CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Air pollution is one of the critical challenges affecting the health and
wellbeing of people. Globally, air pollution kills nearly 7 million people every
year and is considered the biggest environmental health risk. The Asia-pacific
region accounts for about 70 per cent of deaths globally due to air pollution and
has recorded some of the highest air pollution levels in recent times. Air
pollution is a pressing global issue that poses significant threats to human
health, the environment, and the economy. With rapid urbanization,
industrialization, and increased vehicular emissions, the quality of the air we
breathe is deteriorating at an alarming rate. To address this challenge, scientists,
engineers, policymakers, and businesses are collaborating to develop and
implement innovative technologies to control and reduce air pollution. In this
comprehensive discussion, we will explore various modern technologies and
strategies aimed at mitigating air pollution.

The air we breathe, a fundamental necessity for life, is under siege. Air
pollution, a pervasive and invisible enemy, infiltrates our lungs, impacting our
health and well-being. From respiratory ailments like asthma to chronic heart
disease and even climate change, the consequences are far-reaching. Yet, amidst
this environmental challenge, a glimmer of hope emerges – a wave of
innovative technologies is poised to combat air pollution and usher in a new era
of clean air. This comprehensive exploration delves into these modern marvels,
dissecting how they are revolutionizing air quality control strategies. We will
embark on a journey that explores both preventative measures aimed at nipping
pollution in the bud and post-emission capture technologies designed to clean
the air we breathe. We will also delve into the crucial role of monitoring and
measurement, highlighting how technology empowers us with the knowledge

1
needed to win this invisible war. Finally, we will recognize that the path
towards cleaner air demands a collaborative effort, where technological
advancements are coupled with effective policy frameworks, public awareness
campaigns, and international cooperation.

 The Silent Threat: Unveiling the Scope of Air Pollution: This section
will paint a stark picture of air pollution, outlining its sources, detrimental
health effects, and impact on the environment. We will explore the
concept of global air quality trends and highlight the urgency of
addressing this challenge.

 Prevention is Key: Technological Solutions at the Source: Here, we

will delve into the exciting realm of technologies that prevent pollution
from happening in the first place. Witness the rise of electric vehicles
(EVs) and their potential to transform transportation into a clean and
sustainable endeavour. We will explore the growing dominance of
renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and geothermal power,
showcasing their role in displacing polluting fossil fuels. Additionally,
this section will explore advancements in energy efficiency and industrial
processes, highlighting how they contribute to a cleaner environment.
Finally, we will investigate the role of air pollution control devices like
scrubbers, filters, and catalytic converters, which act as the last line of
defence within existing industrial facilities.

 Beyond Prevention: Capturing the Escaped: While preventative

measures are crucial, some air pollution inevitably escapes control
devices. This section will introduce us to technologies designed to
capture pollutants after they have been released. Witness the dawn of
Direct Air Capture (DAC), a revolutionary technology that utilizes giant
air filters to remove pollutants like CO 2 from the atmosphere. We will

2
 explore the potential of urban forests and green infrastructure,
highlighting how nature's own air filtration systems can be strategically
deployed to enhance air quality in urban areas.

 Knowledge is Power: Monitoring and Measurement Technologies:

This section will emphasize the importance of accurate data in air quality
control strategies. We will explore how a network of air quality sensors
provides real-time data on pollutant levels, enabling targeted
interventions and public awareness. Furthermore, we will witness how
satellite monitoring allows for the tracking of pollutants on a global scale,
fostering a deeper understanding of regional and global air quality trends.
Finally, we will recognize the growing role of citizen science, where
individuals contribute by collecting air quality data using low-cost
sensors, empowering communities to take ownership of their air quality.

 Towards a Collaborative Future: Policy, Awareness, and

Cooperation: This concluding section will acknowledge that
technological innovation alone is not enough to win the war against air
pollution. We will explore the necessity of effective policy frameworks
that incentivize clean technologies and discourage polluting practices.
Additionally, we will highlight the importance of public awareness
campaigns, educating individuals about the sources and consequences of
air pollution and empowering them to make environmentally conscious
choices. Finally, we will recognize the need for international cooperation,
emphasizing how coordinated efforts across borders are crucial for
tackling global air quality challenges.

