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CSC468 Geographical Information System | Prithivi Narayan Campus | Dev Timilsina
Digital mapping concept

Digital mapping concerns the art and science of using digital technologies to deal with
geospatial data. It deals with’ to include digitally mediated processes of collecting data,
transforming them, weeding them out and combining them with other geospatial data.
And beyond that, sharing and passing forward maps or mappable digital spatial data.
Digital mapping may involve the production of maps, whether on a computer screen or
displayed on mobile devices although they may or may not be the ultimate product.
A problem with this sort of definition is that digital mapping is not a historically consistent
object. Any definition I might contrive to fit today’s digitally mediated landscape is not
going to fit yesterdays.
Maps Concept
❖ Marks on a paper that stands for definable things on the earth's surface.
❖ A representation usually on a flat surface, of the whole or a part of an area
❖ Any real or abstract image of the distributions and features that occur on or near
the surface of the earth or other celestial bodies.
The term "map", however, in non-geography uses does not necessarily refer to a
representation but to how things are arranged or how they relate to one another. For
whatever reason, at geographic scales, "map" means a representation of the earth
and not earth's patterns themselves. And it usually refers to a graphic representation,
although the term "map" can be used more broadly to refer to any representation of
geographic space. To reach a graphic representation, there must be a mental conception
(or representation) of the world. It determines how we map, and maps in turn influence
the mental representation.
A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually

drawn on a flat surface. Maps present information about the world in a simple, visual
way. They teach about the world by showing sizes and shapes of countries, locations of
features, and distances between places. Maps can show distributions of things over
Earth, such as settlement patterns.
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devtimilsina@pncampus.edu.np
Mapmakers, called cartographers, create maps for many different purposes. Vacationers
use road maps to plot routes for their trips. Meteorologists scientists who study weather
use weather maps to prepare forecasts. City planners decide where to put hospitals and
parks with the help of maps that show land features and how the land is currently being
used.
Some common features of maps include scale, symbols, and grids.
❖ Map Title or Heading
The title, also called the heading, of a map is typically found at the top of the map. It
tells you exactly what the map is showing. The title will be in a large font and describe in
detail what the map is for.
❖ Scale:
All maps are scale models of
reality. A map’s scale indicates
the relationship between the
distances on the map and the
actual distances on Earth. This
relationship can be expressed
by a graphic scale, a verbal
scale, or a representative
fraction.
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The most common type of graphic scale looks like a ruler. Also called a bar scale, it is
simply a horizontal line marked off in miles, kilometers, or some other unit measuring
distance.
The verbal scale is a sentence that relates distance on the map to distance on Earth.
For example, a verbal scale might say, “one centimeter represents one kilometer” or “one
inch represents eight miles.”
The representative fraction does not have specific units. It is shown as a fraction or
ratio for example, 1/1,000,000 or 1:1,000,000. This means that any given unit of measure
on the map is equal to one million of that unit on Earth. So, 1 centimeter on the map
represents 1,000,000 centimeters on Earth, or 10 kilometers. One inch on the map
represents 1,000,000 inches on Earth, or a little less than 16 miles.
The size of the area covered helps determine the scale of a map. A map that shows an
area in great detail, such as a street map of a neighborhood, is called a large-scale map
because objects on the map are relatively large. A map of a larger area, such as a
continent or the world, is called a small-scale map because objects on the map are
relatively small.
Today, maps are often computerized. Many computerized maps allow the viewer to zoom
in and out, changing the scale of the map. A person may begin by looking at the map of
an entire city that only shows major roads and then zoom in so that every street in a
neighborhood is visible.
❖ Symbols
Cartographers use symbols to represent geographic features. For example, black

dots represent cities, circled stars represent capital cities, and different sorts of lines
represent boundaries, roads, highways, and rivers. Colors are often used as symbols.
Green is often used for forests, tan for deserts, and blue for water. A map usually has a
legend, or key, that gives the scale of the map and explains what the various symbols
represent.
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Some maps show relief, or changes in promotion. A common way to show relief is contour
lines, also called topographic lines. These are lines that
connect points that have equal elevation. If a map shows
a large enough area, contour lines form circles.
A group of contour line circles inside one another

