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Levelling - Lecture notes 1

Bsc civil engineering technology (Nadirshaw Eduljee Dinshaw University of Engineering

and Technology)

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LEVELLING

1. INTRODUCTION: Levelling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by
which elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined. It is a vital operation in
producing necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and construction.

Levelling results are used to:

i. design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other facilities
having grade lines that best conform to existing topography;
ii. lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;
iii. calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;
iv. investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
v. develop maps showing general ground configurations;
vi. Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.

2. BASIC DEFINITIONS: Basic terms in levelling are defined here, some of which are illustrated
in Figure 1.

2.1 Vertical line: A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

2.2 Level surface: A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line
(the direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A
body of still water is the closest example of a level surface.

2.3 Level line: A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.

2.4 Horizontal plane: A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane
surveying, it is a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.

2.5 Horizontal line: A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to
the local vertical.

2.6 Datum: A datum is any reference surface to which the elevations of points are referred. The
most commonly used datum is that of mean sea level (MSL).

2.7 Elevation: An elevation is a vertical distance above or below a reference datum. In

surveying, the reference datum that is universally employed is mean sea level (MSL).

Fig. 1 Levelling concept

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2.8 Bench mark: In surveying bench mark is a point of known elevation. In general it is a point
whose all dimensions (x, y, z) are known.

2.9 Back sight (B.S): It is the first sight taken after the setting up of the instrument. Initially it is
usually made to some form of bench mark.

2.10 Fore sight (F.S): It is the last sight taken before moving the instrument.
2.11 Intermediate sight (I.S): It is any other sight taken except back sight and fore sight.

2.12 Height of instrument (H.I): It is the elevation of the line of sight through the level.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING:

3.1 Differential levelling: Differential levelling is used to determine differences in elevation

between points (that are some distance from each other) by using a surveyors’ level and a
graduated measuring rod.

3.2 Profile levelling: It is the operation in which the object is to determine the elevation of
points at known distances apart along a given line so as to obtain accurate outline of the surface
of the ground. This is also known is as longitudinal levelling.

3.3 Reciprocal levelling: It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation
between two points is accurately determined by two sets of observations, when it is not
possible to set up the level midway between two points.

3.4 Trigonometric levelling: It is the process of levelling in which the elevations of points are
computed from the vertical angle and horizontal or slope distance measured in the field.

3.5 Bench mark levelling: BM levelling is the type of levelling employed when a system of BMs
is to be established or when an existing system of BMs is to be extended or densified. Perhaps a
BM is required in a new location, or perhaps an existing BM has been destroyed and a suitable
replacement is required. BM levelling is typified by the relatively high level of precision
specified, both for the instrumentation and for the technique itself. It is also known as vertical
control surveys

3.5 Barometric levelling: This method depends on the principle that atmospheric pressure
depends upon the elevation of place. Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure
and hence elevation is computed. However it is not accurate method since the atmospheric
pressure depends upon season and temperature also. It may be used in exploratory surveys.

3.6 Hypsometry: This is based on the principle that boiling point of water decreases with the
elevation of the place. Hence the elevation difference between two points may be found by
noting the difference in boiling point of water in the two places. This method is also useful only
for exploratory survey.

4. THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING: In this most commonly employed method, a

surveyor’s level is used to read measuring staff held on fixed points. The surveyors’ level
consists of a cross hair–equipped telescope and an attached spirit level, both of which are
mounted on a tripod. The surveyor can sight through the levelled telescope to a measuring staff
graduated in feet or meters and determine a measurement reading at the point where the cross
hair intersects the measuring staff.
The basic procedure is illustrated in Figure 2. An instrument is set up between BM Rock and
point X. Assume the elevation of BM Rock is known to be 820.00 ft. After levelling the
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instrument, a back sight taken on a rod held on the BM gives a reading of 8.42 ft. The B.S is used
to compute the height of instrument (HI), Direction of the sight—whether forward, backward,
or sideways—is not important. Adding the B.S 8.42 ft to the elevation of BM Rock, 820.00, gives
an HI of 828.42 ft.
If the telescope is then turned to bring into view a rod held on point X a foresight (FS) is
obtained. In this example, it is 1.20 ft. Subtracting the F.S 1.20 ft, from the HI, 828.42 ft, gives the
elevation of point X as 827.22 ft.