3
 CHAPTER 2

MODERN TECHNOLOGIES TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

Several modern technologies are being developed and implemented to control

air pollution:

1. Air Quality Monitoring Systems

Advanced air quality monitoring systems play a crucial role in

understanding and managing air pollution. These systems utilize a combination
of ground-based monitoring stations, satellite data, and mobile sensors to
measure concentrations of pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and
ozone (O3). Real-time monitoring data provide valuable insights into pollution
hotspots, sources, and trends, enabling policymakers to implement targeted
interventions and regulatory measures.

2. Vehicle Emission Controls

Transportation is a significant contributor to air pollution, particularly in

urban areas. To reduce emissions from vehicles, stringent emission standards
have been implemented worldwide. Additionally, technological advancements
have led to the development of cleaner-burning engines, catalytic converters,
particulate filters, and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems. Furthermore,
the growing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid vehicles, and alternative
fuels such as hydrogen and biofuels are helping to mitigate the environmental
impact of transportation.

3. Industrial Emission Controls

4
 Industries are major sources of air pollutants, emitting substances such as
particulates, Sulphur compounds, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic
compounds during manufacturing processes. To reduce industrial emissions,
various emission control technologies are employed, including:

 Scrubbers: These devices remove pollutants from industrial

exhaust gases through chemical reactions or absorption processes.
 Catalytic Converters: Catalytic converters are used to convert
harmful gases into less toxic substances through catalytic reactions.
 Electrostatic Precipitators: Electrostatic precipitators remove
particulate matter from industrial flue gases by charging particles
and collecting them on charged plates or surfaces.
 Low NOX Burners: Low NOX burners are designed to minimize
nitrogen oxide emissions during combustion processes.

4. Cleaner Fuel Technologies

Developing cleaner-burning fuels is essential for reducing emissions from

transportation, industry, and power generation. Some key advancements in
cleaner fuel technologies include:

 Low-Sulphur Diesel: Low-sulfur diesel fuel reduces emissions of

sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM) from diesel
engines.
 Biofuels: Biofuels derived from renewable sources such as corn,
sugarcane, and algae produce lower greenhouse gas emissions
compared to conventional fossil fuels.
 Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity
through chemical reactions between hydrogen and oxygen,
emitting only water vapor and heat as by-products.

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5. Green Infrastructure

Green infrastructure refers to the integration of natural and engineered

systems to manage environmental challenges and promote sustainability. In the
context of air pollution control, green infrastructure includes:

 Urban Green Spaces: Parks, gardens, and green belts help absorb
pollutants, reduce heat island effects, and improve air quality.
 Green Roofs and Walls: Vegetated roofs and walls mitigate urban
heat and pollution by providing additional green space and
enhancing building insulation.
 Tree Planting Programs: Strategic tree planting in urban areas helps
capture carbon dioxide, filter pollutants, and enhance overall air
quality.

6. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies capture carbon dioxide

(CO2) emissions from industrial sources such as power plants and prevent them
from entering the atmosphere. Captured CO2 can then be transported and stored
underground in geological formations such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs or
deep saline aquifers. CCS plays a crucial role in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and mitigating climate change while allowing for the continued use
of fossil fuels during the transition to renewable energy sources.

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 CHAPTER 3

CLEANER FUEL TECHNOLOGIES

Cleaner fuel technologies are crucial in addressing air pollution and

climate change. Traditional fossil fuel combustion contributes to greenhouse gas
emissions and pollutants, deteriorating air quality and global warming.
Transitioning to cleaner fuel alternatives is essential for sustainability and
environmental stewardship. Technologies like renewable biofuels, hydrogen
fuel cells, and advanced synthetic fuels offer promising pathways for reducing
emissions, enhancing energy security, and promoting economic development.
These technologies are essential for a sustainable energy future.

 Need for Cleaner Fuel Technologies

 The imperative for cleaner fuel technologies stems from the
profound environmental and public health impacts associated
with conventional fossil fuel combustion. Emissions of carbon
dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
particulate matter (PM), and other pollutants not only degrade air
quality but also contribute to climate change, ecosystem
degradation, and adverse health outcomes.
 The urgency to address these challenges is underscored by
alarming trends in urban air pollution, biodiversity loss, and
extreme weather events linked to anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions.