indicates a change in elevation. As elevation increases,
these contour line circles indicate a hill. As elevation
decreases, contour line circles indicate a depression in
the earth, such as a basin. fig: Contour lines
❖ Grids
Many maps include a grid pattern, or a series of crossing lines that create squares or
rectangles. The grid helps people locate places on
the map. On small-scale maps, the grid is often made
up of latitude and longitude lines. Latitude lines run
east-west around the globe, parallel to the Equator,
an imaginary line that circles the middle of the Earth.
Longitude lines run north-south, from pole to pole.
Latitude and longitude lines are numbered. The intersection of latitude and longitude
lines, called coordinates, identify the exact location of a place.
On maps showing greater detail, the grid is often given numbers and letters. The boxes
made by the grid may be called A, B, C, and so on across the top of the map, and 1, 2,
3, and so on across the left side. In the map’s index, a park’s location might be given as
B4. The user finds the park by looking in the box where column B and row 4 cross
❖ Map Key or Legend
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All the map symbols are defined

in the map key, or map legend.
The terms “key” and “legend” are
often used interchangeably, but
some maps have both a key and
a legend. In these instances, the
key includes the symbols while
the legend includes things like
the scale and compass rose.
Direction: The question of what is north can be an issue on some maps. On the earth,
true north (the direction of the North Pole) differs from magnetic north, and the
magnetic north pole moves due to changing geophysical conditions of the earth's crust
and core. Many reference maps indicate both. Most maps we compose are oriented
to true north, even though compass readings in the field are angled to the magnetic
pole.
Explanation: Also known as a legend. The explanation lists symbols used on a map
and what they depict. These symbols should appear in the explanation exactly as they
are found in the body of the map and be described clearly and fully. Do not treat the
legend as an afterthought, it should receive careful attention.
Geographic Information System/Attributes
Attributes are non-spatial characteristics that describe spatial entities. Attributes are
commonly arranged in tables where a row is equivalent to one entity and a column is
equivalent to one attribute, or descriptor of that entity.
❖ Thematic map: Thematic maps are a common type of map. A thematic map is
used to illustrate the relationship between a theme and physical space, such as trade
patterns, the spread of disease. It is essential to know how to read thematic maps
because they offer summarized package information.
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A thematic map shows the spatial distribution of one or more specific data themes for
selected geographic areas. The map may be qualitative in nature (e.g., major farm
types) or quantitative (e.g., percentage population change).
A thematic map is a type of map that portrays the geographic pattern of a particular
subject matter in a geographic area. This usually involves the use of map symbols to
visualize selected properties of geographic features that are not naturally visible,
such as temperature, language, or population.
A thematic map is also called a special-purpose, single-topic,

or statistical map. A thematic map focuses on the spatial
variability of a specific distribution or theme (such as population
density or average annual income), whereas a reference map
focuses on the location and names of features. Thematic maps
normally include some locational or reference information, such
as place names or major water bodies, to help map readers
familiarize themselves with the geographic area covered on the
map.
These are maps which depict information on a particular topic or theme. The detail
portrayed on a thematic map may be physical, statistical, measured, or interpreted, and
sometimes requires specialist knowledge by the map user
Map layer
A map layer is a GIS database containing groups of point, line, or area (polygon) features
representing a particular class or type of real-world entities such as customers, streets,
or postal codes. Layers can also be of raster images such as those taken by satellites. A
layer contains both the visual representation of each feature and a link from the feature
to its database attributes. Maps in a Geographic Information System are made by
combining multiple layers.
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Map layer forms the fundamental unit while doing analysis on maps. Not only it makes
data expression clearer and in-built but makes the overlay of geographic data possible.
Visualizing and seeing the distribution of data in each region makes it easier to mine for
deeper and specific information and make better decisions.
Why do we need Map Layers?
1. Adds context to your maps: Layers make maps more contextual and help you focus
on specific aspects like assets, roads, and points of interest. Map layers make it easier
for you to work on a specific set of objects in your map. For example, using map layers
you could pin-point and evaluate only a handful of points or building in an area for your
case.
2. Helps you detect change faster: Maps are after representation of what is happening
on the ground. With a map layer, you see how various measures and metrics are
changing over time. For example, the commercial property team in an insurance
company could use it to track the household/property owners who are making
modifications to their properties or in different cases, geographic scientists use it to
study changes in land cover.
Types of Map Layers
We have classified the map layers based on the number of features they render:
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Point: The point layer draws points for a given event or object based on its location
coordinates: longitude and latitude. Point layers are specially used for displaying data
with a wide distribution of geographic information & help you be precise and rapidly
position your point events on a map. Some attributes of the point layer are as follows:
❖ Colour: Colour of the point layer can depict the

