March 2024

NORTH AMERICA
A supplement to LNG Industry

Distributed at

Our North American supplement is returning soon!

This special issue will focus on LNG activity in

the US, Canada, and Mexico, with keynote articles,
case studies, and more.
 ISSN 1747-1826
CONTENTS
03 Guest comment
05 LNG news
10 Considering China's role
in LNG
Jessica Casey, LNG Industry, UK, provides a brief overview of
China’s LNG industry.
10
14 AI sentinels
Rotem Battat, Chief Product Officer, Captain’s Eye, Singapore,
establishes how artificial intelligence surveillance can improve
safety in the LNG maritime industry.
19 Decarbonising LNG
Tommaso Rubino, LNG Strategic Development Manager,
Enrico Calamai, LNG Strategic and Growth Manager,
Rossella Palmieri, LNG Decarbonisation Manager,
Baker Hughes, Italy, outline the delivery of LNG facilities
for low-carbon operations.
23 Considerations in designing
floating LNG assets
Keith Hutchinson, Head of the Professional Technical and
Engineering Services and Senior Consultant in Whole
Ship Design and Naval Architecture, Safinah Group,
UK, discusses the key drivers and safety aspects to
be considered in designing floating LNG assets for
exploiting stranded gas reserves worldwide.
CBP019982
LNG Industry is audited by the
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An audit certificate is available on
request from our sales department.
30 Putting the Elbehafen
MARCH 2024
terminal on the fast-track
Eric Farrell, Head of Commissioning at EnerMech, summarises
how experience, expertise, and the right company ethos are key
to safely and efficiently delivering fast-track projects.
34 The impact of rapid LNG
growth
Since February 2022, LNG has become an even more
vital component in the global energy mix as energy
security climbs the agenda. Jose Navarro, Lloyd’s Register’s
Global Gas Technology Director, addresses some of the
pressures being put on safety as a result of the rapid
expansion of LNG.
39 Vessel efficiency bubbling up
for LNG carriers
The LNG carrier segment is recognising the need for improved
vessel and fuel efficiency – clean technology can meet
those needs today and in the future, says Alistair Mackenzie,
Chief Commercial Officer at Silverstream Technologies.
43 A new standard of BOG
management
With its increased focus on environmentally-friendly designs
and operations, the global LNG carrier fleet has accepted
boil-off gas management systems as the de-facto standard for
today’s LNG carrier designs. Pål Steinnes, Heads of Sales and
Business Development for Midstream and LNG, Wärtsilä, Norway,
examines developments that have been made for enhanced
flexibility and efficiency of cargo management on LNG carriers.
ON THIS MONTH’S COVER
Gas and Heat is an Italian company with 75 years of experience
and a strong vocation to the future.
Through a custom-made approach, the company provides
its clients with solutions tailored to their specific needs.
Gas and Heat designs, builds, and delivers highly-engineered
solutions for LNG and bio-LNG-fuelled systems, both in marine,
inland waterway, and land-based areas, as well as an energy
source for small-sized onshore plants. Its R&D department
researches and proposes solutions for the use of alternative
fuels, such as ammonia and hydrogen.
The design and manufacturing cycle of the tanks is completely
carried out in the Tombolo Plant, in the heart of Tuscany.
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COMMENT
DOMINIC MCKNIGHT HARDY
MANAGING DIRECTOR, MIS MARINE
JOE ANDERSON
LEAD DATA SCIENTIST, MIS MARINE