7
 key Objectives of Cleaner Fuel Technologies
Cleaner fuel technologies are guided by several overarching objectives
aimed at achieving environmental sustainability, energy security, and economic
resilience:
 Emissions Reduction: The primary goal of cleaner fuel technologies is
to minimize the release of harmful pollutants and greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere, thereby mitigating air pollution and its adverse effects
on human health and the environment.
 Resource Efficiency: Cleaner fuels leverage renewable, low-carbon, or
alternative feedstocks to maximize energy efficiency and minimize
resource depletion, promoting sustainable energy use and conservation.
 Diversification of Energy Sources: By diversifying the energy mix
and reducing reliance on fossil fuels, cleaner fuel technologies enhance
energy security, resilience to supply disruptions, and geopolitical
stability.
 Technological Innovation: Research and development in cleaner fuel
technologies drive technological innovation, cost reductions, and
performance improvements, making clean energy solutions more
competitive and accessible on a global scale.

3.1 HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS

Hydrogen fuel cells offer a promising zero-emission technology for

powering vehicles, buildings, and portable devices. Unlike conventional
combustion engines, which burn fossil fuels to generate heat and mechanical

8
energy, fuel cells produce electricity through electrochemical reactions between
hydrogen and oxygen, with water vapor as the only by-product. Hydrogen fuel
cells can be used in a wide range of applications, from passenger cars and buses
to stationary power generation and backup power systems.

Mechanism: Hydrogen fuel cells consist of an anode, cathode, and electrolyte

sandwiched between two electrodes. Hydrogen gas is supplied to the anode,
where it undergoes oxidation, releasing electrons that travel through an external
circuit, generating electrical power. Oxygen from the air reacts with electrons
and hydrogen ions at the cathode, forming water vapor as the only emission.

3.1.1 Benefits

 Zero Emissions: Hydrogen fuel cells produce no tailpipe emissions,

making them a clean alternative to internal combustion engines and
conventional power generation technologies.
 High Efficiency: Fuel cells operate at higher efficiencies compared to
traditional combustion engines, converting chemical energy directly into
electricity with minimal waste heat.
 Versatility: Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of renewable and
low-carbon sources, including electrolysis of water using renewable
electricity, steam reforming of biogas or natural gas with carbon capture
and storage (CCS), and biomass gasification.

3.1.2 Challenges

 Infrastructure: Establishing a hydrogen infrastructure, including

production, distribution, storage, and refuelling stations, is a significant
barrier to widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and
equipment.

9
  Cost: Hydrogen fuel cell technology currently faces challenges related to
high upfront costs, including the cost of fuel cells, hydrogen storage
systems, and infrastructure development.
 Hydrogen Production: Large-scale production of hydrogen from
renewable sources is limited by factors such as intermittency of
renewable energy sources, electrolysis efficiency, and cost
competitiveness with fossil fuel-based hydrogen production methods.

Current Applications: Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are commercially

available from automakers such as Toyota, Honda, and Hyundai, with
deployment primarily.

3.2 BIOFUELS

Biofuels are renewable fuels derived from organic materials such as

plants, crops, agricultural residues, and algae. Unlike fossil fuels, which release
carbon dioxide (CO2) that has been sequestered for millions of years, biofuels
recycle carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, resulting in lower
net greenhouse gas emissions. Common types of biofuels include ethanol,
biodiesel, and advanced biofuels produced through biochemical or
thermochemical conversion processes.

Mechanism: Biofuels are produced through various processes, including

fermentation, transesterification, and hydrothermal liquefaction. Ethanol, for
example, is produced by fermenting sugars or starches from feedstocks such as
corn, sugarcane, or cellulosic biomass. Biodiesel is derived from vegetable oils
or animal fats through transesterification, converting triglycerides into fatty acid
methyl esters (FAME).

3.2.1 Benefits

10
  Renewable Energy: Biofuels offer a renewable alternative to fossil fuels,
reducing reliance on finite resources and promoting energy security.
 Greenhouse Gas Reduction: Biofuels typically have lower lifecycle
greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional fossil fuels,
especially when produced from sustainable feedstocks and utilizing
efficient production processes.
 Support for Agriculture: Biofuel production can stimulate rural
economies, create jobs, and provide new markets for agricultural
producers, contributing to agricultural diversification and rural
development.

3.2.2 Challenges

 Feedstock Availability: Scaling up biofuel production requires access to

sufficient quantities of feedstocks, which may compete with food
production, land use, and biodiversity conservation.
 Land Use Change: Expansion of biofuel feedstock cultivation can lead
to land use change, deforestation, and habitat destruction, potentially
offsetting the environmental benefits of biofuels.
 Technological Limitations: Advanced biofuel production technologies,
such as cellulosic ethanol and algae biofuels, face technical and economic
challenges related to scalability, cost-effectiveness, and commercial
viability.