numerical value
❖ Fill: Fill usually denotes the intensity of the activity
❖ Radius: Radius shows the area that an event or an
object covers in a map
❖ Icons: Icon differentiates between points using
shapes.
When to use:
Point maps are useful for events that have a timestamp like website traffic over a
particular region. Points are a good choice for pin-pointing locations or points of interest
on a map. For example, to analyze the starting point of all Uber rides in New York. Point
maps can be used to detect and track events like accidents on roads.
Arc: The arc layer draws an arc between two points. Arcs are useful for visualizing the
distance between the two points as well as comparing the distance between two locations
on a map. Arcs don’t show the routes between points but just the distance between those
two points.
Arcs maps usually are used to visualize origin-destination flow data. Arcs usually denote
the direction and intensity of flow interaction between origin and destination. The
attributes of the arc layer are as follows:
Colour: Colour of the arc layer can depict a particular event (starting point, ending point)
Opacity/Stroke Width: These two can be used to show the intensity of the flow interaction.
When to use:
Since the arc layer involves two points and draws an arc depicting the straight-line
distance between them, it is useful in situations where we need to demonstrate the to-
from movement of an object from point A to point B.
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For example, arc layers can be used to depict all bus rides to various points in a city from
a particular bus-stand. Also, they can
be used by food-delivery companies
to track the number of deliveries from
a particular restaurant. Some other
examples where such map layers
can be used for analysis are
population migration and aviation
routes.
Lines: Lines are basically the 2D version of arc layers. Both draw lines to represent the
distance between two points on a map but in case of lines, the lines lay flat on the map.
The attributes of maps are:
Color: Colour inline maps represents a particular event or object under observation or
analysis.
Stroke: This refers to the intensity of the flow.
When to use: Lines are useful for cases that
involve route distribution and hence can be
useful for businesses that transport goods
from point A to point B. Logistics or supply
chain companies can be a good example.
Also, line maps can show the intensity of traffic
along a specific road and hence, also finds its use for mobility analysis.
Heatmap: Heatmap is a way to indicate the weight of each point in the geographical
range. It can be used to show the distribution
or the variation of density of any phenomenon
across a geographical area.
One drawback of heatmaps is that they just

give you a visual representation of the data on
maps and hence don’t quantify areas. Hence it
becomes difficult to pinpoint areas where there
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is an absence of a phenomenon. In layman terms, heatmap gives you an abstract

visualization of the scenario in maps. The color indicates the percentage of intensity of
an event on a particular spot.
When to use:
As mentioned, heatmaps can be used for visualizing the intensity of occurrence of a

phenomenon (pandemic/drought) where established boundaries and borders are not of
much importance. For example, suppose we are representing the air pollution level in a
particular place. The darker color represents more concentration of harmful particles and
hence depicts that air pollution is worse there. It can also be used to show the vegetation
spread or the steepness of terrain in a particular region.
Polygon: Polygon layer is used to represent the boundaries of lakes, cities, or even
forests. Polygon maps bring fine granularity to maps and hence are much helpful for area-
wise or city-wise analysis. Usually, polygon maps are useful for looking into a particular
neighborhood or area. In polygon maps, each area is shaded according to a prearranged
key, each shading or key representing a range of values.
When to use: Polygon maps are best