R
ecently, the challenges of the energy and digital
transitions have been dominating and competing
for attention. The combination of ongoing
attacks on vessels in the Red Sea, the rise of
the ‘dark fleet’ due to the Ukrainian-Russian conflict, and
the prolonged drought in the Panama Canal have added
another layer of complexity to global shipping.
One significant but often-overlooked consequence
of the Red Sea attacks is the impact on a vessel’s
Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) grade when rerouting
around the Cape of Good Hope. Providing vessels with an
annual score, CII letter grades indicate the operational
efficiency of a vessel over a 12-month period. Recent data
from MIS Marine reveals that vessels tend to sail around
the Cape approximately 10% faster compared to the
Red Sea route, in what could be an attempt to mitigate
the impacts to commercial schedules. For a 100 000 DWT
gas tanker, this increase in speed translates to an
additional fuel consumption of 291 t and a consequent
increase of emissions of 920 t of carbon dioxide,
compared to transiting the Suez Canal. Consequently,
this would result in a 17% increase in carbon intensity
under the CII framework, posing a considerable risk of
a negative change in the vessel’s annually calculated
letter rating.
A vessel’s CII letter rating is determined annually for
a calendar year based on its operational performance.
Therefore, any temporary changes in a vessel’s
performance caused by external factors, especially if
these alterations persist for several months, could lead
to a revision in the vessel’s calculated CII grade during
the annual assessment. With the potential for widespread
impacts, ongoing deterioration of CII is a worry for the
whole supply chain.
The current Cape scenario emphasises the need for
solutions that calculate carbon performance based on
known values, providing a real-time assessment of carbon
intensity within an actual voyage.
MIS is leading the way in applying relevant sources
of vessel data, especially engine characteristics, along
with operational information from geospatial data and
weather/tide data, to calculate a carbon intensity value
for a given voyage. This allows charterers to determine
their expected carbon accountability and associated costs
for the period of a voyage.
While still at a relatively early stage of CII’s rollout,
it is vital that the industry recognises the importance
of addressing these issues early on and implementing
effective solutions to ensure the long-term success and
sustainability of shipping’s carbon goals. In forgoing this
functionality, CII is at risk of failing the industry, pricing
players out of the market based on temporary situations
that arise beyond their control.
As the initial wave of CII ratings now begin to play
a part in chartering decisions, it will be interesting to
observe how the industry responds to this additional
layer of decision-making complexity, and the changes it
will warrant.