Current Applications: Ethanol and biodiesel are widely used as transportation

fuels, blended with gasoline and diesel, respectively. Flex-fuel vehicles capable
of running on high blends of ethanol (E85) are common in countries like Brazil
and the United States. Advanced biofuels are being developed and demonstrated

11
in pilot and commercial-scale projects, with a focus on improving feedstock
flexibility, conversion efficiency, and environmental performance.

3.3 LOW-SULFUR DIESEL

Low-sulfur diesel fuel is a refined petroleum product that contains

significantly lower levels of sulfur compared to conventional diesel fuel. Sulfur
compounds in diesel fuel contribute to the formation of sulfur dioxide (SO 2)
emissions, which are a major air pollutant and can lead to respiratory problems
and environmental damage. By reducing sulfur content, low-sulfur diesel helps
to lower emissions of SO2 and particulate matter (PM) from diesel engines.

Mechanism: Low-sulfur diesel is produced through advanced refining

processes that remove sulfur compounds from crude oil. Hydrodesulfurization
(HDS) is the primary method used to reduce sulfur content in diesel fuel,
involving the catalytic conversion of sulfur compounds into hydrogen sulphide
(H2S), which is then removed through further processing.

3.3.1 Benefits

 Reduced Emissions: Low-sulfur diesel significantly reduces emissions

of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM), leading to improved
air quality and public health outcomes.
 Environmental Protection: Lower sulfur content in diesel fuel reduces
the environmental impact of transportation and industrial activities,
including acid rain formation and ecosystem damage.
 Compatibility: Low-sulfur diesel can be used in existing diesel engines
without requiring significant modifications, making it a cost-effective
option for emission reduction.

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3.3.2 Challenges

 Refining Costs: Producing low-sulfur diesel involves additional refining

steps and costs, which may increase fuel prices for consumers.
 Infrastructure: Ensuring widespread availability of low-sulfur diesel
fuel requires investment in infrastructure, including refining capacity,
distribution networks, and fuelling stations.
 Regulatory Compliance: Compliance with stringent sulfur content
regulations, such as Euro 6 standards in Europe, may pose challenges for
fuel producers and vehicle manufacturers.

Current Applications: Low-sulfur diesel fuel is widely used in transportation,

particularly in diesel-powered vehicles, trucks, buses, and locomotives. It is also
utilized in off-road equipment, marine vessels, and stationary diesel engines in
industrial settings.

Cleaner fuel technologies represent a cornerstone of efforts to address air

pollution, climate change, and sustainable development challenges. By
embracing innovation, collaboration, and policy support, societies can
accelerate the transition towards cleaner, more sustainable energy systems,
safeguarding the health and well-being of current and future generations.
Through concerted action and collective commitment, cleaner fuel technologies
hold the promise of a brighter, greener future for our planet.

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 CHAPTER 4

CCUS TECHNOLOGY

What is CCUS?

The International Energy Agency (IEA) defines Carbon Capture,

Utilization and Storage (CCUS) as a group of technologies for capturing of CO 2
from large and stationary CO2 emitting sources, such as fossil fuel-based power
plants and other industries. CCUS also involves the transport of the captured
CO2 (typically by pipeline and in certain situations by through shipping, rail or
trucks also) to sites, either for utilization in different applications or injection
into geological formations or depleted oil & gas fields for permanent storage
and trapping of the CO2.

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) technologies represent

a critical strategy for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and combating
climate change. As the world faces increasing pressure to reduce carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions from industrial processes, power generation, and other sources,
CCUS offers a suite of innovative solutions to capture CO 2 emissions, utilize
them in various applications, and permanently store them underground.

14
 Fig 4.1 Outline of CCUS Technology

4.1 CARBON CAPTURE TECHNOLOGIES

Carbon capture technologies are designed to capture CO 2 emissions from

industrial processes, power plants, and other stationary sources before they are
released into the atmosphere. There are three primary methods of carbon
capture:

 Post-Combustion Capture: Post-combustion capture involves capturing

CO2 from the flue gases emitted by combustion processes, such as coal-
fired power plants and natural gas processing facilities. It typically
employs solvent-based chemical absorption or physical adsorption
techniques to separate CO2 from other gases.
 Pre-Combustion Capture: Pre-combustion capture is employed in
integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants and certain
industrial processes. It involves converting fossil fuels into syngas (a
mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide) and then separating CO 2 from
the syngas before combustion.
 Oxy-Fuel Combustion: Oxy-fuel combustion involves burning fossil
fuels in an oxygen-rich environment, resulting in a flue gas stream
consisting mainly of CO2 and water vapor. CO2 can then be captured from
15
 this concentrated flue gas stream using absorption or adsorption
technologies.