used to show the distribution of some
features in different regions. For mapping
the amount of tax-payers in a particular
region or to show the sales figure in a
particular city. It can also be used to depict
employment/unemployment levels in a
particular area.
Hexabin: Hexabin aggregates points into hexagons. So, the color or the height shows
the number of events or intensity of that particular hexbin.
A data layer set is a collection of individual spatial data layers. An individual file; a single
layer can be added to a GIS project. Potentially many data layers make up a single data
set Usually; spatial data is acquired in large sets. There may be as many as 150 individual
data layers that make up a data set.
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➢ Data on different themes are stored in separate “layers”

➢ As each layer is geo-referenced, layers from different sources can easily be
integrated using location
➢ This can be used to build up complex models of the real world from widely
disparate sources
❖ Map Resolution:
Refers to how accurately the location and shape of the map features can be depicted for
a given map scale. In large-scale maps the resolution is greater because the reduction
factors used to put the real-world features on a map is less. As a map scale decreases,
features are simplified, smoothed or not represented at all. Features such as roads and
streams must be represented as lines not areas. Millions of maps are produced and used
annually throughout the world by scientists, scholars, governments, and business to meet
environmental, economic, political, and social needs.
Maps gain value in three ways:
➢ As a way of recording and storing information: Governments, business, and

society as large must store large quantities of information about the environment
and the location of natural resources, capital assess, and people.
➢ As a mean of analyzing distributions and spatial patterns: Maps let us
recognize spatial distribution and relationships and make it possible for us to
visualize and hence conceptualize patterns and processes that operate Through
space.
➢ As a method of presenting information and communication findings: Maps
allow us to convey information and findings that are difficult to express verbally.
Virtual Maps vs. Real Maps
Real map: A hard copy or conventional map.
Virtual map: Information that can be converted into a real map, i.e. information on a
computer screen, mental images, field information, notes, and remote sensing
information.
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❖ Map outputs and elements
You know that your GIS (geographic information system) provides maps that's its basic
function and probably the reason you bought it. But a GIS offers more than maps, and
the following list includes other outputs:
❖ Maps: Everyone recognizes this most common output from a GIS.

❖ Cartograms: These special maps that distort geographic features based on their
output values rather than their size.
❖ Charts: GIS can produce pie charts, histograms (bar charts), line charts, and even
pictures in addition to maps.
❖ Directions: Another common output, directions show you how to get from one
place to another.
❖ Customer lists: Business GIS applications often produce customer lists,
sometimes with printed mailing labels.
❖ 3D diagrams and movies: These forms of GIS output help you see the results of
your work realistically and dramatically.
MAP elements
Maps are the primary tools by which spatial relationships are visualized. Maps therefore
become important documents. There are several key elements that should be included
each time a map is created in order to aid the viewer in understanding the
communications of that map and to document the source of the geographic information
used.
Geographic information systems are designed to handle information regarding

spatial locations. we will introduce the essential components and
functional/procedural elements of a GIS IS Functional/Procedural Elements: There
are five essential functional elements that a GIS must contain. These are
❖ Data acquisition (Gaining)

❖ Preprocessing; It includes
o Format conversion,
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o Data reduction and generalization,

o Error detection and editing,
Essential Elements of GIS
❖ Merging of points into lines and lines into polygons,

❖ Edge matching and tiling,
❖ Rectification Registration,
❖ Interpolation, and Interpretation.
❖ Data management
❖ Manipulation
❖ Analysis and Product generation.
➢ Data Acquisition (Collection): The process of identifying and gathering the
data required for your application. To gathering new data by preparing large-
scale maps of field observations, or by contracting for aerial photography.
locating and acquiring existing data, such as maps, aerial and ground
photography, surveys of many kinds, and documents, from archives and
repositories.
➢ Map Design and Layout
➢ Map design and layout determines the aesthetic quality of a map
MAP DESIGN AND LAYOUT