Fig. 2 Basic concept of differential levelling

Differential levelling theory and applications can thus be expressed by two equations, which are
repeated over and over:

HI = RLBM + BS

RLX = HI – X

Where,
HI = Height of Instrument
RLBM = Reduced level (elevation) of Bench Mark
BS = Back Sight
RLX = Reduced level of any point ‘X’
X = Staff reading at point ‘X’ (Can be a Fore Sight ‘FS’ or Intermediate Sight ‘IS’)

4.1 Calculations of reduced level using Height of Instrument (HI) method: In reducing the
levels for various points by the height of instrument method, the height of instrument (H.I.) for
the each section highlighted by different shade is determined by adding the elevation of the
point to the back sight reading taken at that point. The H.I. remains unchanged for all the staff
readings taken within that section and therefore, the levels of all the points lying in that section
are reduced by subtracting the corresponding staff readings, i.e., I.S. or F.S., from the H.I. of that
section.

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Arithmetic check: The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check on
the computations. The following rules are used in the HI method of reduction of levels.
B.S. – F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L

Q1: Find the elevations at all points using HI method. Also apply arithmetic check.
Station BS (ft) IS (ft) FS (ft) HI (ft) RL (ft) Remarks
A 4.20 BM = 100.00 ft
4.30
B 4.33 4.36
4.32
4.25
C 4.22 4.93
4.24
(See lecture notes for solution)

4.2 Calculations of reduced level using Rise and fall method: In the rise and fall method, the
rises and the falls are found out for the points lying within each section. Adding or subtracting
the rise or fall to or from the reduced level of the backward station obtains the level for a
forward station. In Table below, r and f indicate the rise and the fall, respectively, assumed
between the consecutive points.

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Arithmetic check: The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as

check on the computations. The following rules are used in the Rise & Fall method of
reduction of levels.
B.S. – F.S. = Rise – Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L

Q2: Find the elevations at all points using rise and fall method. Also apply arithmetic check.
Station BS (ft) IS (ft) FS (ft) Rise (ft) Fall (ft) RL (ft) Remarks
A 4.20 BM = 100.00 ft
4.30
B 4.33 4.36
4.32
4.25
C 4.22 4.93
4.24
(See lecture notes for solution)

Q3: The following consecutive readings were taken using an automatic level. The terrain was
such that the surveyor had to shift the instrument after 4th and 8th sight. The first sight was
taken at a BM having reduced level of 100m. The sights were:
0.894, 1.643, 2.896, 3.016, 0.954, 0.692, 0.582, 0.251, 0.996, 2.135
Calculate RL of each point using HI method & rise and fall method and perform necessary check.
(See lecture notes for solution)

4.3 Effect of curvature and refraction in levelling: From the definitions of a level surface and
a horizontal line, it is evident that the horizontal plane departs from a level surface because of
curvature of the Earth. In Figure 3(a), the deviation DB from a horizontal line through point A is
expressed approximately by the formulae:

𝐶𝑓 = 0.667 𝑀2 = 0.0239𝐹 2
𝐶𝑚 = 0.0785𝐾 2
Where,
𝐶𝑓 & 𝐶𝑚 is the departure of a level surface from a horizontal line in feet or in meters,
M is the distance AB in miles,
F is the distance in thousands of feet, and
K is the distance in kilometres.

Fig. 3(a) Curvature and refraction Fig. 3(b) Refraction

Since points A and B are on a level line, they have the same elevation. If a graduated rod was
held vertically at B and a reading was taken on it by means of a telescope with its line of sight
AD horizontal, the Earth’s curvature would cause the reading to be read too high by length BD.
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Light rays passing through the Earth’s atmosphere are bent or refracted toward the Earth’s
surface, as shown in Figure 3(b). Thus a theoretically horizontal line of sight, like AH in Figure
3(a), is bent to the curved form AR. Hence, the reading on a rod held at R is diminished by length
RH.

Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on atmospheric conditions, length

of line, and the angle a sight line makes with the vertical. For a horizontal sight, refraction Rf in
feet or Rm in meters is expressed approximately by the formulae:

𝑅𝑓 = 0.093𝑀2 = 0.0033 𝐹 2
𝑅𝑚 = 0.011 𝐾 2

This is about one seventh the effect of curvature of the Earth, but in the opposite direction. The
combined effect of curvature and refraction, h in Figure 3(a), is approximately:

ℎ𝑓 = 0.574𝑀2 = 0.0206 𝐹 2
ℎ𝑚 = 0.0675 𝐾 2
Where,
hf is in feet, and
hm is in metre.

Q4: Find the reduced level of all points given that;

Station Distance(m) BS IS FS HI RL Correc- RLcorrected Remarks
(m) (m) (m) Tion
A 0.894 100.000 BM
600 1.643
1200 2.896
B 1800 0.954 3.016
600 0.692
1200 0.585
C 1800 1.552 0.251
600 0.996
1200 2.135
(See lecture notes for solution)

5. TRIGNOMETRIC LEVELLING: The difference in elevation between two points can be

determined by measuring (1) the inclined or horizontal distance between them and (2) the
zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the other. (Zenith and altitude angles are
measured in vertical planes. Zenith angles are observed downward from vertical, and altitude
angles are observed up or down from horizontal.) Thus, in Figure 4, if slope distance S and
zenith angle ‘Z’ or altitude angle ‘α’ between C and D are observed, then V, the elevation
difference between C and D, is;

V = S x Cos z OR V = S x Sin α

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Fig. 4 Trigonometric levelling

Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C and D is measured, then V is;

V = H x Cot z OR V = H x tan α

The difference in elevation (Δ elev) between points A and B in Figure 4 is given by;

Δ elev. = hi + V- r

Q5: If the zenith angle measured is 42°, slope distance measured is 275.62ft to point D, height of
instrument is 3.45ft from point A and staff reading is 1.26ft. What is the difference of elevation
between point A and B?
(See lecture notes for solution)

6. RECIPROCAL LEVELLING: Sometimes in levelling across topographic features such as rivers,

lakes, and canyons, it is difficult or impossible to keep fore and back sights short and equal.
Reciprocal levelling may be utilized at such locations.
As shown in Figure 5, a level is set up on one side of a river at X, near A, and rod readings are
taken on points A and B. Since XB is very long, several readings are taken for averaging. Reading,
turning the levelling screws to throw the instrument out of level, re-levelling, and reading again,
does this. The process is repeated two, three, four, or more times. Then the instrument is moved
close to Y and the same procedure followed.
The two differences in elevation between A and B, determined with an instrument first at X and
then at Y, will not agree normally because of curvature, refraction, and personal and
instrumental errors. However, in the procedure just outlined, the long fore-sight from X to B is
balanced by the long back-sight from Y to A. Thus the average of the two elevation differences
cancels the effects of curvature, refraction, and instrumental errors, so the result is accepted as
the correct value if the precision of the two differences appears satisfactory. Delays at X and Y
should be minimized because refraction varies with changing atmospheric conditions.

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If the two points between which the difference of level is required to be determined are A and B
then in reciprocal levelling, the first set of staff readings (a 1 and b1) is taken by placing the staff
on A and B, and instrument at X. The second set of readings (a2 and b2) is taken again on A and B
by placing the instrument at Y. The difference of level between A and B is given by:

(𝑎1 − 𝑏1 ) + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )
∆ℎ =
2

Fig. 5 Reciprocal levelling

and the combine error is given by:

(𝑏1 − 𝑎1 ) − (𝑏2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑒=
2
Where,
e = Combined error due to collimation, earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction

Q6: While conducting reciprocal survey, following readings were obtained between A and B:

Instrument Staff reading on

at A B
X 1.486 1.725
Y 1.190 1.415

If the reduced level of B is 55.18 m above the datum, what is the reduced level of A?
(See lecture notes for solution)

Q7 : Reciprocal leveling gives the following readings in meters from a set up near A: on A,
2.558; on B, 1.883, 1.886, and 1.885. At the setup near B: on B, 1.555; on A, 2.228, 2.226,
and 2.229. The elevation of A is 158.618 m?