Managing Editor Sales Manager Digital Administrator

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Global
Chevron, Seapeak,
and TotalEnergies join
MAMII initiative
T otalEnergies, Chevron, and Seapeak have joined the
Methane Abatement in Maritime Innovation Initiative
(MAMII), led by SafetyTech Accelerator.
The three companies join the now more than 20
members of MAMII, emphasising its role in addressing
methane abatement within the maritime sector.
Chevron, a global energy company, Seapeak, an
owner-operator of liquefied gas vessels, and TotalEnergies,
the world’s third-largest LNG player, will bring their
valuable insights and commitment to MAMII's mission:
tackling the critical challenge of ‘methane slip’.
The initiative has selected four providers to produce
feasibility studies on the technologies which will reduce
methane emissions from ships.
The release of unburnt methane is a key obstacle
to unlocking the full environmental potential of LNG
as a maritime fuel. Now in its second year, MAMII was
launched in September 2022 by Safetytech Accelerator,
bringing together industry leaders, technology innovators,
and maritime stakeholders to advance technologies for
measuring and mitigating methane emissions in the
maritime sector.
MAMII is currently focussed on ‘on-ship’ trials,
expanding the range of pilots, and starting to address
fugitive methane emissions covering the entire spectrum
of methane emissions on LNG-fuelled vessels.
Germany
DET receives provisional approval for operation of
Brunsbüttel FSRU
T he State Office for the Environment of Schleswig-Holstein
(LfU), Southwest Regional Department, has granted
Deutsche Energy Terminal GmbH (DET) provisional approval to
operate the regasification terminal (FSRU) at the Brunsbüttel
site. The LfU thus approved an application from DET dated
20 December 2023.
A building permit that had already been issued by the city
of Brunsbüttel to operate the FSRU at the Brunsbüttel location
expired on 14 February 2023. The new application by the DET
was submitted because the planned relocation of the FSRU to a
LNGNEWS
Australia
First modules arrive for
Scarborough Energy
Project
T he first three Pluto Train 2 modules for the
Scarborough Energy Project have arrived in Karratha,
Western Australia, marking an important stage of the
project. The modules, fabricated by Bechtel in Indonesia,
weigh a combined total of more than 4000 t.
The modules are three of a total of 51 that will be
shipped to site from the module yard to form Pluto Train 2.
Pluto Train 2 will be the second LNG production train
at the existing Pluto LNG onshore facility and will process
gas from the offshore Scarborough development.
The Scarborough Energy Project will contribute
significantly to the Australian economy and create
thousands of job opportunities during its construction phase.
Bechtel was selected by Woodside Energy to execute
the EPC of Pluto Train 2, with construction activities
beginning in November 2021.
Pluto Train 2 will have an LNG processing capacity
of approximately 5 million tpy. Additional domestic gas
infrastructure will be installed at the Pluto LNG facility to
increase domestic gas capacity to approximately 225 TJ/d.
Up to 3 million tpy of LNG will be processed at
the existing Pluto Train 1 following modifications to
accommodate Scarborough’s lean gas. The project, will help
meet the growing demand for the low-cost, lower-carbon,
reliable energy the world needs today and into the future.
The Scarborough Energy Project is targeting its first
LNG cargo in 2026.
newly-built jetty could not yet be carried out.
After evaluating the application, it was approved by the
LfU. This means that the continued operation of the FSRU
in Brunsbüttel at its current berth is formally approved until
15 February 2026, but an earlier relocation of the terminal to
the new jetty is necessary due to the complex berth situation in
the port. The provisional approval of the operation was subject
to conditions in accordance with the BImSchG, including those
relating to pollution control, building, fire protection, water, and
nature conservation law.
March 2024 5
LNGNEWS
Singapore
Pavilion Energy concludes
first ship-to-ship LNG
bunkering operation to
Rio Tinto
P avilion Energy has deployed the newbuild
LNG bunker vessel, Brassavola, for her maiden
ship-to-ship LNG bunkering operation, delivering 1970 t
of LNG to Rio Tinto-chartered dual-fuelled bulk carrier,
Mount Api. This follows the recent delivery of Brassavola to
Pavilion Energy at the end of January 2024.
Equipped with dual-fuel engines, the Singapore-built
Brassavola – also the nation’s first membrane LNG
bunker vessel – has loading and bunkering rates of up to
2000 m3/h, offering customers high operational efficiency
and faster bunkering turnover.
Conducted in the port of Singapore, the operation
marks a pivotal moment in Pavilion Energy’s commitment
to advance the maritime sector’s decarbonisation goals.
Brassavola is chartered by Pavilion Energy to
supply LNG bunker in the Port of Singapore. It was
built by Seatrium Limited and delivered to owner,
Indah Singa Maritime Pte. Ltd, a wholly-owned subsidiary
of Mitsui O.S.K Lines.
Canada
Cedar LNG provides
project update
C edar LNG and its partners, the Haisla Nation and
Pembina Pipeline, have provided an update on project
development milestones and timelines.
Cedar LNG has substantially completed several
key project deliverables, including obtaining material
regulatory approvals, advancing inter-project agreements
with Coastal GasLink and LNG Canada, signing a heads
of agreement with Samsung Heavy Industries and
Black & Veatch, and executing a lump sum EPC agreement.
Though numerous milestones have been achieved,
a number of schedule-driven, interconnected elements
require resolution prior to making a final investment
decision, including binding commercial offtake, obtaining
certain third-party consents, and project financing. A
final investment decision is now expected in the middle
of 2024.
6 March 2024
USA
Galveston LNG Bunker
Port joins SEA-LNG
G alveston LNG Bunker Port (GLBP), a joint-venture
between Seapath Group, one of the maritime
subsidiaries of the Libra Group, and Pilot LNG, LLC, a
Houston-based clean energy solutions company, has joined
SEA-LNG – further enhancing the coalition’s LNG supply
infrastructure expertise and global reach, while giving
GLBP access to the latest LNG pathway research and
networking opportunities.
GLBP was announced in September 2023 and will
develop, construct and operate the US Gulf Coast’s first
dedicated facility supporting the fuelling of LNG-powered
vessels, expected to be operational late-2026.
The shore-based LNG liquefaction facility will be
located on Shoal Point in Texas City, part of the greater
Houston-Galveston port complex, one of the busiest
ports in the US. This is a strategic location for cruise ship
LNG bunkering in US waters, as well as for international
ship-to-ship bunkering and cool-down services. GLBP
will offer cost-effective turn-key LNG supply solutions to
meet growing demand for the cleaner fuel in the US and
Gulf of Mexico.
THE LNG
ROUNDUP
X Armada Technologies announces
contract with CoolCo for a hull air
lubrication installation
X QatarEnergy to increase country's LNG
production capacity to 142 million tpy
by 2030
X GTT receives tank design order from
Samsung Heavy Industries for 15
LNG carriers
Follow us on LinkedIn to read more about the articles
www.linkedin.com/showcase/lngindustry
Decarbonization Solutions
for the Full Supply Chain