Map design and layout determines the artistic quality of a map. The information at the
disposal of the cartographer is of great variety and complexity, but to depict them all
that is available and useful with clarity, simplicity, accuracy, legibly and aesthetically
is not easy. Map making is a scientific exercise but it is no less an artistic job.
As we've mentioned, making good maps doesn't have to be complicated. Start with a
question and make sure anything you add from there helps to support the answer.
five-step process for creating an effective map layout.
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1. Define the question: Your map should be visual representation of the answer to a
question. So first, you need to define your question! Are you looking to relay general
reference information? Or is there a specific theme you want to explore?
Once you know what your end goal is, you can gather data and start making decisions
about how you want your map to look.
2. Choose a map type: Maps aren’t one-size-fits-all. Different map types are better
suited to displaying different types of information.
Consider the question you’re trying to answer and the story you want to tell. These
considerations should inform what map type you choose. There are two broad map
categories: reference and thematic.
Reference maps focus on location, depicting natural and/or man-made features.
reference map of london streets Reference map depicting the streets of London
3. Consider your map elements: The map elements covered above are quite common
in cartography, but remember - not all maps need to have every element. Ask yourself
which elements will most help the viewer understand your map.
4. Establish a visual hierarchy: Visual hierarchy sounds fancy, but is actually pretty
simple. Put the most important elements at the top, and the least important at the bottom.
Usually, this means including the main map body, title, and legend at the top. Context is
important though, so your map could be organized differently visual hierarchy pyramid
5. Decide on design elements: Design is where you can start to have some fun. From
colors, fonts, outlines, borders, and stroke widths - this is where creativity can take the
wheel. We'll explore the basics of good map design below.
Examples
❖ General reference
❖ Topographic (relating to the arrangement of the physical features of an area.)
❖ Navigational
❖ Cadastral (of a map or survey) showing the extent, value, and ownership of land,
especially for taxation.)
Thematic maps illustrate spatial relationships, focusing on a specific theme or subject.
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2.3. Map projection: Classification, coordinate system and

projection system.
Map Projections:
A map projection is one of many methods used to represent the 3-dimensional surface
of the earth or other round body on a 2-dimensional plane in cartography
(mapmaking). This process is typically, but not necessarily, a mathematical procedure
(some methods are graphically based).
Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the earth or a portion of the
earth on a flat surface. Some misrepresentations of conformality, distance, direction,
scale, and area always result from this process. Some projections minimize distortions
in some of these properties at the expense of maximizing errors in others. Some
projections are attempts to only moderately distort all of these properties. We need to
choose a projection that will MINIMIZE distortion in our area and be best suited for our
application
Creation of a Map Projection
The creation of a map projection involves three steps in which information is lost in
each step:
1. Selection of a model for the shape of the earth or round body (choosing between
a sphere or ellipsoid (a three-dimensional figure symmetrical))
2. Transform geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to plane coordinates
(eastings and northings).
3. Reduce the scale (in manual cartography this step came second, in digital
cartography it comes last).
The method used to portray a part of the spherical Earth on a flat surface, whether a
paper map or a computer screen, is called a map projection. No flat map can rival a
globe in truly representing the surface of the entire Earth, so every flat map misrepresents
the surface of the Earth in some way. A flat map can show one or more but never all of
the following:
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❖ True directions
❖ True distances
❖ True areas
❖ True shapes
Different projections have different uses. Some projections are used for navigation, while
other projections show better representations of the true relative sizes of continents.
Conformality: (behavior in accordance with socially accepted conventions.) When