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7. PROFILE LEVELLING: The profile of the route is a side view or elevation. Before engineers
can properly design linear facilities such as highways, railroads, transmission lines, aqueducts,
canals, sewers, and water mains, they need accurate information about the topography along
the proposed routes. Profile levelling, which yields elevations at definite points along a
reference line, provides the needed data. Profile levelling is same as differential levelling but
here the distance is also considered. Elevations are computed at distance interval of 20, 30 or 40
m or wherever sudden change of slope occurs. When these elevations are plotted, a profile of
that area is generated. Figure 6 shows the typical profile levelling.

Fig. 6 Example of profile levelling

Q8: Find the reduced level of all survey points, given in table below. Also find the slope between
first and last sight. (This is a practice problem)
Station Chainage BS IS FS HI (m) RL (m) Remarks
A - 2.868 164.141 161.273 BM 460
0+00 2.060
0+06 1.170
0+20 1.630
0+40 1.620
0+60 1.410
0+80 1.010
B 0+90 1.977 0.982 TP1
1+00 1.730
1+20 1.700
1+30 1.890
1+40 1.670
1+60 1.600
1+80 1.310
1+91 1.930
2+00 0.640
2+15 0.540
8. CONTOURS: Contours are lines drawn on a plan that connect points having the same
elevation. The vertical distance between contour lines is called the contour interval. Depending
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on the accuracy required, they may be plotted at 0.1-m to 0.5-m intervals in flat terrain and 1-m
to 10-m intervals in undulating terrain. The interval chosen depends on:
(1) The type of project involved;
(2) The type of terrain, flat or undulating
(3) The cost, for the smaller the interval the greater the amount of field data
required, resulting in greater expense.

8.1 Characteristics of contours: Although each contour line in nature has a unique shape, all
contours adhere to a set of general characteristics. Important ones, fundamental to their proper
field location and correct plotting, are listed.

1. Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map. They cannot dead end.
2. Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
3. The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform. (Thus, it is necessary that
breaks (changes) in grade be located in topographic surveys.)
4. The distance between contours indicates the steepness of a slope. Wide separation denotes
gentle slopes; close spacing, steep slopes; even and parallel spacing, uniform slope.
5. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged country. Smooth lines imply more uniformly rolling
terrain.
6. Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent hills. A contour forming a
closed loop around lower ground is called a depression contour (Spot elevations and
hachures inside the lowest contour and pointing to the bottom of a hole or sink with no
outlet make map reading easier.)
7. Contours of different elevations never meet except on a vertical surface such as a wall, cliff, or
natural bridge. They cross only in the rare case of a cave or overhanging shelf. Knife-
edge conditions are never found in natural formations.
8. A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.
9. Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form V’s; they point down the ridge and
form U’s when crossing a ridge crest.
10. Contour lines go in pairs up valleys and along the sides of ridge tops.
11. Cuts and fills for earth dams, levees, highways, railroads, canals, etc., produce straight or
geometrically curved contour lines with uniform, or uniformly graduated spacing.
Contours cross sloping or crowned streets in typical V- or U-shaped lines.

8.2 Uses of contours: Contour maps are very useful since they provide valuable information
about the terrain. Some of the uses are as follows:
(1) Construct longitudinal sections and cross-sections for initial investigation.
(2) Compute volumes.
(3) Construct route lines of constant gradient.
(4) Delineate the limits of constructed dams, road, railways, tunnels, etc.
(5) Delineate and measure drainage areas.

8.3 Locating contours: There are two methods of locating contours;

8.3.1 Direct method: In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced
on the ground. Points which happen to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed,
plotted and finally joined to obtain the particular contour. This method is slow and
tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small contour interval and at high degree of
precision.

8.3.2 Indirect method: In this method, the spot levels of selected guide points are taken
with a level and their reduced levels are computed. The horizontal positions of these
points are measured or computed and the points are plotted on the plan. The contours
are then drawn by a process called interpolation of contours from the levels of the guide

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points. The following are the indirect methods that are commonly used for locating
contours;
a. Grid method
b. Radial line method
c. Tacheometric method

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