.04 → 𝑣 = 1.04 ∗ 0.99 = 1.03 → 𝐷 = 460 𝑚𝑚
𝑉 𝑠
221
Sewer 1 or 3 2 or 4 5 6 or 7 8
n 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.013
S 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
q, (m3/min) 0.8 1.6 3.2 1.2 5.6
q, (m3/sec) 0.013 0.027 0.053 0.02 0.093
d/D 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7
q/Q 0.5 0.5 0.68 0.68 0.85
Q (m3/sec) 0.026 0.054 0.078 0.03 0.109
CAL. D(m) 0.23 0.303 0.348 0.243 0.394
ASS. D(m) 0.2 0.305 0.38 0.25 0.46
V (m/sec) 0.566 0.75 0.87 0.657 0.99
Q (m3/sec) 0.018 0.055 0.099 0.032 0.164
q/Q 0.72 0.49 0.54 0.63 0.57
d/D 0.63 0.49 0.52 0.57 0.54
d (m) 0.126 0.1495 0.1976 0.1425 0.2484
v/V 1.11 1 1.03 1.06 1.04
v, (m/sec) 0.63 0.75 0.89 0.696 1.03
Profile invert to invert (25 mm = 0.025 m)

Sewer 1 & 3:
Assume at MH 1, 3 depth = 0.5 m
Drop = length * slope = 20 m * 0.003 = 0.06 m
At MH 2, 4 depth = 0.5 + 0.06 = 0.56 m
Sewer 2 & 4:
At MH 2, 4 depth = 0.56 + 0.025 = 0.585 m
At MH 5 depth = 0.585 + 0.06 = 0.645 m
Sewer 5:
At MH 5 depth = 0.645 + 0.025 = 0.67 m
At MH 8 depth = 0.67 + 0.09 = 0.76 m
Sewer 6 & 7:
At MH 6, 7 depth = 0.5 m
At MH 8 depth = 0.09 + 0.5 = 0.59 m (above 0.76 m ok)
Sewer 8:
At MH 8 depth = 0.76 + 0.025 = 0.785 m
222

At MH 9 depth = 0.785 + 0.09 = 0.875 m
223
Profile checking back up

Sewer 1&2
Sewer 1 2
D mm 200 305
d/D 0.63 0.49
d 126 149.5
y 23.5 mm ≈ 0.024 m
Sewer 1&3
At MH 1, 3 depth = 0.5 m drop = 0.06 m
At MH 2, 4 depth = 0.5 + 0.06 = 0.56 m
Sewer 2&4
At MH 2, 4 depth = 0.56 + 0.024 = 0.584 m
At MH 5 drop = 0.06 depth = 0.584 + 0.06 = 0.644 m
Sewer 2&5
Sewer 2 5
D mm 305 380
d/D 0.49 0.52
d 149.5 197.6
y 48.1 mm ≈ 0.048 m
Sewer 5
At MH 5 depth = 0.644 + 0.048 = 0.692 m
At MH 8 drop = 0.09 depth = 0.692 + 0.09 = 0.782 m
Sewer 6&7
At MH 6&7 depth = 0.5 m
At MH 8 drop = 0.09 depth = 0.5 + 0.09 = 0.59 m
Sewer 6 8
D mm 250 460
d/D 0.57 0.54
d 142.5 248.4
y 105.9 mm ≈ 0.106 m
Sewer 5&8
Sewer 5 8
224
D mm 380 460
d/D 0.52 0.54
d 197.6 248.4
y 50.8 mm ≈ 0.051 m
Sewer 8
At MH 8 depth = 0.782 + 0.051 = 0.833 m
At MH 9 drop = 0.09 depth = 0.833 + 0.09 = 0.923 m
Check y from sewer 6, 7
At MH 8 depth = 0.590 + 0.106 = 0.696 m
At MH 9 drop = 0.09 depth = 0.696 + 0.09 = 0.786 m
For sewer 8
Correct the drop = 0.89 – 0.833 = 0.057
Slope for 8 = 0.057 / 30 = 0.0019
𝑄460 = 23 ∙ 846 ∗ (0 ∙ 460)2∙67 ∗ (0 ∙ 0019)0∙5 = 0 ∙ 131 m3/sec
225
𝑞 0.093 𝑑
= = 0.71 & = 0.61
𝑄 0.131 𝐷
𝑄 4 ∗ 0 ∙ 131 𝑚
𝑉460 = = 2
= 0.79
𝐴 𝜋 ∗ 0 ∙ 46 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 𝑚
= 1.1 → 𝑣 = 1.1 ∗ 0.79 = 0.869
𝑉 𝑠
H.W
Example 7: A sewer is to carry 23 m3/min wastewater at a slope of 0.003 (assume n =

0.013) Find 1- Standard size (mm), 2- actual flowing velocity (m/sec), 3- depth
of flow, Standard size: 100, 150, 200, 250, 305, 380, 460, 530, 610, 690, 760,
840, 915, 990, 1070.
Example 8: A sewer is to carry 12.5 m3/min wastewater at a slope of 0.003 (assume n =

0.013, d/D = 0.5) Find 1- Standard size (mm), 2- actual flowing velocity
(m/sec), 3- depth of flow
226
Appurtenances of the sewer system
4.1 Introduction
Sewer systems require a variety of appurtenances to insure proper operation. These include
manholes, inlets, inverted siphons, pumping stations, and regulators.
4.2 Manhole (MH)
Manhole are essential component of underground pipeline networks. They provide the access
needed to undertake maintenance, repair, and cleaning.
4.2.1 Location of manhole
It should be located at:
1- Change in sewer slope;

2- Change in sewer direction;
3- At pipeline junctions and start and end of the pipeline;
4- Change in sewer diameter;
5- Has to be located at interval of 50 – 90 m apart.
227
4.2.2 Types of manholes:
1. Shape: Rectangular, Circular.

2. Material of construction: Brick, Concrete and Plastic.
3. Size according to depth specifications:
Depth Size
Up to 0.5 m 0.45 x 0.45 m
0.5 – 1.0 m 0.6 x 0.6 m
1.0 – 2.0 m 0.6 x 0.75 m
2.0 – 3.0 m 0.9 x 1.2 m or 1.1 – 1.2 m in diameter
More than 3.0 m 1.8 m in diameter
4.2.3 Manhole ladders
If depth of manhole is more than 4-meter, mild steel ladder is fixed inside manhole instead of
step irons.
228
4.2.4 Ventilating columns
Ventilating columns are very essential in foul sewer system to safe guard against internal
corrosion.
4.2.5 Drop manhole
Drop manhole will be provided when the difference between the invert level of the inflow
sewer and the manhole invert level exceeds 1.0 meter. Drop manholes should be constructed
with an outside drop connection.
229
4.3 Street inlets:
Openings on the street surface, through which runoff water (WWF) is admitted and conveyed
to a storm or combined sewer system.
Common types:
a. Curb, Vertical openings. b. Gutter, Horizontal openings.
4.4 Catch basin:
Small settling chamber constructed below the street inlet, to allow grit, sand and large solids to
settle from the flowing wastewater.
230
4.5 Oil, grease and sand trap:
Tank or basin used to remove oil, grease, sand, mud…etc., from the sewage of industries,
hotels, restaurants, kitchens and car garages. These materials are harmful and may cause
clogging in the sewer system.
4.6 Pumping station:
This station is to lift the level of the flowing wastewater in the sewer system from low
elevations to adequate heights. It is constructed of two parts, the wet well (pit) to receive the
flowing wastewater, and the dry pit for the installation of the pumps. The size of the wet pit
should be small to avoid anaerobic decomposition. The station should be provided with good
ventilation.
231
4.6.1 Sewage pumps station requirements:
a. Self-cleansing velocities = 0.6 m/sec.

b. In small pump stations the pump is sized to meet peak flow and lower flows accumulate
in the wet well until sufficient liquid is present to permit the pump to run for at least
(running time, tr = 2 min) for sewage flow and (tr = 4 min) for storm flow.
c. In standard practice, the pump will not start more than ones in 5 minutes (filling time,
tf = 5 min).
d. Peak Flow n L/min:
𝐿
𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑊𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ( )=
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 ∗ 24
e. The pump running time:
𝑉
𝑡𝑟 =
𝐷 − 𝑄
Where:
V: Storage Volume;
D: Pump Discharge;
Q: Influent Flow (Average Wastewater Flow).
f. The filling time, with the pump off:
232
𝑉
𝑡𝑓 =
𝑄
g. The total cycle time:

𝑉 𝑉
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑓 = +
𝐷 − 𝑄 𝑄
h. Minimum sewage volume when (tr = 2 min),
𝑉 = 𝑡𝑟 ∗ 𝐷 = 2𝐷
i. Minimum storm volume when (tr = 4 min),
𝑉 = 𝑡𝑟 ∗ 𝐷 = 4𝐷
𝑉 𝑉
j. The Volume When (tf = 5 min), + = 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛, so take the volume covers the
𝐷−𝑄 𝑄
starting and stopping elevation which is large = VActual.
k. The actual cycle time at average flow:
VActual V
𝑡= + Actual
𝐷– 𝑄 𝑄
l. D is normally assumed to be 1.5 to 2 of Q
Total Depth = Pump Suction (200mm) + Submergence (300mm) + Free Board Level (600mm)
233
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝐻) = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝛾 𝑘𝑁 ∗𝑄 𝑚3 ∗ 𝐻𝑚
( 3) ( )
𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊) =
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝛾 𝑘𝑁 ∗𝑄 𝑚3 ∗ 𝐻(𝑚)
( 3) ( )
𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (hp) =
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ∗ 0.7457
4.7 Solved problems
Example 1: Find the volume of the wet well in a pumping station. Assume the pump stops
10 times/hr.
Solution:
𝑉 𝑉
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = +
𝐷–𝑄 𝑄
Assume D = 2Q
60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = 6 𝑚𝑖𝑛
10 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠/ℎ𝑟
𝑉 𝑉 2𝑉
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 6 = + =
2𝑄 − 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
6𝑄
𝑉 = = 3𝑄
2
234
Example 2: A small subdivision produces an average wastewater flow of 120,000 L/day,

the minimum hourly flow is estimated to be 15,000 L/day, and the maximum,
420,000 L/day. Determine the design pumping rate and wet well capacity?
Also calculate the pump pipe diameter? Assume the average sewage velocity
limitation (1-3) m/sec, use average sewage velocity 1.5 m/sec.
Solution:
The maximum pump delivers: 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 420000/1440 = 292 𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛
The average flow: 𝑄 = 120000/1440 = 83.333 𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
The pump running time 𝑡𝑟 = , the filling time: 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑄, and 𝑡𝑐 = +
𝐷−𝑄 𝐷−𝑄 𝑄
To assure 2 min running time, the minimum volume: 𝑉 = 𝑡𝑟 * 𝐷 = 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛 * 292 𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 548 𝐿
To assure a 5 min cycle, at average flow:
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑡𝑐 = + ⟹ 5 = + = +
𝐷 − 𝑄 𝑄 292 − 83.333 83.333 208.667 83.333
292𝑉
5= ⟹ 𝑉 = 297.754 𝐿 ≈ 298 𝐿
17388.847
Therefore, the running time governs, the volume between starting and stopping elevations will
be about 600 L (approximate volume).
The actual cycle time at average flow:
600 600
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑓 = + = 2.875 + 7.2 = 10.075 𝑚𝑖𝑛
292 − 83.333 83.333
The minimum depth of water below the suction pipe of about 200 mm.
At an intake velocity 0.6 m/sec a submergence of about 300 mm.
Freeboard about anticipated maximum water level = 600 mm
Total minimum depth of the pump station: = 200mm + 300mm + 500mm + 600mm = 1600mm
420000 𝜋 2
𝑄 = 𝑣∗ 𝐴 ⟹ = 1.5 ∗ ∗ 𝐷𝑃𝑈𝑀𝑃 ⟹ 𝐷 = 0.064 𝑚
24 ∗ 3600 ∗ 1000 4
So, use, 𝐷 = 65 𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1.46 𝑚/ sec 𝑂. 𝐾