chartindustries.com
howden.com
LNGNEWS
Africa
Allseas completes GTA infield pipelay scope
11 – 12 March 2024
10th International LNG Congress
(LNGCON 2024) A llseas’ Pioneering Spirit has completed the infield pipelay scope for BP’s ultra-deepwater
GTA LNG project offshore Mauritania and Senegal. Two months after arriving in the field,
production crew welded, scanned, and field joint coated the final piece of pipe for the second
Milan, Italy
https://lngcongress.com 16-in. export gas line.
Safely landed in a 2-m target box at 2400 m water depth, the pipeline will be recovered in
12 – 13 March 2024 J-mode configuration to install the termination assembly. To make this happen, the vessel aft has
StocExpo been fitted with a bespoke J-mode frame with a 1000-t load capacity. It was designed, built, and
Rotterdam, the Netherlands installed onboard in only eight weeks.
www.stocexpo.com The pipelay scope comprises approximately 75 km of 16-in. export lines and 10 km of 10-in.
CRA infield lines, some of the pipeline infrastructure exceeding 2700 m water depth at the deep
03 – 05 April 2024 end. The main firing line and double jointing facilities on Pioneering Spirit have run in parallel
26th Annual International throughout the campaign. Pioneering Spirit will conclude the offshore works by installing the six
Aboveground Storage Tank outstanding flowline termination assemblies.
Conference & Trade Show
Florida, USA Australia
www.nistm.org
Woodside to sell 15.1% Scarborough interest
30 April – 02 May 2024 to JERA
2024 AGA Operations
Conference
Washington, USA W oodside has broadened its strategic relationship with JERA through a transaction that
involves three core elements: equity in the Scarborough joint venture (JV); LNG offtake; and
collaboration on opportunities in new energy and lower carbon services.
www.aga.org/events/2024-aga-operations-
conference-spring-committee-meetings Woodside has signed a binding sale and purchase agreement with JERA for the sale of a 15.1%
non-operating participating interest in the Scarborough JV for an estimated total consideration
07 – 08 May 2024 of US$1400 million. This comprises the purchase price of approximately US$740 million, and
ITLA 2024 Annual International reimbursement to Woodside for JERA’s share of expenditure incurred from the transaction effective
Operating Conference & date of 1 January 2022. Completion of the transaction is expected in 2H24.
Trade Show Woodside and JERA have also entered into a non-binding heads of agreement for the sale
Texas, USA and purchase of six LNG cargoes on a delivered ex-ship basis per year for 10 years, commencing
https://ilta2024.ilta.org
in 2026 from Woodside’s global portfolio.
In addition, a non-binding agreement for new energy collaboration including potential
07 – 09 May 2024 opportunities in ammonia, hydrogen, carbon management technology, and carbon capture and
Canada Gas Exhibition storage was signed to support common decarbonisation ambitions.
& Conference Completion of the Scarborough equity transaction is subject to conditions precedent
Vancouver, Canada including Foreign Investment Review Board approval, National Offshore Petroleum Titles
www.canadagaslng.com
Administrator approvals, Western Australia Government approvals, and satisfaction of requisite
financing approvals.
11 – 13 June 2024 The transaction also includes an option for JERA to acquire a 15.1% non-operating participating
interest in the Thebe and Jupiter fields, as well as a non-binding agreement that outlines a
Global Energy Show Canada 2024
long-term collaboration to pursue opportunities for additional feed gas and joint investment
Calgary, Canada
in offshore gas fields for future tieback to the Pluto LNG facility via Scarborough infrastructure.
www.globalenergyshow.com
A non-binding agreement has also been signed for Woodside to provide carbon management
services to assist JERA to meet its obligations associated with its share of carbon emissions from
17 – 20 September 2024
the Scarborough JV.
Gastech 2024
Following completion of the sale of equity to JERA, Woodside will hold a 74.9% interest in
Texas, USA
the Scarborough JV, and remain as operator.
www.gastechevent.com