Direct Air Capture (DAC) is a ground-breaking technology designed to

remove carbon dioxide (CO2) directly from the ambient air. Unlike traditional
carbon capture technologies that capture CO 2 emissions from industrial sources
like power plants or factories, DAC systems capture CO 2 directly from the
atmosphere, offering a potential solution for reducing greenhouse gas
concentrations and mitigating climate change.

4.1.1 DAC working

DAC systems typically employ chemical or physical processes to capture CO 2

from the air. The captured CO2 can then be stored underground, utilized in
industrial processes, or converted into useful products. Here's an overview of
the DAC process:

 Air Capture: DAC systems use large fans or blowers to draw ambient air
into contact with a sorbent material or solution that selectively captures
CO2 molecules. The sorbent material may consist of amine-based
chemicals, solid adsorbents, or other proprietary materials designed to
efficiently bind with CO2.
 CO2 Separation: Once the CO2 is captured by the sorbent material, it
undergoes a separation process to isolate the captured CO 2 from the air.
This separation step may involve heating the sorbent to release the
captured CO2 or using pressure swing adsorption (PSA) or other
techniques to desorb the CO2 from the sorbent.
 CO2 Concentration: The captured CO2 is then concentrated to increase
its purity and reduce energy requirements for subsequent processing and

16
 storage. Concentrating the CO2 stream increases its density and facilitates
transportation and storage.
 Storage or Utilization: The concentrated CO2 stream can be stored
underground in geological formations, such as depleted oil and gas
reservoirs, saline aquifers, or deep geological formations, through a
process known as carbon sequestration. Alternatively, the captured CO 2
can be utilized in various applications, such as enhanced oil recovery
(EOR), production of synthetic fuels and chemicals, or mineralization for
long-term storage.

Fig 4.2 carbon capture options

17
 Fig 4.3 Direct Air Capture

4.2 CARBON UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES

Carbon utilization technologies involve converting captured CO 2 into

valuable products or feedstocks, thereby providing economic incentives for
carbon capture and reducing the net emissions of greenhouse gases. Some
examples of carbon utilization pathways include:

 Mineralization: CO2 can be reacted with minerals such as magnesium

and calcium silicates to form stable carbonates, which can be used in
construction materials such as concrete, bricks, and aggregates.
 Synthetic Fuels: CO2 can be converted into synthetic fuels such as
methane, methanol, or dimethyl ether through chemical processes such as
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis or hydrogenation.
 Chemical Feedstocks: CO2 can serve as a feedstock for the production of
chemicals and polymers, including urea, polycarbonates, and polyols,
through processes such as carbonation, carbonylation, and epoxidation.

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 Challenges and Opportunities

While CCUS technologies offer significant potential for reducing CO 2 emissions

and mitigating climate change, they also face several challenges and barriers to
deployment:

 Cost: The high capital and operational costs associated with CCUS
technologies remain a significant barrier to widespread deployment,
particularly in the absence of carbon pricing mechanisms or government
incentives.
 Infrastructure: Developing the necessary infrastructure for CO2 capture,
transport, and storage requires significant investment and coordination
among stakeholders, including industry, government, and regulatory
agencies.
 Scale: Scaling up CCUS projects to the level required for meaningful
emissions reductions presents technical, logistical, and financial
challenges, particularly in sectors with dispersed emission sources or low
CO2 concentrations.
 Public Acceptance: Public perception, regulatory uncertainties, and
concerns about environmental risks associated with CO 2 storage may
impede the development and acceptance of CCUS projects in certain
regions.

Despite these challenges, CCUS technologies offer significant opportunities for

emissions reduction, economic growth, and energy security:

 Emissions Reduction: CCUS technologies have the potential to capture

and store millions of metric tons of CO 2 emissions annually, helping to
achieve deep decarbonization targets and meet climate change mitigation
goals.

19
  Industrial Decarbonization: CCUS can enable the decarbonization of
hard-to-abate sectors such as cement, steel, and chemicals, which rely
heavily on fossil fuels and process emissions.
 Carbon Removal: CCUS can be coupled with bioenergy production to
achieve negative emissions, whereby CO2 is captured from biomass
combustion or bioenergy facilities and stored underground, effectively
removing CO2 from the atmosphere.
 Carbon Utilization Opportunities: Carbon utilization pathways offer
additional revenue streams and economic incentives for carbon capture,
providing new markets for CO2-derived products and fostering innovation
in materials science and manufacturing.