Example 3: Determine the total head and the power of the sewage pump according to the
information (Sewage flow =100 m3/hr, static head =15.4 m, total head losses
= 7 m, pressure required at the end of the pipe =15 m, dynamic head = 10 m,
and overall efficiency of the pump = 64%)? Also calculate the pump pipe
diameter? Assume the average sewage velocity limitation (1-3) m/sec, use
average sewage velocity 2 m/sec.
Solution:
235
100 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟 𝑚3
𝑄 = = 0.0278
3600 𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝐻) = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝐻) = 15.4 + 10 + 15 + 7 = 47.4 𝑚
𝛾 𝑘𝑁 ∗𝑄 𝑚3 ∗ 𝐻𝑚
( 3) ( )
𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊) =
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
9.81 𝑘𝑁 ∗ 0.0278 𝑚3 47.4𝑚
( 3) ( ) 20.198𝑘𝑊
𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = ≈ 27 ℎ𝑝
0.64 0.7457
100 𝜋 2
𝑄 = 𝑣∗ 𝐴 ⟹ = 2 ∗ ∗ 𝐷𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 ⟹ 𝐷 = 0.133 𝑚
3600 4
So, 𝐷 = 150 𝑚𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1.57 𝑚/sec 𝑂. 𝐾
H.W
Example 4: A small sewage pumping station is to have only one pump operating at a time.
It is expected that the average flow will be 450,000 1/day. The minimum rate
of flow is one-half the average, and the maximum is 175 percent of average.
Determine the size of the wet well, the capacity of the pump, and the cycle
time at maximum, minimum, and average flow.
236
Sewage Disposal
5.1 Introduction
This lecture was prepared to provide essential information regarding sewer disposal. The liquid
wastes from industrial and domestic sources must eventually be disposed of in some manner,
whether by reuse, by discharge to surface water, by injection or percolation to ground water,
or by evaporation to the atmosphere in nearly all cases the water must first be treated to remove
the contaminants to meet the requirements of environmental regulation. Thus, the self-
purification process in water bodies, the factors affecting the self-purification process and the
zones of the self-purification process are discussed. The water quality standers are based on the
maintenance of minimum dissolved oxygen concentration ≥ 40% DOset or DOmin ≥ (4-5) mg/l.
5.2 Self-purification process
Sewage disposal to water bodies such as rivers is described by Streeter-Phelps equation. This
equation calculates the amount of the oxygen deficit in the river due to the degradation of the
organic matter that is dumped into it. This equation describes a process known as the self-
purification process, where the river can deal with certain amounts (concentrations) of organic
matter that are aerobically decomposed and not cause pollution. This equation can give the
following information:
1. The critical oxygen deficit (minimum concentration of the dissolved oxygen) in the river.
2. The allowable amount (concentration) of organic matter to be dumped into the river.
3. The location downstream for other waste disposal sites.
4. Drawing the variation of the dissolved oxygen with time or distance after the disposal of the
sewage into the river. This curve is known as the oxygen sag curve.
5.2.1 Factors affecting the self-purification process:
1. Dilution: Dilution with a large amount containing substantial dissolved oxygen will
reduce of significant pollution effects.
2. Currents: Currents assist in dispersion of the wastewater in the stream, preventing
locally high concentrations of pollutants.
237
3. Sedimentation: Suspended solids, which may contribute to oxygen demand, are

removed by settling if the stream velocity is less than the scour velocity of the particles.
4. Bottom deposits and runoff: organic material which has settled or been adsorbed may
be re-released or the products of its decomposition may be released.
5. Sunlight: Sunlight acts as a disinfectant and stimulates the growth of algae. The algae
produce oxygen during daylight, but utilize oxygen at night. Waters containing heavy
algal growths may be supersaturated with dissolved oxygen during daylight hours and
be anaerobic at night.
6. Temperature: Temperature affects the solubility of oxygen in water, the rate of bacterial
action, and the rate of re-aeration. The critical condition is generally in warm weather
when utilization rates are high and availability.
5.2.2 Zones of the self-purification process
1. Zone of degradation: This zone is situated just near the outfall of sewage. The water is
turbid with dark colour. The decomposition of solid matters take place in this zone and
the anaerobic decomposition prevail.
2. Zone active decomposition: This zone is just after the degradation zone. The water is
greyish and darker than the previous zone. The objectionable odours of hydrogen
sulphide and other sulphur compounds prevail and scum may also be seen on the surface
in this zone.
3. Zone of recovery: In this zone, the stabilization of organic matters takes place and BOD
of water is reduced. The contents of dissolved oxygen start rising above 40% of the
saturation value. The bacterial load decreases as the food supply of bacteria diminishes.
238
4. Zone of clear water: In this zone, the stream attains normal conditions as were
prevailing before sewage was discharged into it.
5.2.3 Application of formulas:

The Streeter-Phelps equation may be used to predict:
1. The effect of a particular waste load upon a receiving stream;
2. Determine the waste load which can be discharged without reducing the dissolved
oxygen below some prescribed level.
5.2.4 Streeter-Phelps mathematical model:
5.3 Effect of stream discharge:
1. Organic matter which enters the stream is broken down by bacteria to ammonia, nitrates,
sulfates, carbon dioxide, etc., which are utilized by plants and algae to produce
carbohydrates and oxygen.
2. Excessive quantities of waste materials can upset the cycle by causing rapid bacterial
growth and resulting depletion of dissolved oxygen in the stream.
3. Self-purification process defines as the stabilization of the excess organic matter through
the normal cycle will be re-established.
239
4. Water quality standards are often based upon maintenance of some minimum dissolved
oxygen concentration which will protect the natural cycle in the stream while taking
advantage of its natural assimilative capacity.
5.3.1 Oxygen sag curve and BOD removal
𝐾1 𝐿
𝐷𝑡 = (𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝐾2𝑡 ) + 𝐷𝑖 𝑒 −𝐾2𝑡
𝐾2 − 𝐾1
𝐾1 𝐿 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡𝑐
𝐷𝑐 =
𝐾2
1 𝐾2 (𝐾2 − 𝐾1 )𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑐 = ln [ {1 − }]
𝐾2 − 𝐾1 𝐾1 𝐾1 𝐿
Dt = Oxygen deficit (mg/L) at any time or distance after sewage disposal.
K1 = Deoxygenation (degradation) rate (is usually used with sewage) (day-1) at Temperature of
the mix
(𝐾1(𝑇) = 𝐾1(20) ∗ (1.047)𝑇−20 ).
K2 = Aeration rate which depends on the turbulence (is usually used with river water). The
𝐷𝑀 𝑈 1
reaeration constant K 2 = ( )2 ,
𝐻3
𝐷𝑀 is the molecular diffusion coefficient 𝐷𝑀 = 2.037 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚2 / s 𝑎𝑡 20 ℃

U = average stream (river) velocity
H = average depth
𝐾2(𝑇) = 𝐾2(20) ∗ (1.025)𝑇−20
L = Ultimate BOD (mg/L) of the mix.
t = Time for degradation (day).
Di = Initial oxygen deficit (mg/L).
Dc = Critical oxygen deficit (mg/L).
tc = Critical time for the critical oxygen deficit (day).
𝐷𝑂𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐷𝑂𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝐷𝑐
DO sat.: dissolved oxygen concentration at saturation level. See table on page 611 in water
supply and sewage engineering to find DOsat for the Rivers with different values of temperature.
240
5.3.2 Characteristics of the mix:
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑤
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑀𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑤
𝐿𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐿𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤
𝐿𝑀𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥
𝐷𝑂𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐷𝑂𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤
𝐷𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥
𝑇𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑇𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤
𝑇𝑀𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥
r = river, w = wastewater (sew age),
Q = discharge flow,
DO = dissolved oxygen,
T = temperature,
BOD = concentration of organic matter.
5.3.3 The effect of K1 and K2 on the self- purification process
1. Increasing K1 will increase Dc and displace Dc upstream. Decreasing K1 will decrease

Dc and displace Dc downstream.
2. Increasing K2 will decrease Dc and displace Dc upstream. Decreasing K2 will increase
Dc and displace Dc downstream.
241
Table 5-1: Saturation values of dissolved oxygen in fresh- and seawater exposed to an atmosphere
containing 20.9 percent oxygen under a pressure of 760 mm of mercury.
242
5.4 Solved problems
Example 1: A waste effluent of 560 L/s with BOD5 = 50 mg/L, DO = 3 mg/L and T = 23
oC is to be discharged into a river of 2.8 m3/s flow, BOD = 4 mg/L, DO = 8.2
5
mg/L and T= 17 oC. K1 for the waste is 0.23 day-1 at 20 oC. The average
velocity of the river is 0.18 m/s with aeration rate of 0.43 day-1 at 20 oC.
1) Is DO min within the environmental limitations? 2) At what distance is the
maximum deficit located.
Solution
Characteristics of the mix:
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑤 = 2.8 + 0.56 = 3.36 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤 4 ∗ 2.8 + 50 ∗ 0.56 𝑚𝑔
𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 11.67 ≈ 11.7
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 3.36 𝐿
𝐷𝑂𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐷𝑂𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤 8.2 ∗ 2.8 + 3 ∗ 0.56
𝐷𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 7.33 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 3.36
𝑇𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑇𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤 17 ∗ 2.8 + 23 ∗ 0.56
𝑇𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 18 ℃
𝐾1(18) = 𝐾1(20) ∗ (1.047)𝑇−20 = 0.23 ∗ 1.047 (18−20) ≈ 0.21 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝐾2(18) = 𝐾2(20) ∗ (1.025)𝑇−20 = 0.43 ∗ 1.025(18−20) ≈ 0.41 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−18 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −0.21∗5 )

𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
11.7 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙21∗5) ) → 𝐿𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 17.998
𝐿 𝐿
𝑚𝑔
𝐷𝑜 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 18 𝐶 𝑜 = 9.54
𝐿
𝑚𝑔
𝐷𝑖 = 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) – 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 9.54 – 7.33 = 2.21
𝐿
1 𝐾2 (𝐾2 − 𝐾1 )
𝑡𝑐 = ln [1 − 𝐷𝑜 ]
𝐾2 − 𝐾1 𝐾1 𝐾1 𝐿𝑂
1 0.41 (0.41 − 0.21)
𝑡𝑐 = ln [1 − ∗ 2.21] = 2.95 𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.41 − 0.21 0.21 0.21 ∗ 17.998
𝐾1 𝐿 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡𝑐 0.21 ∗ 17.998 ∗ 𝑒 −0.21×2.95 𝑚𝑔
𝐷𝑐 = = = 4.96
𝐾2 0.41 𝐿
𝑚𝑔
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 )– 𝐷𝑐 = 9.54 – 4.96 = 4.58 > 4 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 𝑂. 𝐾
𝐿
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0.18
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = ∗ 2.95 ∗ 24 ∗ 3600 = 45.878 𝑘𝑚
1000
Example 2: A city discharges 1.25 m3/sec of wastewater onto a stream whose minimum
rate of flow is 8 m3/sec. The velocity of stream is 0.8 m/sec. The temperature
of the wastewater is 20 oC and that of the stream is 15 oC. The BOD5 of the
wastewater is 183 mg/L, and that of the stream is 2 mg/L. The wastewater
contains no dissolved oxygen but the stream is 90 percent saturated upstream
of the discharge. At 20 oC, deoxygenation coefficient is estimated to be 0.3 per
day and reaeration coefficient is 0.9 per day. Determine the critical-oxygen
deficit and its location. Also, estimate the 20 oC BOD5 of the sample taken at
the critical point. Use temperature coefficient of 1.135 for deoxygenation
coefficient and 1.024 for reaeration coefficient. Also, plot the dissolved-
oxygen sag curve? Given the saturation concentration at 15 oC and at mixed
temperature = 10.15 mg/L.
Solution
b. Characteristics of the mix:
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑤 = 8 + 1.25 = 9.25 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
Do of the stream, Dor = 0.9 * Dosat (from Table 5-1) = 0.9 * 10.15 = 9.14 mg/L
𝐷𝑂𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐷𝑂𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤 9.14 ∗ 8 + 0 ∗ 1.25
𝐷𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 7.9 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑇𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑇𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤 15 ∗ 8 + 20 ∗ 1.25
𝑇𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 15.676 ℃
𝐾1(15.675) = 𝐾1(20) ∗ (1.135)𝑇−20 = 0.3 ∗ 1.135 (15.676−20) ≈ 0.174 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝐾2(15.675) = 𝐾2(20) ∗ (1.024)𝑇−20 = 0.9 ∗ 1.024(15.676−20) ≈ 0.812 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤 2 ∗ 8 + 183 ∗ 1.25

𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 26.46 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−15.676 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −0.174∗5 )
𝑚𝑔
26.46 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙174∗5) ) → 𝐿𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 45.54 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝐿
c. Initial dissolved oxygen deficit at mixed temperature (TMix = 15.676 oC)

From example, Do saturation concentration at 15.676 oC = 10.15 mg/L
Initial deficit: Do = Dosat.at Tmix – Domix = 10.15 – 7.9 = 2.25 mg/L
d. Determination of tc and Xc:
1 𝐾2 (𝐾2 − 𝐾1 )
𝑡𝑐 = ln [1 − 𝐷𝑜 ]
𝐾2 − 𝐾1 𝐾1 𝐾1 𝐿𝑂
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1 0.812 (0.812 − 0.174)

𝑡𝑐 = ln [1 − × 2.25] = 1.977 𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.812 − 0.174 0.174 0.174 × 45.54
3600 ∗ 24
𝑋𝑐 = 𝑈 ∗ 𝑡𝑐 = 0.8 ∗ ∗ 1.977 = 136.65 𝑘𝑚
1000
e. Determination of Dc and Do at Xc:
𝐾1 𝐿𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡𝑐 0.174 ∗ 45.54 ∗ 𝑒 −0.174∗1.977
𝐷𝑐 = = = 6.918 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝐾2 0.812
Do at Xc = Dosat.at Tmix – Dc = 10.15 – 6.918 = 3.232 mg/L
f. Determination BOD5 of a sample taken at Xc:
𝑚𝑔
𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑥 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡𝑐 = 45.54 ∗ 𝑒 −0.174×1.977 = 32.285
𝐿
𝐿𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 32.285 (1 − 𝑒 −0.3∗5 ) = 25.08 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
g. Computation of additional points on the oxygen sag curve:
𝐾1 𝐿𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑥 −𝐾 𝑡
𝐷𝑡 = (𝑒 1 − 𝑒 −𝐾2 𝑡 ) + 𝐷𝑖 𝑒 −𝐾2 𝑡
𝐾2 − 𝐾1
0.174 ∗ 45.54 −0.174∗𝑡
𝐷𝑡 = (𝑒 − 𝑒 −0.812∗𝑡 ) + 2.25 𝑒 −0.812∗𝑡
0.812 − 0.174
Dot = Dosat - Dt = 10.15 - Dt
Distance (km) 0 50 100 120 140 150 200 250
Time (day) 0.000 0.723 1.447 1.736 2.025 2.170 2.894 3.617
Dt (mg/L) 2.250 5.298 6.515 6.698 6.767 6.768 6.536 6.08
Dosat (mg/L) 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15 10.15
Dot (mg/L) 7.900 4.852 3.635 3.452 3.383 3.382 3.614 4.07
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Example 3: River of velocity 10 km/day and its flow rate is 5 m3/s. A treatment plant
discharge sewage of flow rate of 0.5 m3/s. The BOD5 concentration of sewage
is 400 mg/L. Find the distance from the point of discharge in which BOD5
concentration at the end of such distance is become 10 mg/L. The river has
not organic matters before sewage discharging, and the value of K1 for the
mixture of river water and waste water is 0.35 day-1 at 20 oC.
Solution
𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟 + 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑤 ∗ 𝑄𝑤 0 ∗ 5 + 400 ∗ 0.5

𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝑀𝑖𝑥 = = = 36.36 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝑄𝑀𝑖𝑥 5 + 0.5
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−𝑇 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 ) → 𝐵𝑂𝐷5−20 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −0.35∗5 )
𝑚𝑔
36.36 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙35∗5) ) → 𝐿𝑀𝑖𝑥 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 44 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
𝐿
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑡−20 = 𝐿 (1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1𝑡 )
𝑚𝑔
10 = 44 (1 − 𝑒 −(0∙35∗𝑡) ) → 𝑡 = 0.737 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿
𝑘𝑚
𝑋 = 𝑈 ∗ 𝑡 = 10 ∗ 0.737 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 7.37 𝑘𝑚
𝑑𝑎𝑦
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H.W
Example 4: Waste water effluent of 0.56 m3/s , with BOD5 = 50 mg/l, DO = 3mg/l and
temperature of 23 oC is to be disposed to river of 2.8 m3 / s , and BOD5 = 4
mg/l DO = 8.2 mg/L , and temperature 17 oC, K1 for waste 0.1 day -1 at 20 oC
K2 for river 0.3 /day -1 at 20 oC, the flow velocity is 0.18 m/s . Calculate the (DO
min) and its distance downstream, and its time after disposal.
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Wastewater or Sewage Treatment Plant
6.1 Introduction
This lecture was prepared to provide basic information regarding wastewater treatment. This
include the components of wastewater treatment plant and microbiology of wastewater
treatment.
6.2 Wastewater treatment plant:

The wastewater contains impurities which include organic and inorganic matter. The main goal
of treatment processes in to remove these impurities. The organic and inorganic will be
suspended or dissolved or floating matters. The wastewater passes through different stages of
treatment:
Figure 40: Traditional wastewater treatment plant

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• To raise the hydraulic line of wastewater

1. Lift pump: to raise the level of the flowing sewage
• To remove the inorganic matter
1. Screen: to remove large solids matter
2. Flotation Tank: to remove oil and grease
3. Girt Chamber: to remove grits and sand
4. Primary Sedimentation Tank: to remove suspended solids
• To remove organic matter.
1. Biological Tank: for the decomposition of organic matter
2. Secondary Sedimentation Tank: for the settlement of the flocculent biological mass
3. Chlorination Contact Tank: to kill harmful organisms
• For sludge treatment
1. Thickener: to reduce the moisture content for sludge
2. Digester: for the decomposition of the organic matter
3. Drying Beds: to dry the sludge
6.2.1 Preliminary and Primary treatment
Preliminary and primary treatment removes material that will either float or readily settle out
by gravity. It includes the physical processes of screening, comminution, grit removal, and
sedimentation. Preliminary and primary treatment units include:
1. Low lift station: pumps situated nearby treatment plant are called low-lift pumps. These
move large volumes of water at relatively low discharge pressures.
2. Parshall flume: The Parshall flume is a fixed hydraulic structure used to measure volumetric
influent/effluent flows rate in wastewater treatment plants. The Parshall flume accelerates flow
through a contraction of both the parallel sidewalls and a drop in the floor at the flume throat.
Under free-flow conditions the depth of water at specified location upstream of the flume throat
can be converted to a rate of flow.
3. Racks, screens and comminutors: Screens are made of long, closely spaced, narrow metal
bars. They block floating debris such as wood, rags, and other bulky objects that could clog
pipes or pumps. In modern plants the screens are cleaned mechanically, and the material is
promptly disposed of by burial on the plant grounds. A comminutor may be used to grind and
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shred debris that passes through the screens. The shredded material is removed later by
sedimentation or flotation processes.
4. Flotation tank: flotation is a water treatment process that clarifies wastewaters by the removal
of suspended matter such as oil or solids. The removal is achieved by dissolving air in the
wastewater under pressure and then releasing the air at atmospheric pressure in a flotation tank
basin. The released air forms tiny bubbles which adhere to the suspended matter causing the
suspended matter to float to the surface of the water where it may then be removed by a
skimming device.
5. Grit removal: Grit chambers are long narrow tanks that are designed to slow down the flow
so that solids such as sand, coffee grounds, and eggshells will settle out of the water. Grit causes
excessive wear and tear on pumps and other plant equipment. Its removal is particularly
important in cities with combined sewer systems, which carry a good deal of silt, sand, and
gravel that wash off streets or land during a storm.
6. Primary sedimentation tank: Suspended solids that pass-through screens and grit chambers
are removed from the sewage in sedimentation tanks. These tanks, also called primary
clarifiers, provide about two hours of detention time for gravity settling to take place. As the
sewage flows through them slowly, the solids gradually sink to the bottom. The settled solids
(known as raw or primary sludge) are moved along the tank bottom by mechanical scrapers.
Sludge is collected in a hopper, where it is pumped out for removal. Mechanical surface-
skimming devices remove grease and other floating materials.
6.2.2 Secondary or biological treatment:
Secondary treatment removes the soluble organic matter that escapes primary treatment. It also
removes more of the suspended solids. Removal is usually accomplished by biological
processes in which microbes consume the organic impurities as food, converting them into
carbon dioxide, water, and energy for their own growth and reproduction. The sewage
treatment plant provides a suitable environment, albeit of steel and concrete, for this natural
biological process. Removal of soluble organic matter at the treatment plant helps to protect
the dissolved oxygen balance of a receiving stream, river, or lake.
• Biological process: Biological wastewater treatment is a process that uses natural
processes to help with the decomposition of organic substances. Biological treatments
rely on bacteria or other small organisms to break down organic wastes using normal
250
cellular processes. Biological treatment usually is divided into aerobic and anaerobic
processes. “Aerobic” refers to a process in which oxygen is present, while “anaerobic”
describes a biological process in which oxygen is absent. Biological treatment often is
used as a secondary treatment process to remove material remaining after primary
treatment with processes including attached growth process, suspended growth process
and sludge treatment.
1. Attached growth process:
• Intermittent sand filter.
• Trickling filters.
• Rotating biological contactors.
2. Suspended growth process:
• Conventional process.
• Tapered aeration process.
• Step aeration process.
• Completely mixed process.
• Extended aeration process.
• Contact stabilization process.
3. Sludge treatment and disposal:
• Thickener tank.
• Digester tanks.
• Dewatering process (drying beds, vacuum filter, pressure filter, centrifuges,
pressed filters, drying and combustion).
• Secondary sedimentation tank: The secondary sedimentation tanks or settling basins or
clarifiers allow the microorganisms and other solids to settle after secondary or
biological treatment. This sludge is pumped back into the inlet end of the primary
sedimentation tanks and settles with the raw sludge. At this stage the BOD may be
reduced to approximately 75 - 80% of the influent level and suspended solids are
removed.
• Chlorine contact tank (effluent disposal): the purpose of the chlorine contact tanks is to
allow sufficient time for the chlorine to disinfect the wastewater.
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6.2.3 Tertiary treatment
As the wastewater reaches the tertiary treatment stage, it still has residual suspended matter
and fine particulates. Further, it has a relatively high level of nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus and has microbes and odour in it. During tertiary treatment process, different
methods are used to remove all these contaminants and properties from wastewater.
• Filtration is the first process which helps primarily to remove residual suspended matter
in wastewater. Sand filtration is the usual method that is used for this purpose.
• As nitrogen and phosphorus are usually found in high concentration in wastewater,
untreated and released into the natural water environment, can cause excessive growth,
consequent death (due to nutrient and space limitation). The amount of oxygen becomes
much less than is necessary for other aquatic life to survive. Both nitrogen and
phosphorus can be removed using biological processes involving different bacteria.
Phosphate-rich sludge which is produced has good value as fertilizer.
• Removal of any undesirable microbes through the process of disinfection and removal
of odours from wastewater. Several disinfection agents can be used depending on
wastewater condition (pH, clarity etc.) and among them chlorine, ozone and ultraviolet
(UV) light are most common. Eventually, the wastewater after the tertiary treatment is
fitting, after necessary tests, to be released into the environment for further re-use.
252
Figure 41: Wastewater treatment flow diagram.
6.3 Microbiology of sewage treatment:

Domestic sewage contains enormous quantities of microorganisms which depending upon its
age and the quantity of dilution water, bacterial counts in raw sewage may be expected to range
(0.5 × 105 → 5 × 106)/ml. When the wastewater enters a biological treatment unit e.g. aerated
stabilization basin, the bacteria are present throughout the basin. However, their form and
concentration may differ in the different areas of the basin. At the front end of the basin, where
the influent enters and there is the highest concentration of BOD, bacterial concentrations are
253
higher and bacteria are dispersed as they are busy consuming the BOD. At the back end of the
system, where BOD is sparse, bacteria form floc and settle out. The bacterial growth curve, as
seen in Figure 42, characterizes the different growth stages of bacteria in relation to the amount
of food (BOD) available.
Figure 42: Bacterial growth curve A. based on number of microorganisms and B- based on the
mass of microorganisms
Lag Phase: during this phase, there is a large amount of food available compared to the amount
of bacteria. It is called the “Lag Phase” because it takes the bacteria a certain amount of time
to respond to the available food.
Log Phase: in the log phase, the bacteria have begun consuming the BOD and start replicating
exponentially. We can see the red bacterial curve increasing and the blue food curve decreasing
in this phase.
Declining Growth Phase: the available food begins to diminish and bacterial reproduction
begins to slow, as there is more competition for food. We can see the growth rate slowing on
the black bacterial curve. With less food available, bacteria begin to cluster and form floc.
254
Stationary phase: The phase in which the population of viable cells is at a relatively constant
value. The time required to reach this phase depends primarily on the species, the concentration
of the microbes, the composition of medium, and the temperature.
Endogenous Respiration Phase: most of the BOD has been converted and there is little food
available for the bacteria to consume. Most of the bacteria have formed floc. Some bacterial
cells die and lyse open, releasing some BOD that can be consumed. Floc can settle out to the
bottom of the basin, which leaves a clearer effluent with little BOD behind. It is ideal that this
phase is reached before the effluent point of the basin for the highest quality discharge. A
system should be run in the “sweet spot” right between the declining growth phase and
endogenous respiration phase (depicted by the pink arrow) for good results. The endogenous
phase includes increasing death phase, log death phase and death phase.
255
Preliminary and Primary Treatment
7.1 Introduction
The headwork of wastewater plants usually incorporates a flow measurement device as a

Parshall flume and mechanical or physic-chemical system designed for removal of large
floating solids, grit and perhaps grease (preliminary treatment systems). While, primary
treatment has traditionally implied a sedimentation process intended to remove suspended
organic solids. Chemicals are sometimes added in primary clarifiers to assist in removal of
finely divided and colloidal solids or to precipitate.
7.2 Preliminary treatment systems
1. Low lift sewage pump station.

2. Screen: A protective device used to remove large and coarse materials from the wastewater,
which may damage equipment.
a) Types: rack, mesh.
b) Openings: Coarse more than 50 mm, medium 25-50 mm, fine less than 25 mm.
c) Flowing velocity through the openings: vf = 0.6 - 1.2 m/sec.
3. Flotation or Skimming tank: To separate solid and liquid particles (grease and oil) from
the wastewater by the introduction of air bubbles. The particles are attached to the bubbles
and by the buoyancy forces, the particles are raised to the water surface. The floating
particles are removed by skimming.
Types: a. Dissolved air flotation, b. Dispersed air flotation.
a. Dissolved air flotation (DAF): Air bubbles are introduced by injection of air to the water
under pressure. Air is dissolved under 250 – 450 kPa in the pressure tank, where the water
is held for several minutes.
The components of this tank:
1- pressurizing pump, 2- pressure tank, 3- flotation tank.
256
The performance of this system depends on:

𝐴 (𝑓 × 𝑃 − 1)
= 1.3 × 𝑆𝑎 ×
𝑆 𝐶𝑖
Where:
𝐴/𝑆: Air to solid ratio (ml of air/ mg solids)
Sa: Solubility of air depending on temperature (ml/L)
ρair = 1.3 mg /ml
f = Fraction of dissolved air at pressure (P) = 0.5
𝑃𝑘𝑃𝑎 +101.35
P = Pressure, atm (𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ).
101.35
Ci = Concentration of suspended solids in the influent (mg/L)
Design criteria:
Detention time = 3 – 30 min
Flowing velocity = 50 – 250 mm/sec
𝐴/𝑆 = 0.005 – 0.6 ml/mg
Surface loading rate = velocity to rise the suspended solids = 8 – 160 L/m2.min (𝑆𝐿𝑅 = 𝑄/𝐴𝑆).
The quantities of float skimming = (3-7) % of incoming flow.
b. Dispersed air flotation: Air bobbles are formed by aeration at atmospheric pressure using
revolving impellers or turbine aerators.
The advantages of a dispersed-air flotation system are:
i. Compact size,
ii. Lower capital cost, and
iii. Capacities to remove relatively free oil and suspended solids.
The disadvantages of induced-air floatation:
i. Higher connected power requirements than the pressurized system,
ii. Performance is dependent on strict hydraulic control, and
iii. Less flocculation flexibility.
257
4. Grit Chamber: A sedimentation tank designed mainly for the removal of grits: sand, gravel,
glass and other heavy solids from wastewater. The separation of inorganic and organic solids
takes place due to the difference in the specific gravity of these particles. This parameter
affects the settling velocity (vs) and the scouring velocity (vh) for these particles where they
are used for design requirements.
Section (A-A)
Section (B – B)
258
As the flow in this tank is turbulent:

All particles are assumed to settle in according with Newton Law:
4𝑔×(𝐺𝑠−1)×𝑑 𝑄 𝑄
𝑣𝑠 = √ & for sedimentation: 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑆𝑂𝑅 = =
3𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑠 𝑊×𝐿
𝛽 𝑄 𝑄
To be scour at velocity: 𝑣ℎ = √8 ( 𝑓 ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 & 𝑣ℎ = 𝐴 =
𝑐 𝑊×𝐻
vh should be more than vf (flowing velocity)

For design:
SOR = vs for inorganic particles:
vs for organic particles ˂ vf ˂ vs for inorganic particles
Types: a. Aerated grit chambers, b. Horizontal flow grit chambers.
a. Aerated grit chamber: The separation of different types of solids is done by producing a
rolling flow similar to the spiral flow by using air. The velocity of the flow (vf) is to be
below (vs) for inorganic particles and above (vs) organic particles.
vs for organic particles ˂ vf ˂ vs for inorganic particles
Design criteria:
2. Dimensions for a rectangular tank: L = 8 – 20 m, W = 2 – 5 m, H = 2 – 7 m
3. W/H = 1:1 – 5:1
4. L/H = 3:1 – 5:1
5. Air flow rate = 0.015 – 0.5 m3/min/ m length
b. Horizontal flow grit chamber: It is designed to provide sufficient time for inorganic
particles to settle and the flowing velocity will carry out the organic particles. The velocities
for design (vs and vh) are being controlled for the variation of the wastewater flow.
To control the velocities;
1. Using the proportional weir;
2. Using the parabolic cross section.
Design criteria:
2. vf = 0.2 – 0.4 m/sec
3. Dimensions: L = 3 – 25 m, H = 1 – 2 m
4. L/H less than 12
5. Quantity of grit = 2.5 × 10−6 − 1.8 × 10−4 𝑚3/ 𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
NOTE: To assure removal of grit (inorganic matter), while permitting such organic matter as
might settle to be re-suspended by scour, the necessary condition may be calculated as follow:
259
For particles of grit (inorganic matter), with diameter of 0.2 mm and specific gravity =
2.65,
4𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 4 × 980 × (2.65 − 1) × 0.02

𝑣𝑠 = √ = √ = 2.1 cm/sec
3𝐶𝐷 3 × 10
The scour velocity of inorganic particles is given by:

𝛽 0.06
𝑣ℎ = √8 (𝑓 ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 =√8 × (0.03) × 980 × (2.65 − 1) × 0.02 = 23 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
For particles of organic matter, with diameter of 0.2 mm and specific gravity = 1.1,
4𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 4 × 980 × (1.1 − 1) × 0.02

𝑣𝑠 = √ = √ = 0.511 cm/sec
3𝐶𝐷 3 × 10
The scour velocity of organic particles is given by:

𝛽 0.06
𝑣ℎ = √8 (𝑓 ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 =√8 × (0.03) × 980 × (1.1 − 1) × 0.02 = 5.6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Thus, if the basin is designed to have a surface overflow rate of 0.021 m/sec and a horizontal
velocity greater than 0.056 m/sec and less than 0.23 m/sec will remove grit (inorganic material)
without removing organic material. To assure that the grit is reasonable clean, the horizontal
velocity is generally close to the scour velocity of the grit.
7.3 Primary sedimentation tank
Primary sedimentation tank removed settleable solids mainly inorganic. It is designed to

remove 50 – 70% inorganic particles and 25 – 40% organic particles. Removal curves for
suspended solids (SS) indicating inorganic, and BOD indicating organic particles with SOR of
the tank are used for design, (Fig. 23-1 and Fig. 23-2) or the readings from these curves are
given in the table below.
Design criteria:
1. Detention time = 1 – 4 hr.
2. SOR = Average flow 30 – 50 m/d & maximum flow 80 – 120 m/d.
3. vf = 0.6 – 3.6 m/min.
4. Weir loading rate (WLR) = 125 – 600 m3/m/d.
5. Dimensions:
Rectangular L = 15 – 100 m, H = 3 – 5 m, W = 3 – 30m,
Circular D less than 60m.
6. Scum removed average about = 7.5 × 10−6 𝑚3/𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤.
260
Fig. 23-1: Suspended solids removal in primary clarifiers. Fig. 23-2: BOD removal in primary clarifiers.
SOR m/d 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
% SS removal 70 67.5 65 58 53 48 45 40
% BOD removal 36 35 34 32.8 30 27.5 25 22.5
7.4 Population equivalent
Population equivalent or unit per capita loading, (PE), in waste-water treatment is the number
expressing the ratio of the sum of the pollution load produced during 24 hours by industrial
facilities and services to the individual pollution load in household sewage produced by one
person in the same time.
The population equivalent (P.E.) of a waste may be determined by divided the total mass per
day by the per mass loadings. Population equivalent has been used as a technique for
determining industrial waste treatment costs. PE may be determined on the basis of flow,
BOD5, COD, TSS, P, N, etc.
261
7.5 Solved problems
Example 1: A flotation tank is used for thickening suspended solids (oil) of 3000 mg/L,
knowing that: 𝐴/𝑆 = 0.008 ml/mg, temperature =20 oC, surface loading rate
= 8 L/m2.min, Q = 400 m3/d. Find: 1-required pressure P (kPa) inside
pressure tank, 2- Surface area of the flotation tank (m2) & 3- The quantities
of float skimming if (7) % of incoming flow?
Solution:
1- From table at T = 20 oC, air solubility Sa = 18.7 ml/L
𝐴 (𝑓 × 𝑃 − 1) (0.5 × 𝑃 − 1)
= 1.3 × 𝑆𝑎 × ⟹ 0.008 = 1.3 × 18.7 × ⟹ 𝑃 = 3.97 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑆 𝐶𝑖 3000
𝑃𝑘𝑃𝑎 +101.35 𝑃𝑘𝑃𝑎 +101.35
∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.35
⟹ 3.97 𝑎𝑡𝑚 =
101.35
⟹ 𝑃 = 301 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐿
𝑄 400×103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
2- 𝐴𝑠 = = 𝐿 = 34.7 𝑚2
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 8 ×24×60
𝑑𝑎𝑦
3- 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 3000 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 × 10−3 × 400 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦× 0.07 = 84 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Example 2: Design a horizontal flow girt chamber (rectangular) of a parabolic section.

Knowing that Qmax = 18,000 m3/d, Qavg = 15,000 m3/d, Qmin = 10,000 m3/d, Gs
inorganic particles = 2.65, Gs organic particles = 1.1, CD =10, β/f = 2,
detention time = 1 min, particles to be removed = 0.2 mm in diameter?
Solution:
For inorganic particles, Gs = 2.65:
4𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 4 × 980 × (2.65 − 1) × 0.02

𝑣𝑠 = √ = √ = 2.077 ≈ 2.1 cm/sec
3𝐶𝐷 3 × 10
𝑣𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑆𝑂𝑅 = 𝑄/𝐴𝑆

Surface area of grit chamber:
𝑄 18000
𝐴𝑠 = = = 9.921 𝑚2 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 … … … … … … … (1)
𝑣𝑠 0.021 × 24 × 3600
𝛽
𝑣ℎ = √8 ( 𝑓 ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑=√8 × 2 × 980 × (2.65 − 1) × 0.02 = 22.7 ≈ 23 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
For organic particles, Gs = 1.1:

𝛽
𝑣ℎ = √8 (𝑓 ) × 𝑔 × (𝐺𝑠 − 1) × 𝑑 =√8 × (2) × 980 × (1.1 − 1) × 0.02 = 5.6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
For design Ac:

𝑣ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 (0.056) < 𝑣ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 < 𝑣ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 (0.23)
Assume 𝑣ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 0.2 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
262
𝑄 18000
∴ 𝐴𝑐 = = = 1.042 𝑚2 = 𝐻 × 𝑊 … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑣ℎ 0.2×24×3600
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑄 × 𝑡 = 18000 × = 12.5 𝑚3 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 × 𝐻 … … … … … (3)
24 × 60
Solving eq. 1, 2, & 3 and find: 𝐿 = 12 𝑚, 𝑊 = 0.827 𝑚, & 𝐻 = 1.26 𝑚
Assume use area of parabolic section = 2/3 𝑊𝑍, Where:
W: Width at the design level.
Z: Height at the design level.
𝑍 = 𝐶 × 𝑊2
So, for AC, 𝐴𝐶 = 2/3 𝑊𝑍 → 1.042 = (2/3) × 0.827 × 𝑍 → 𝑍 = 1.889 𝑚
𝑍 = 𝐶 × 𝑊2 → 1.889 = 𝐶 × 0.8272 → 𝐶 = 2.763
Q (m3/day) AC (m2) W (m) Z (m)
18000 1.042 0.827 1.889
15000 0.868 0.689 1.889
10000 0.579 2.18 0.398
Example 3: Design a primary sedimentation tank for 60% SS removal. The influent flow
is 10,000 m3/d, and assume the detention time = 2hr? Also find the SS settling
and effluent sludge if the influent SS concentration 2000 mg/L?
Solution:
From (Fig. 23-1) for 60% SS removal, SOR = 37 m/day and from (Fig. 23-2) 33% BOD
removal.
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = 𝑄/𝐴𝑠 → 𝐴𝑠 = 𝑄/𝑆𝑂𝑅 = 10000/37 = 270.27 𝑚2
𝜋 𝜋
If circular tank: 𝐴 = × 𝐷2 → 270.27 = × 𝐷2 → 𝐷 = 18.6 𝑚
4 4
10000
𝑉 = 𝑄 × 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠 × 𝐻 → × 2 ℎ𝑟 = 270.27 × 𝐻 → 𝐻 = 3.1 𝑚
24
𝑄 10000
Weir loading rate, 𝑊𝐿𝑅 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝜋×18.6 = 171.13 (𝑚3 /𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑎𝑦) 𝑂𝐾
If rectangular tank: Assume W = 10 m, so, 𝐴 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 → 270.27 = 𝐿 × 10 → 𝐿 = 27.03 𝑚

𝑄 10000
Weir loading rate, 𝑊𝐿𝑅 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = = 1000 (𝑚3 /𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑎𝑦) 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑂𝐾
10
Assume weir loading rate = 600 m3/m.day

Weir length = Q/WLR = 10000/600 = 16.7 ≈ 17 m
The influent sewage SS, 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 2000 × 10−3 × 10000 = 20000 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
The influent SS settling sludge, 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 0.60 × 2000 × 10−3 × 10000 = 12000 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
263
The effluent SS, 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 0.4 ×2000 × 10−3 × 10000 = 8000 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Example 4: Design a primary clarifier system for a community with population of 50000
persons with a water supply demand 180 L/capita.day, and assuming that
80% of water supplied to the community is converted into sewage. Size the
clarifiers so that the SOR will be not more than 40 m/day at peak flow (case1)
and not more than 25 m/day at average flow (case2) with one unit out of
service? The minimum retention time is to be 1 hour and maximum weir
loading rate 370 m3/m.day. Also, find the percent removal SS and BOD for
each SOR?
Solution:
Average sewage flow: 𝑄𝐴𝑣𝑔 = 0.8 × 180 × 50000 = 7200000 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 7200 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Peak sewage flow: 𝑄𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 0.8 × 1.8 × 180 × 50000 = 12960000 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 12960 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Case 1: SOR = 40 m/day at peak flow:
𝑄 12960
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = ⟹ 𝐴𝑠 = = 324 𝑚2 ⟹ 𝐷 = 20.31 𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐷 = 20 𝑚
𝐴𝑠 40
𝑉 1
𝑄 = → 𝑉 = 12960 × = 540 𝑚3 . 𝐻 = 𝑉/𝐴𝑠 = 540/324 = 1.667 𝑚
𝑡 24
12960
𝑊𝐿𝑅 = 𝑄/𝐿 = = 206.265 𝑚3 / 𝑚. 𝑑𝑎𝑦 < 370 𝑚3 /𝑚. 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑂𝐾
𝜋 × 20
From table at SOR = 40 m/day: SS% removal = 58% and BOD% removal = 32.8%
Case 2: SOR = 25 m/day at average flow:
𝑄 7200
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = ⟹ 𝐴𝑠 = = 288 𝑚2 ⟹ 𝐷 = 19.15 𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐷 = 19 𝑚
𝐴𝑠 25
𝑉 1
𝑄 = → 𝑉 = 7200 × = 300 𝑚3 . 𝐻 = 𝑉/𝐴𝑠 = 300/288 = 1.042 𝑚
𝑡 24
7200
𝑊𝐿𝑅 = 𝑄/𝐿 = = 120.623 𝑚3 / 𝑚. 𝑑𝑎𝑦 < 370 𝑚3 /𝑚. 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑂. 𝐾
𝜋 × 19
From table at SOR = 25 m/day: SS% removal = 67.5% and BOD% removal = 35%
Example 5: An industrial waste of 1000 m3/day and having a BOD5 of 500 mg/L,
calculate the population equivalent in terms of BOD5 if the domestic BOD
loading = 95 gm/(cap.day)?
Solution:
500 × 10−3 × 103 (𝑔𝑚/𝑚3 ) × 1000 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝐸 = = 5263 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
95 𝑔𝑚/(𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎. 𝑑𝑎𝑦)
264
Example 6: A waste with a BOD of 300 mg/L and a flow of 1000 m3/day L, calculate the
population equivalent in terms of BOD5 if the domestic BOD loading = 80
gm/(cap.day)?
Solution:
300 × 10−3 × 103 (𝑔𝑚/𝑚3 ) × 1000 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝐸 = = 3750 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎
80 𝑔𝑚/(𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎. 𝑑𝑎𝑦)
Example 7: A raw wastewater containing 250 mg/L SS and 200 mg/L BOD passes
through a clarifier with a surface area of 500 m2. The flow ranges from
10000 m3/day to 30000 m3/day. Estimate the effluent BOD and SS at
maximum and minimum flow, and the maximum and minimum rate of
sludge production? Assume the sludge is 95 percent water.
Solution:
SORmax = 30000/500 = 60 m/d
From Fig. 23.1 or table at SOR = 60 m/day: SS% removal = 48% and BOD% removal = 27.5%
BOD effluent = (1 – 0.275) * 200 = 145 mg/L
SS effluent = (1 – 0.48) * 250 = 130 mg/L
SORmin = 10000/500 = 20 m/d
From Fig. 23.1 or table at SOR = 20 m/day: SS% removal = 70% and BOD% removal = 36%
BOD effluent = (1 – 0.36) * 200 = 128 mg/L
SS effluent = (1 – 0.7) * 250 = 75 mg/L
Sludge production in the primary treatment is only SS
Sludge production max = SS % * SS (mg/L) * Q = 0.48 * 250 * 10-6 * 30000 * 103 = 3600 kg/d
Sludge production min = SS % * SS (mg/L) * Q = 0.7 * 250 * 10-6 * 10000 * 103 = 1750 kg/d
265
Secondary Treatment or the Biological treatment
8.1 Introduction
Biological treatment systems are intended to remove soluble and colloidal organic matter from
the wastewater which remains after primary treatment. This removal is accomplished
biologically using a variety of microorganisms principally bacteria. In this treatment the active
microbial growth is in contact with the wastewater so that they may consume the organic matter
as food. Biological treatment systems are designed to maintain a large active mass of bacteria
within the system confines.
8.2 Basic requirements:
a. Mixed population of active microorganisms.