the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any direction, the projection is
conformal. Meridians (lines of longitude) and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right
angles. Shape is preserved locally on conformal maps.
Distance: A map is intermediate when it portrays distances from the center of the
projection to any other place on the map.
Direction: A map preserves direction when azimuths (angles from a point on a line to
another point or the direction of a celestial object from the observer) are portrayed
correctly in all directions.
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Scale: Scale is the relationship between a distance portrayed on a map and the same
distance on the Earth.
Area: When a map portrays areas over the entire map so that all mapped areas have the
same proportional relationship to the areas on the Earth that they represent, the map is
an equal-area map.
Some types of Projections:
This is the concept behind the construction of a map projection. Although a map projection
gets its name from the idea of projecting a globe onto a flat surface, map projections are
actually created using mathematical formulas. Conceptually, there are three types of
surfaces that a map can be projected onto: a cylinder, a cone, and a plane. Each of
these surfaces can be laid flat without distortion.
Projections based on each surface can be used for mapping particular parts of the world.
For example, a cylinder wrapped around the earth so that it touches the equator will
produce a map that is accurate in the equatorial zone. A cone placed over the earth so
that it touches midway between the equator and the pole will produce a map that is
accurate in the mid-latitude zone. A plane that touches the earth at a pole will produce a
map that is accurate in the polar region. Knowing the type of surface used in a map
projection helps you determine if the map projection is right for your purpose. 4 main types
of map projections are:
❖ Azimuthal projection
❖ Conic projection
❖ Cylindrical projection
❖ Conventional projection or Mathematical
projection
Azimuthal Projection – Stereographic
The oldest known record of this projection is from Ptolemy (Egyptian astronomer,
mathematician, and geographer of Greek descent) in about 150 AD. However it is
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believed that this projection was well known long before that time – probably as far back
as the 2nd century BC.
Today, this is probably one of the most widely used Azimuthal projections. It is most
commonly used over Polar areas, but can be used for small scale maps of continents
such as Australia. The great attraction of the projection is that the Earth appears as if
viewed form space or a globe.
This is a conformal projection in that shapes are well preserved over the map, although
extreme misrepresentations do occur towards the edge of the map. Directions are true
from the center of the map (the touch point of our imaginary ‘piece of paper’), but the map
is not equal-area.
One interesting feature of the Stereographic projection is that any straight line which runs
through the center point is a Great Circle. The advantage of this is that for a place of
interest (e.g. Canberra, the capital city of Australia) a map which uses the Stereographic
projection and is centred on that place of interest true distances can be calculated to other
places of interest (e.g. Canberra to Sydney; or Canberra to Darwin; or Canberra to
Wellington, New Zealand).
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Conic Projection – Lambert Conformal Conic

Johann Heinrich Lambert was a German ⁄ French mathematician and scientist. His
mathematics was considered revolutionary for its time and is still considered important
today. In 1772 he released both his Conformal Conic projection and the Transverse
Mercator Projection.
What is wrong with the Mercator projection?
Mercator maps distort the shape and relative size of continents, particularly near the
poles. This is why Greenland appears to be similar in size to all of South America on
Mercator maps, when in fact South America is more than eight times larger than
Greenland.
Today the Lambert Conformal Conic projection has become a standard projection for
mapping large areas (small scale) in the mid-latitudes – such as USA, Europe and
Australia. It has also become particularly popular with aeronautical charts such as the
1:100,000 scale World Aeronautical Charts map series.
This projection commonly used two Standard Parallels (lines of latitudes which are
unevenly spaced concentric circles).
The projection is conformal in that shapes are well preserved for a considerable extent
near to the Standard Parallels. For world maps the shapes are extremely distorted away
from Standard Parallels. This is why it is very popular for regional maps in mid-latitude
areas (approximately 20° to 60° North and South).
Distances are only true along the Standard Parallels. Across the whole map directions
are generally true.
These two maps highlight the importance of selecting your Standard Parallel(s) carefully.
For the first one the Standard Parallels are in the North and for the second they are in the
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South. Projection information: Lambert Conformal Conic; centred on 140° East and the
Equator.
First map has standard Parallels at 30° and 60° South and the second has standard
Parallels at 30° and 60° North.
Cylindrical Projection – Mercator