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) technologies are being

actively deployed and tested across various sectors worldwide. While large-
scale commercial deployment of CCUS is still relatively limited, several notable
projects are underway, demonstrating the feasibility and potential of CCUS in
mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Here are some current applications of
CCUS:

1. Boundary Dam Carbon Capture Project (Canada): Located in

Saskatchewan, Canada, the Boundary Dam Carbon Capture Project is one of
the world's first and largest commercial-scale CCUS projects at a coal-fired
power plant. It captures CO2 from the flue gases of the Boundary Dam
Power Station and stores it underground in a deep saline aquifer.
2. Petra Nova Carbon Capture Project (USA): Situated near Houston,
Texas, the Petra Nova Carbon Capture Project is a joint venture between
NRG Energy and JX Nippon Oil & Gas Exploration. It captures CO 2
emissions from a 240-megawatt coal-fired power plant and uses it for
enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in nearby oil fields.

20
3. Norwegian Full-Scale CCS Project (Norway): The Norwegian Full-Scale
CCS Project, led by Equinor, Shell, and Total, aims to capture CO 2
emissions from industrial sources in the Oslo region and transport it for
storage in geological formations beneath the North Sea. The project targets
emissions from cement production, waste-to-energy facilities, and other
industrial sources.
4. Adnoc Al Reyadah Carbon Capture Project (United Arab Emirates):
The Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (Adnoc) operates the Al Reyadah
Carbon Capture Project, which captures CO 2 emissions from a steel
manufacturing plant and a natural gas processing facility in Abu Dhabi. The
captured CO2 is used for EOR in nearby oil fields.
5. Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project (Australia): The Gorgon
Carbon Dioxide Injection Project, operated by Chevron, captures CO 2 from
the natural gas processing facilities on Barrow Island, Western Australia.
The captured CO2 is injected and stored in deep saline formations beneath
the island.
6. Clime works DAC Plant (Switzerland): Clime works operates one of the
world's first commercial DAC plants in Hinwil, Switzerland. The plant
captures CO2 from ambient air using proprietary sorbent materials and
supplies it to nearby greenhouses for enhanced plant growth or sequesters it
underground through mineralization.
7. Carbon Engineering DAC Facility (Canada): Carbon Engineering, based
in Squamish, British Columbia, Canada, operates a DAC facility that
captures CO2 from ambient air using a chemical process called air contactor
scrubbing. The captured CO2 can be used for EOR, synthetic fuel
production, or storage underground.
8. Sleipner CO2 Injection Project (Norway): The Sleipner CO2 Injection
Project, operated by Equinor in the North Sea, captures CO 2 from natural gas

21
 processing and injects it into a saline aquifer beneath the seabed. The
injected CO2 is used for EOR in nearby oil fields.
9. Weyburn-Midale CO2 Project (Canada): The Weyburn-Midale CO2
Project, located in Saskatchewan, Canada, injects CO 2 captured from a coal
gasification plant in North Dakota into depleted oil fields for EOR. The
project has been operational since the early 2000s and has sequestered
millions of metric tons of CO2.

22
 Fig 4.4 Application of CCUS

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Modern technologies offer promising solutions for controlling air

pollution and mitigating its adverse effects on public health, the environment,
and the economy. From innovative approaches to emissions reduction in
transportation and industry to advancements in renewable energy and green
infrastructure, these technologies play a crucial role in addressing the complex
challenges posed by air pollution. By embracing cleaner fuel technologies such
as low-sulphur diesel, biofuels, and hydrogen fuel cells, societies can reduce
emissions from transportation and power generation, improving air quality and
reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Additionally, carbon capture, utilization,
and storage (CCUS) technologies provide avenues for capturing and storing

23
CO2 emissions from industrial processes, enhancing energy security, and
enabling the transition to a low-carbon economy. Furthermore, advancements in
monitoring and data analytics enable more accurate assessment of air quality
and pollutant emissions, empowering policymakers, businesses, and individuals
to make informed decisions and take proactive measures to mitigate air
pollution. As we continue to confront the challenges of air pollution and climate
change, collaboration among governments, industry, academia, and civil society
is essential for accelerating the deployment and adoption of modern air
pollution control technologies. Through concerted efforts, strategic investments,
and policy support, we can build a cleaner, healthier future for all, safeguarding
the well-being of current and future generations while preserving the integrity
of our planet.

24