b. Good contact between the microorganisms and the waste (organic matter).
c. Availability of oxygen (for aerobic decomposition).
d. Availability of nutrients (N = 0.05 mg/BOD, P = 0.016 mg/BOD, also S, Na, K, Ca, Mg,
and Fe).
e. Favorable environmental conditions for microbial activity such as temperature and pH.
8.3 Bacterial Growth Pattern (Food-Biomass curve):
Bacteria are single-celled plants which metabolize soluble food and reproduce by binary
fission. Bacteria are capable of solubilizing food particles outside the cell mean of extracellular
enzymes, and hence can remove soluble, colloidal and solid organic matter from wastewater.
1. Lag phase: Time required for the microorganisms to acclimate with the environment.
2. Log phase (exponential): The microorganism growth will be at a maximum rate with a
rapid consumption of food (organic matter).
3. Stationary or declining growth phase: The biomass concentration remains relatively
constant where the growth is offset by the death of cells and the lack of food.
4. Death or endogenous respiration phase: No growth due to any food.
Summary:
a. The stationary phase is generally used for biological system since the bacteria in the log
growth phase of development have a great deal with energy available, have limited
accumulation of waste products.
b. The extended aeration and sludge digestion are operated in death phase.
266
8.4 Techniques used in the biological treatment
1. Attached growth process,

2. Suspended growth process
8.4.1 Attached Growth Process:
It is utilizing a solid medium upon which bacteria solids are accumulated in order to maintain
a high population. The area available for such growth is an important design parameter, and a
number of processes have been developed which attempt to maximize area as well as other
limiting factors.
The microorganisms are attached to an inert packing material such as: rocks, gravel, sand, wood
and plastic. The organic matter and nutrients are removed from the wastewater flowing through
the packed material by the attached growth of microorganisms on the solid material known as
the biofilm or slime layer. This illustrated in the figure:
267
Surface growth process include intermittent sand filter, trickling filters, rotating biological
contactors, and a variety of similar proprietary devices. One of the treatment units designed by
this technique is the Trickling Filter.
8.4.2 Suspended Growth Process:
The microorganisms are maintained in suspension within the wastewater reactor by appropriate
mixing methods (natural or mechanical methods). The microorganisms are mixed with the
organic matter so they can grow to form an active mass of microbial flocs (biomass). In most
processes the required volume is reduced by returning bacteria from the secondary clarifier in
order to maintain a high solids concentration. It includes activated sludge and its various
modifications, oxidation ponds and sludge digestion systems. One of the treatment units
designed by this technique is the Activated Sludge Process.
268
8.5 Trickling Filter
Trickling filters utilize a relative porous bacteria growth medium such as rock or formed plastic
shapes.
Types of Trickling Filters: Low rate, High rate
8.5.1 Design criteria:
8.5.2 Advantages of recirculation:
1. Increase the biomass in the system;

2. Maintain uniform hydraulic and organic loadings;
3. Dilution of the influent with water of a better quality;
4. Thinning of the slime layer (biofilm).
269
Techniques of recirculation used in the operation process may vary widely. The different
configurations being used are listed in Fig. 24-6. The basic forms depending on the flow pattern
are:
i. Single stage, one Trickling filter is used.
ii. Two stages, two filers are used in series.
Figure 24-6 Flow diagrams of one- and two-stage trickling filter plants.
270
8.5.3 Mathematical model of trickling filter system:
The design of trickling filter is based on empirical formulas.

One of these formulas is the National Research Council of USA (NRC) formula (based on
collected data at military bases in USA during World War.
For the design of the single stage filter and the 1st stage of the two-stage system:
𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒 1
=
𝐶𝑖 𝑄×𝐶
1 + 0.532 √ 𝑉 × 𝐹𝑖
Where:
Ci = BOD5 of the influent (mg/L).
Ce = BOD5 of the effluent (mg/L).
Q = Wastewater flow rate (m3/min).
V = Volume of the filter (m3).
(1+𝑟)
F = Recirculation factor (𝐹 = (1+0.1𝑟)2).
r = Recirculation ratio (𝑟 =𝑄𝑟/𝑄).

Qr = Recirculation flow rate.
For the second stage of the two stages filter the formula becomes:
𝐶𝑒 − 𝐶𝑒− 1
=
𝐶𝑒 0.532
1+ √ 𝑄 × 𝐶𝑒
𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒 × 𝑉 − × 𝐹 −
1−( 𝐶 )
𝑖
𝐶𝑒- = BOD5 of the effluent from the 2nd filter (mg/L).

𝑉- = Volume of the 2nd filter (m3).
𝐹- = Recirculation factor of the 2nd filter.
By using Velz formula:
For first stage:
𝐶𝑖 + 𝑟𝐶𝑒 −𝐾𝐷
𝐶𝑒 = ( )𝑒
1+𝑟
For second stage:
𝐶𝑖 + 𝑟𝐶𝑒− −𝐾𝐷
𝐶𝑒− = ( )𝑒
1+𝑟
where:
K = 0.49 for high rate filters & 0.57 for low rate system.
271
D = filter depth (m)
8.5.4 Operating problems:
1. In cold weather a reduction in the efficiency removal is noticed. About 3% for each
1oC decrease in temperature. In such climates fiberglass covers are used to prevent ice
formation and also to contain odors that may be produced in the filter.
2. Filter files accumulation breed in low rate filters but are less troublesome in high rate
where the high hydraulic rates carry the larvae before they can mature. This problem is
solved by flooding the filter for 24 hr with the addition of insecticide.
8.5.5 Solved problems
Example 1: Calculate the effluent BOD5 of a two-stage trickling filter with the following
flows, BOD5 and dimensions: Q = 3.15 m3/min, BOD5 = 290 mg/L, volume
of filter NO.1 = 830 m3, volume of filter NO.2 = 830 m3, filter depth = 2 m,
recirculation (filter NO.1) = 125 percent Q & r1 = 125%, recirculation (filter
NO.2) = 100 percent Q & r2 = 100%
Solution:
By using NRC formula:
=
𝐶𝑖 𝑄×𝐶
1 + 0.532 √ 𝑉 × 𝐹𝑖
For the first stage:

1 + 𝑟1 1 + 1.25
𝐹1 = = = 1.78
(1 + 0.1𝑟1 )2 (1 + 0.1 × 1.25)2
290 − 𝐶𝑒 1 𝑚𝑔
= ⟹ 𝐶𝑒 = 85.5
290 3.15 × 290 𝐿
1 + 0.532 √830 × 1.78
For the second stage:

1 + 𝑟2 1+1
𝐹1 = 2
= = 1.65
(1 + 0.1𝑟2 ) (1 + 0.1 × 1)2
=
𝐶𝑒 0.532
1+ √ 𝑄 × 𝐶𝑒
𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒 × 𝑉 − × 𝐹 −
1−( 𝐶 )
𝑖
272
85.5 − 𝐶𝑒− 1
= ⟹ 𝐶𝑒− = 38 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
85.5 0.532
1+ √3.15 × 85.5
290 − 85.5 × 830 × 1.65
1−( )
290
If the effluent BOD5, from the first stage is assumed to about 100 mg/L, the organic loading
rate, including recirculation is:
𝑂𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑄𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 + (𝑄𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟) × 𝐵𝑂𝐷5𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 3.15 × 290 × 10−3 + (3.15 × 1.25) × 100 × 10−3
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐿
= 1.307 𝑘𝑔/ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1882.08 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
The organic loading rate for each filter:
1882.08 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑂𝐿𝑅 = = 2.27 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
830 𝑚3
𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒 290 − 85.5
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦: = × 100 = 70.517%
𝐶𝑖 290
𝐶𝑒 − 𝐶𝑒− 85.5 − 38
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦: = × 100 = 55.56%
𝐶𝑒 85.5
𝐶𝑖 − 𝐶𝑒− 290 − 38
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦: = × 100 = 86.89%
𝐶𝑖 290
By using Velz formula:
For first stage: K=0.49, D =2
290 + 1.25𝐶𝑒 −0.49×2
𝐶𝑒 = ( )𝑒 ⟹ Ce = 61.2 mg/l
1 + 1.25
For second stage:
61.2 + 1.0𝐶𝑒− −0.49×2
𝐶𝑒− =( )𝑒 ⟹ 𝐶𝑒− = 14.2 mg/l
1 + 1.0
The Velz equation is valid for BOD removals of 90 percent or less.
Example 2: Calculate the effluent BOD5 of a two-stage trickling filter with the following
flows, BOD5 and dimensions, NRC formula? Q = 5000 m3/day, influent
BOD5 = 280 mg/L, volume of first filter = 1000 m3, volume of second filter =
800 m3, filter depth = 2 m, recirculation rate for first filter = 1.5,
recirculation rate for second filter = 1.25. Also, calculate organic loading
rate (BOD5 kg/day) and Hydraulic loading (m3/m2/d) for raw, primary and
secondary filter, efficiency of each stage and overall removal efficiency?
Solution:
𝑄 = 5000 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 3.472 𝑚3/𝑚𝑖𝑛
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Organic loading rate for raw sewage:

𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 5000 × 280 × 10−3 = 1400 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 / 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐿
First stage filter:
1 + 𝑟1 1 + 1.5
𝐹1 = 2
= = 1.89
(1 + 0.1𝑟1 ) (1 + 0.1 × 1.5)2
=
𝐶𝑖 𝑄×𝐶
1 + 0.532 √ 𝑉 × 𝐹𝑖
280 − 𝐶𝑒 1 𝑚𝑔
= ⟹ 𝐶𝑒 = 77.329
280 3.472 × 280 𝐿
1 + 0.532 √1000 × 1.89
280 − 77.329
% 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 = × 100 = 72.383%
280
Organic loading rate for filter 1: 𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 × 𝐶𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄𝑟 × 𝐶𝑟
OLR = 5000 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦 × 280 𝑚𝑔/𝐿× 10−3 + (5000 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦× 1.5) × 77.329 𝑚𝑔/𝐿× 10−3
OLR = 1400 + 579.97 = 1979.97 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Hydraulic loading rate:
𝑄 + 𝑄𝑟 𝑄 + 𝑄𝑟 5000 + (5000 × 1.5) 𝑚3
𝐻𝐿𝑅 = = = = 25 2
𝐴𝑠 𝑉 1000 𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐷 2
If need, Organic loading rate for effluent sewage from filter1:
𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 5000 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦 × 77.329 𝑚𝑔/𝐿× 10−3 = 386.65 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Second stage filter:
1 + 𝑟2 1 + 1.25
𝐹2 = = = 1.78
(1 + 0.1𝑟2 )2 (1 + 0.1 × 1.25)2
=
𝐶𝑒 0.532
1+ × √ 𝑄− × 𝐶𝑒−
𝐶 − 𝐶 𝑉 ×𝐹
1 − ( 𝑖 𝐶 𝑒)
𝑖
77.329 − 𝐶𝑒− 1
= ⟹ 𝐶𝑒− = 35.22 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
77.329 0.532
1+ √3.472 × 77.329
280 − 77.329 × 800 × 1.78
1−( )
280
77.329 − 35.22
% 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 = × 100 = 54.45%
77.329
Organic loading rate for filter 2: 𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 × 𝐶𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄𝑟 × 𝐶𝑟
274
OLR = 5000 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦 × 77.329 𝑚𝑔/𝐿× 10−3 + (5000 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦 × 1.25) × 35.22 𝑚𝑔/𝐿× 10−3
OLR = 386.65 + 220.13 = 606.78 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Hydraulic loading rate:
𝑄 + 𝑄𝑟 5000 + (5000 × 1.25) 𝑚3
𝐻𝐿𝑅 = = = 28.125 2
𝐴𝑠 800 𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑎𝑦
2
If need, Organic loading rate for effluent sewage from filter2:
𝑂𝐿𝑅 = 5000 𝑚3/𝑑𝑎𝑦× 35.22𝑚𝑔/𝐿× 10−3 =176.1 𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝐷5/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Overall Removal Efficiency:
280 − 35.22
% 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 = × 100 = 87.42%
280
8.6 Activated Sludge Process
One of the treatment units designed by this technique is the Activated Sludge Process. The flow
diagram of this unit is:
Where:
Q = Wastewater flow rate (Influent).
Qr = Return (recycle) sludge flow.
Qw = Waste sludge flow.
X = Mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (MLSS).
Xr = underflow suspended solids concentration.
Xe = Effluent suspended solids concentration.
So = Influent BOD5.
S = Effluent soluble BOD5.
This unit consists of:
275
1. Reactor or the aeration basin, in which the microorganisms are kept in suspension by mixing
or aerating the influent wastewater. The microorganisms grow in this tank to form the
biomass which is known as the activated sludge.
2. Secondary sedimentation tank (clarifier) in which the biomass (activated sludge) is settled
by gravity.
3. Solid return (recycle) system which is to return a portion of the settled sludge from the
bottom of the secondary sedimentation tank back to the reactor as (Qr).
Note: All the settled sludge is returned but a portion is wasted (Qw). The effluent from the
secondary sedimentation tank is usually disposed into the river after disinfection but within
environmental limits. This effluent could be reused in irrigation or industrial purposes.
8.6.1 Types of activated sludge processes:
1. Conventional process, the return sludge is mixed with the influent at the head of the reactor.
Air is provided uniformly along the reactor.
2. Tapered aeration process, as in 1 but matching of the oxygen supply with the demand is
done by introducing more air at the end of the reactor.
3. Step aeration process, distributing the influent flow to a number of inputs along the reactor.
This is done to avoid high oxygen demand.
4. Complete mixed process, the influent flow, return sludge and air are applied uniformly at
several input points throughout the reactor.
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Activated sludge configuration and effect upon oxygen supply
8.6.2 Operating problems of activated sludge systems:
1. Floating sludge: Air bubbles of nitrogen gas will raise the sludge to the surface of the reactor.
This is caused by high retention time where the sludge remains too long in the reactor. Here
the bacteria will reduce the nitrate to nitrogen gas (denitrification process). This problem is
solved by increasing Qr to reduce the detention time or by increasing Qw to reduce the
sludge age.
2. Bulking sludge: Presences of microorganisms which will enter large amounts of water in
their cells due to the lack in nutrients or low pH. This problem is solved by providing the
lack in nutrients and a neutral pH. The require nutrients are shown in the table.
Elements N P S Na K Ca Mg Fe Other
Concentration mg/L 0.05 0.016 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.001 trace
8.6.3 Mathematical model of activated sludge systems:
The basic factor in design, control, and operation of suspended growth systems is the mean cell
residence time or sludge age (𝜃𝑐 ), which define by:
277
𝑋
𝜃𝑐 =
𝛥𝑋
𝛥𝑡
Where:
X: Total microbial mass in the reactor.
Δ𝑋/Δ𝑡: Total quantity of solids withdrawn daily.
𝜃𝑐𝑚: The lowest value of sludge age (𝜃𝑐) at which operation is possible.
At retention times 𝜃 less than 𝜃𝑐𝑚 organisms are removed more quickly than they are
synthesized, the failure will occur 𝜃 < 𝜃𝑐𝑚.
𝜃𝑐𝑑: The design value of sludge age (𝜃𝑐) and must be significant greater than (𝜃𝑐), (𝜃𝑐𝑑 > 𝜃𝑐 )
𝜃𝑐𝑑/𝜃𝑐𝑚: The safety factor of the system should be at least 4. In standard process, the safety
factor of 20 or more.
For equilibrium system, the quantity of solids produced must equal that lost, and quantity
produced per day given by:
𝜇 × 𝑆
𝜇 = − 𝑘𝑑
𝐾𝑠 + 𝑆
Where:
𝜇: Net specific growth rate or growth per unit mass per unit time.
𝜇̂: Maximum rate of growth.
S: Concentration of substrate surrounding the microorganisms.
𝐾𝑠: Half velocity constant, and
𝑘𝑑: Microorganisms decay coefficient (mass/unit mass/time) reflecting the endogenous burn-
up of cell mass.
8.6.4 Completely mixed process with solids recycle:
All waste utilization occurs in the biological reactor and that the total biological mass in the
system is equal to the biological mass in the reactor (mass balance).
278
Completely mixed biological reactor with solids recycle.

The mean cell residence time, or sludge age:
1. If solids are wasted from the clarifier as shown in the solid line, rather than from the reactor:
𝑋 𝑋𝑉
𝜃𝑐 = =
𝛥𝑋 𝑄𝑤 × 𝑋𝑟 + (𝑄 − 𝑄𝑤)𝑋𝑒
𝛥𝑡
Where:
Q: Waste flow rate,
X: Mixed liquor suspended solid concentration (MLSS).
Xr: Clarifier underflow suspended solids concentration.
Xe: Effluent suspended solids concentration.
Qw: Waste sludge flow rate, and
Qr: Return sludge flow rate.
2. If solids are wasted from the reactor as shown in the dashed line, rather than from the
clarifier:
𝑋𝑉
𝜃𝑐 =
𝑄𝑤 × 𝑋 + (𝑄 − 𝑄𝑤)𝑋𝑒
Lawrence and McCarty have shown the total microbial mass in the reactor is given by:
𝑌 × 𝑄 × (𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆) × 𝜃𝑐
𝑋𝑉 =
1 + 𝑘𝑑 × 𝜃𝑐
𝜃𝑐 𝑌 × (𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆)
&𝑋 = ×
𝜃 1 + 𝑘𝑑 × 𝜃𝑐
Where:
Y: Growth yield coefficient relating cell yield to the material metabolized.
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So: Influent BOD5.

S: Effluent soluble BOD5
𝜃: Liquid retention time in the reactor, 𝜃 =𝑉/𝑄
8.7 Secondary Sedimentation Tank
1. In trickling filters: is used to remove large particles of sloughed slime layer. Its design is
similar to Primary Sedimentation tanks. For design requirements:
SOR = 25 – 33 m/d and not to exceed 50 m/d at peak flow.
2. In activated sludge process: is used to contribute BOD of the effluent and for thickening the
sludge to maintain the required sludge age. For design requirements:
Solid loading rate = 2.5 – 6.2 kg/m2/hr at average flow and not to exceed 10.2 kg/m2/hr at
peak flow
SOR = 16 – 32 m/d at average flow and 40 – 64 m/d at peak flow
Weir loading = 125 – 375 m3/m /d
Depth = 2.5 – 6 m
8.8 Solved problems
Example 3: Design an activated sludge process to yield an effluent of BOD5 20 mg/L

and suspended solids 25 mg/L. The influent BOD5 after primary treatment
is 160 mg/L. The wastewater flow is 10 m3/min, MLSS = 2500 mg/L,
underflow SS concentration = 1.5%, yield coefficient (Y) = 0.65, sludge age,
𝜃𝑐 = 10 𝑑𝑎𝑦, decay coefficient (kd) = 0.05/day, BOD5 of SS effluent = 63%
of SS effluent and the solids are 80% volatile.
Solution:
1. The BOD5 of the effluent solids can be estimated to be 0.63 (SS Effluent),
The soluble effluent BOD5 must thus be reduced to (20 – 0.63*25 = 4 mg/L)
2. The total biological mass in the reactor is calculated from Eq. (24-11):
𝑌 × 𝑄 × (𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆) × 𝜃𝑐
𝑋𝑉 =
1 + 𝑘𝑑 × 𝜃𝑐
Where:
XV: Microbial mass (mg).
V: Volume of the reactor (m3).
X = Mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (MLSS).
Y: Growth yield coefficient (𝑔𝑚 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑/𝑔𝑚 𝐵𝑂𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑂𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑).
280
𝜃𝑐: Sludge age or mean cell residence time (day).