One of the most famous map projections is the Mercator, created by a Flemish
cartographer and geographer, Geradus Mercator in 1569. (Flemish is a Low Franconian
dialect cluster of the Dutch language.)
It became the standard map projection for nautical (Marine) purposes because of its
ability to represent lines of constant true direction. (Constant true direction means that the
straight line connecting any two points on the map is the same direction that a compass
would show.) In an era of sailing ships and navigation based on direction only, this
was a vitally important feature of this projection.
The Mercator Projection always has the Equator as its Standard Parallel. Its construction
is such that the lines of longitude and latitude are at right angles to each other – this
means that a world map is always a rectangle.
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Also, the lines of longitude are evenly spaced apart. But the distance between the lines
of latitude increases away from the Equator. This relationship is what allows the direction
between any two points on the map to be constant true direction.
While this relationship between lines of lines of latitude and longitude correctly maintains
direction, it allows for distortion to occur to areas, shapes and distances. Nearest the
Equator there is little distortion. Distances along the Equator are always correct, but
nowhere else on the map. Between about 15° north and south the areas and shapes are
well preserved. Further out (to about 50° north and south) the areas and shapes are
reasonably well preserved. This is why, for uses other than marine navigation, the
Mercator projection is recommended for use in the Equatorial region only.
Cylindrical Projection – Robinson
In the 1960s Arthur H. Robinson, a Wisconsin geography professor, developed a

projection which has become much more popular than the Mercator projection for world
maps. It was developed because modern map makers had become dissatisfied with the
misrepresentations inherent in the Mercator projection and they wanted a world projection
which ‘looked’ more like reality.
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In its time, the Robinson projection replaced the Mercator projection as the preferred
projection for world maps. Major publishing houses which have used the Robinson
projection include Rand McNally and National Geographic.
Compare this to the Mercator projection map above. Projection information: Robinson;
centred on 140° East and the Standard Parallel is the Equator.
As it is a pseudo-cylindrical projection, the Equator is its Standard Parallel and it still has
similar distortion problems to the Mercator projection.
Between about 0° and 15° the areas and shapes are well preserved. However, the range
of acceptable distortion has been expanded from approximately 15° north and south to
approximately 45° north to south. Also, there is less distortion in the Polar regions.
Mathematical or conventional projections

Mathematical or conventional projections are those, which are derived by mathematical
computation, and formulae and have little relations with the projected image. Conversions
from a Globe to a flat surface produces distortions in area, shape and directions. equatorial or
normal projection.
https://kartoweb.itc.nl/geometrics/Map%20projections/body.htm
❖ Conversion Among Coordinate Systems
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A coordinate system is a standardized method for assigning codes to locations so that

locations can be found using the codes alone. Standardized coordinate systems use
absolute locations. A map captured in the units of the paper sheet on which it is printed
is based on relative locations or map millimeters.
Some standard coordinate systems used are:
➢ Geographic coordinates
➢ Lat-long, geodetic lat long, Earth Centered Earth Fixed XYZ
➢ Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system
➢ Military grid
➢ State plane coordinate system
Note: To compare or edge-match maps in a GIS, both maps MUST be in the same
coordinate system. Else, the edges do not match and it gives us false information.
Latitude, Longitude, Height
The most commonly used coordinate system today is the latitude, longitude, and height
system. The Prime Meridian and the Equator are the reference planes used to define
latitude and longitude. Geographic coordinates are the earth's latitude and longitude
system, ranging from 90 degrees south to 90 degrees north in latitude and 80 degrees
west to 180 degrees east in longitude
➢ A line with a constant latitude running east to west is called a parallel

➢ A line with constant longitude running from the north pole to the south pole is called
a meridian
➢ The zero-longitude meridian is called the prime meridian and passes through
Greenwich, England
➢ A grid of parallels and meridians shown as lines on a map is called a graticule
➢ The geodetic latitude of a point is the angle from the equatorial plane to the vertical
direction of a line normal to the reference ellipsoid.
➢ The geodetic longitude of a point is the angle between a reference plane and a
plane passing through the point, both planes being perpendicular to the equatorial
plane.
23
➢ The geodetic height at a point is

the distance from the reference
ellipsoid to the point in a direction
normal to the ellipsoid
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
➢ Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is the most prevalent system used for
mapping and other work
➢ UTM zone numbers designate 6 degree longitudinal strips (60 vertical zones)
extending from 80 degrees South latitude to 84 degrees North latitude. Zone
numbers start from the 180th meridian in an eastward direction.
Military Grid Reference System (MGRS)
24
➢ MGRS is an extension of the UTM system. UTM zone number and zone character
are used to identify an area 6 degrees in east-west extent and 8 degrees in north-
south extent.
➢ UTM zone number and designator are followed by 100 km square easting and
northing identifiers.
➢ The system uses a set of alphabetic characters for the 100 km grid squares.
➢ Starting at the 180 degree meridian the characters A to Z (omitting I and O) are
used for 18 degrees before starting over.
➢ From the equator north the characters A to V (omitting I and O) are used for 100
km squares, repeating every 2,000 km. The reverse sequence (from V to A) is
used for southern hemisphere.
World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF)

➢ The World Geographic Reference System is used for aircraft navigation.
➢ GEOREF is based on latitude and longitude.
➢ The globe is divided into twelve bands of
latitude and twenty-four zones of longitude,
each 15 degrees in extent.
25
State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)

➢ In the United States, the State Plane System was developed in the 1930s and was
based on the North American Datum 1927 (NAD27).
➢ State plane systems were developed in order to provide local reference systems
that were tied to a national datum Some smaller states use a single state plane
zone.
➢ Larger states are divided into several zones.
➢ State plane zone boundaries often follow county
boundaries.
➢ Lambert Conformal Conic projections are used for
rectangular zones with a larger east-west than
north- south extent.
➢ Transverse Mercator projections are used to define
zones with a larger north-south extent.
26

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CSC468 Geographical Information System | Prithivi Narayan Campus | Dev Timilsina

Digital mapping concept

A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually

Some common features of maps include scale, symbols, and grids.

❖ Map Title or Heading

Cartographers use symbols to represent geographic features. For example, black

A group of contour line circles inside one another

❖ Map Key or Legend

All the map symbols are defined

Geographic Information System/Attributes

A thematic map is also called a special-purpose, single-topic,

Types of Map Layers

❖ Colour: Colour of the point layer can depict the

One drawback of heatmaps is that they just

is an absence of a phenomenon. In layman terms, heatmap gives you an abstract

As mentioned, heatmaps can be used for visualizing the intensity of occurrence of a

When to use: Polygon maps are best

➢ Data on different themes are stored in separate “layers”

Maps gain value in three ways:

➢ As a way of recording and storing information: Governments, business, and

Virtual Maps vs. Real Maps

Real map: A hard copy or conventional map.

❖ Map outputs and elements

❖ Maps: Everyone recognizes this most common output from a GIS.

Geographic information systems are designed to handle information regarding

❖ Data acquisition (Gaining)

o Data reduction and generalization,

Essential Elements of GIS

❖ Merging of points into lines and lines into polygons,

MAP DESIGN AND LAYOUT

five-step process for creating an effective map layout.

Thematic maps illustrate spatial relationships, focusing on a specific theme or subject.

2.3. Map projection: Classification, coordinate system and

Creation of a Map Projection

Conformality: (behavior in accordance with socially accepted conventions.) When

Some types of Projections:

Azimuthal Projection – Stereographic

Conic Projection – Lambert Conformal Conic

What is wrong with the Mercator projection?

Cylindrical Projection – Mercator

Cylindrical Projection – Robinson

In the 1960s Arthur H. Robinson, a Wisconsin geography professor, developed a

Mathematical or conventional projections

❖ Conversion Among Coordinate Systems

A coordinate system is a standardized method for assigning codes to locations so that

Latitude, Longitude, Height

➢ A line with a constant latitude running east to west is called a parallel

➢ The geodetic height at a point is

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

Military Grid Reference System (MGRS)

World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF)

State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)

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