kd: Decay coefficient (day-1).
𝑆 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡.
𝜃: Liquid retention time in the reactor (𝜃 = 𝑉/𝑄).
𝑌 × 𝑄 × (𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆) × 𝜃𝑐 0.65 × (10 × 1000 × 1440)𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦 × (160 − 4) × 10
𝑋𝑉 = =
1 + 𝑘𝑑 × 𝜃𝑐 1 + 0.05 × 10
= 9.734 × 109 𝑚𝑔
9.734 × 109
𝑉 = = 3.894 × 106 𝐿 = 3894 𝑚3
2500
3. The rate of sludge (biological solids) production is obtained from Eq. (24-6) and is:
𝑑𝑋 𝑋𝑉 9.734 × 109 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑘𝑔
= = = 9.734 × 108 = 973.4
𝑑𝑡 𝜃𝑐 10 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦
The solids are 80 percent volatile (organic),
973.4
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 1216.8 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.8
4. The waste sludge flow rate:
Note: (1% 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10000 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 & 1.5% 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 15000 𝑚𝑔/𝐿)
The underflow solids concentration is unlikely to exceed 15,000 mg/L and could be less.
Assume Xr = 15000 mg/L,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1216.8 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 1216.8 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑄𝑤 = = =
𝑋𝑟 15 × 103 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 15 × 106 𝑚𝑔/𝑚3
= 81.1 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
5. The recirculation flow can be calculated from equation (24-10):
𝑚3 𝑚𝑔
𝑄×𝑋 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 2500 𝐿 𝑚3
𝑄𝑟 × 𝑋𝑟 = (𝑄 + 𝑄𝑟)𝑋 ⟹ 𝑄𝑟 = = 𝑚𝑔 = 2
𝑋𝑟 − 𝑋 (15000 − 2500) 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿
𝑄𝑟 2
𝑟= = = 0.2
𝑄 10
6. The hydraulic retention time in the reactor:
𝑉 3.894 × 106 𝐿
𝜃=𝑡= = = 0.27 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 6.5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑄 10 × 1000 × 1440 𝐿/𝑑𝑎𝑦
7. The oxygen demand required:
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The required amount of oxygen which must be provided in suspended growth process is
equal to the difference between the ultimate BOD of the waste which is removed and the
ultimate BOD of the solids which are wasted.
For ordinary domestic sewage this may be taken as equal to:
𝑂2 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.47 × (𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆) × 𝑄 − 1.14 × 𝑋𝑟 × 𝑄𝑤
𝑂2 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1.47 × (160 − 4) × (10 × 1440 × 103 )
𝑘𝑔
− 1.14 × 15000 × (81.1 × 1000) = 1.915 × 109 𝑚𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 1915
𝑑𝑎𝑦
The volume of air required at STP in m3 may be calculated from:
Assume 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and if O2 = 23.2% in air
𝑂2 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 1915 𝑚3
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟. 𝑄𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = = 6888.5
0.232 × 1.2 0.278 𝑑𝑎𝑦
If the actual efficiency of oxygen transfer is 7% (7% O2 mass transfer in water)
𝑚3
6888.5 𝑚3
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = 98407.1
0.07 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
= 68.3
𝑚𝑖𝑛
The air volume required per unit of BOD5 removed equal:
𝒎𝟑
𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟓
𝒅𝒂𝒚
= 𝟒. 𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈
𝒌𝒈
(𝟏𝟔𝟎 − 𝟒) × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝟑 × (𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎)𝒎𝟑 /𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝒎
8. Compressor Power requirements to provide airflow:
𝒘 × 𝑹 × 𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟑
𝑷= × [( ) − 𝟏]
𝟖. 𝟒𝟏 × 𝒆 𝑷𝟏
P: the power required (kW),
w: the air mass flow (kg/sec),
R: the gas constant (8.314),
T: the inlet temperature (oK),
P1: the absolute inlet pressure in atm,
P2: the absolute outlet pressure in atm,
e: the efficiency of the machine (70-80%).
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𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟗𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝒈
𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 = = 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟗𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟐 𝒅𝒂𝒚
Assume inlet air temperature = 30 oC = 303 oK
Assume P1= 1 atm & P2 = 1.58 atm
𝒘 × 𝑹 × 𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟑 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏 × 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 × 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖 𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟑
𝑷= × [( ) − 𝟏] = × [( ) − 𝟏]
𝟖. 𝟒𝟏 × 𝒆 𝑷𝟏 𝟖. 𝟒𝟏 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝟏
= 𝟑𝟗. 𝟏𝟖𝟗 𝒌𝑾
9. Organic loading rate:
𝒎𝒈
𝑩𝑶𝑫𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝑳 𝒎𝒈
𝑩𝑶𝑫𝒖 = = ≈ 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒌𝟏 ×𝒕 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟎.𝟐𝟑×𝟓 𝑳
−𝟑 𝒌𝒈 𝟑
𝑩𝑶𝑫𝒖 × 𝑸 𝟐𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝒎 /𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 = =
𝑽 𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟒 𝒎𝟑
𝒌𝒈
≈ 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕 𝟑
𝒎 ∙ 𝒅𝒂𝒚
Example 4: Design a circular secondary sedimentation tank for the reactor of the active
sludge process in the last example. Assume depth of the tank = 2.5 m and
solid loading rate = 4 kg/m2/hr?
Solution:
1. Total solids flowing into the secondary sedimentation tank is calculate from equation:
𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 −3
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
𝑋 × (𝑄 + 𝑄𝑟) = 2500 × (10 + 2) = 2500 × 10 × 12 × 60
𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚3 ℎ𝑟
= 1800 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
2. Surface area of SST:
𝑘𝑔
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 1800
𝐴𝑠 𝑆𝑆𝑇 = = ℎ𝑟 = 450 𝑚2
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑘𝑔
4 2 ∙ ℎ𝑟
𝑚
𝜋
SST Diameter 𝐴𝑠 = 450 𝑚2 = 4 𝐷2 ⟹ 𝐷 ≈ 24 𝑚
3. Surface overflow rate of SST (SOR):

𝑄 10 × 1440 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑆𝑂𝑅 = = = 32 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑠 450 𝑚2
4. Weir loading rate of SST (WLR):
𝑄 10 × 1440 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚3
𝑊𝐿𝑅 = = = 191
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 24 𝑚 𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑎𝑦
283
5. Detention time:
𝑉 450 × 2.5 𝑚3
𝑡= 𝜃= = = 1.875 ℎ𝑟
𝑄 10 × 60 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
Example 5: An activated sludge plant treats a wastewater flow of 5000 m3/day with a
BOD5 of 180 mg/L. the organic loading rate is 0.3 kg BOD5 per kg MLSS
and the hydraulic retention time is 5 hours. Determine the concentration of
MLSS in mg/L?
Example 6: If the reactor in problem 17.8 is operated at sludge age of 10 days determine
the sludge production rate. If the sludge is concentrated in the clarifier
underflow to 1.5 percent solids content, what will be the waste sludge flow?
Example 7: Design an activated sludge process to treat a waste flow of 15000 m3/day
with a BOD5 of 180 mg/L following primary treatment. The effluent BOD5
and SS are to be less than 20 mg/L. Assume Xr = 15000 mg/L, X = 2500
mg/L, 𝜃𝑐 = 10 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, Y = 0.60, kd = 0.05. determine the reactor volume, the
sludge production rate, the circulation rate, the hydraulic retention time,
and the oxygen required?
Example 8: A wastewater has an average BOD5 of 250 mg/L. The average flow is 8000
m3/day, the minimum 3000 m3/day, and the maximum 13500 m3/day. Design
a complete activated sludge system, including primary and secondary
clarifiers, to yield an effluent BOD5 and SS of 30 mg/L at peak flow. What
do you estimate the effluent BOD5 will be at average flow? Assume Xr =
1percent (min), MLSS = 3000 mg/L, 𝜃𝑐 = 7.5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 (min), Y = 0.65, and kd
= 0.04.
284
SANITARY LABORATORY
EXPERIMENTS
285
Experiment 1. Turbidity
286
Experiment 2. pH
287
Experiment 3. Color
288
Experiment 4. Total Solids, Total Suspended Solids, and Total Dissolved Solids
289
Experiment 5. Electrical Conductivity
290
Experiment 6. Alkalinity
291
Experiment 7. Jar Test
292
Experiment 8. Hardness
293
Experiment 9. Chlorine (Residual)
294
Experiment 10. Chloride
295
Experiment 11. Microbiology of water
296
Experiment 12. Dissolved oxygen (DO)
297
Experiment 13. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
298
299
300
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
301

150621sanitary and Environmental Engineering

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150621sanitary and Environmental Engineering

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The Ministry of Higher University of Kerbala

Education and Faculty of Engineering

Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

Dr. Muhammad Abdulredha

Table of Content ........................................................................................................................ 3

Table of Figure ......................................................................................................................... 18

Table of Tables ........................................................................................................................ 20

I. WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING .............................................................................. 22

1.1 Sanitary Engineer ................................................................................................. 23

1.2 Work of sanitary engineering............................................................................... 23

1.3 Water Treatment Plant ......................................................................................... 24

1.4 Water Supply Network ........................................................................................ 25

1.5 Wastewater Collection Network .......................................................................... 26

1.6 Wastewater Treatment Plant ................................................................................ 27

Quantity of Water ........................................................................................ 29

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 29

2.2 Forecasting population ......................................................................................... 29

2.2.1 Arithmetic method ....................................................................................... 29

2.2.2 The uniform percentage method .................................................................. 30

2.2.3 Logistic method ........................................................................................... 31

2.2.4 Declining growth method ............................................................................ 32

2.2.5 Curvilinear method ...................................................................................... 33

2.3 Water Consumption ............................................................................................. 34

2.3.1 Consumption for various purposes (Water Demand): ................................. 35

2.3.1.1 Domestic or Residential use ...................................................................... 35

2.3.1.2 Commercial and industrial uses ................................................................ 35

2.3.1.3 Public Uses ................................................................................................. 35

2.3.1.4 Fire demand ............................................................................................... 36

2.3.1.4.1 Insurance Service Office Formula (ISO): .......................................... 36

2.3.1.4.2 National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU): .................................. 36

2.3.1.5 Losses and Wastes: .................................................................................... 38

2.3.1.6 Total water consumption ............................................................................ 38

2.3.2 Factors affecting water consumption (per capita demand): ......................... 39

2.3.3 Variation in rate of consumption ................................................................. 39

2.3.4 Density of population ................................................................................... 41

2.5 Solved Examples .................................................................................................. 42

Quality of water supplies ............................................................................. 51

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 51

3.2 Impurities of Water .............................................................................................. 52

3.2.1 Suspended Impurities ................................................................................... 52

3.2.2 Dissolved Impurities .................................................................................... 53

3.3 Water quality characteristics ................................................................................ 54

3.3.1 Physical Characteristics: .............................................................................. 55

3.3.1.3 Taste and Odour ........................................................................................ 56

3.3.1.4 Temperature .............................................................................................. 56

3.3.2 Chemical Characteristics: ............................................................................ 57

3.3.2.2 Acidity ....................................................................................................... 57

3.3.2.4 Hardness .................................................................................................... 58

3.3.2.5 Chlorides ................................................................................................... 58

3.3.2.6 Sulphates ................................................................................................... 58

3.3.2.7 Iron ............................................................................................................ 59

3.3.2.8 Solids ......................................................................................................... 59

3.3.2.9 Nitrates ...................................................................................................... 59

3.3.3 Bacteriological Characteristics: ................................................................... 59

3.3.3.1 Standard Plate Count Test ......................................................................... 60

3.3.3.2 Membrane Filter Technique ...................................................................... 60

3.4 Water quality standards........................................................................................ 60

3.4.1 Iraqi Drinking Water Standards ................................................................... 61

3.4.2 World Health Organization Guidelines ....................................................... 61

3.5 Water Treatment .................................................................................................. 62

3.5.1 Water Treatment Philosophy ....................................................................... 63

Water Distribution Systems ......................................................................... 65

4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 65