8 March 2024
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The invaluable difference:
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• Complete modular solutions for onshore and offshore applications between the pipeline
and storage tank
 Jessica Casey,
LNG Industry, UK, provides
a brief overview of China’s LNG industry.

T
he LNG industry in China has witnessed remarkable growth and
transformation over the past few decades, reflecting the nation’s
evolving energy landscape and its commitment to environmental
sustainability. As one of the world’s largest energy consumers and a key
player in global energy markets, China has started to strategically prioritise
the diversification of its energy sources, with LNG emerging as a pivotal
component of its energy mix.
China’s rapid economic expansion and urbanisation have led to surging
energy demands, prompting policymakers to explore cleaner and more
efficient alternatives to traditional fossil fuels. LNG, with its lower carbon
footprint and versatility, has surfaced as a viable solution to meet the
country’s growing energy needs while addressing environmental concerns.
The development of China’s LNG industry has been supported by
robust investments in infrastructure, including LNG import and
regasification terminals, storage facilities, and transportation networks.
Government initiatives and the promotion of natural gas as a cleaner
alternative to coal have further propelled the growth of the LNG
industry in China.
Despite significant progress, challenges have persisted in China’s
LNG sector, including infrastructure constraints, supply chain
disruptions, and regulatory uncertainties. However, the Chinese
government’s commitment to energy security, environmental
sustainability, and economic development underscores its
determination to overcome these challenges and further strengthen
the LNG industry’s role in China’s energy transition.

US pause on LNG exports: How will this

affect China?
Following US President Joe Biden’s announcement that there
would be a temporary pause on pending decisions for the export
of LNG to non-free trade agreement countries,1 many people
questioned how this would affect the world’s energy security.
With the US having overtaken Qatar and Australia to become

10
Considering
China’s
role in LNG
11
 the world’s largest exporter of LNG for the very first time in
the industry’s history last year,2 this is understandable.
How much would this threaten energy security
elsewhere in the world? In theory, it should not affect this
too much; since the pause is just on pending decisions,
projects that are already operational or under construction
are not affected by the decision. In addition, the US plays
only a small role in supply China with LNG; US exports
accounted for just 4% of the country’s total LNG purchases
in 2023,3 with most of China’s LNG imports in 2023 coming
from Qatar, Australia, and Malaysia.4 These countries are
likely to continue as the dominant suppliers to Asian
markets, including China.
A growth in regasification capability
By the end of 2023, China had reclaimed its title as the
world’s largest LNG importer, surging to 8.2 million t in
December – the highest since January 2021, according to
Kpler.5 It is perhaps no surprise then that China is expected
to see a 5% rise in LNG demand, with 4 million t growth in
LNG imports, according to Wood Mackenzie’s recent report,
Asia Pacific Gas and LNG: 5 things to look out for in 2024.6
The country is likely to dominate LNG demand growth as
it aims to continue switching from coal to gas in the hope
of reducing carbon emissions and is expected to witness
the highest additions of LNG regasification capacity in Asia
between 2023 – 2027, accounting for approximately 35% of
the region’s total capacity additions by 2027.7
According to the same Wood Mackenzie report,
China alone will add over 50 million tpy of regasification
capacity in 2024, including Chinese inland waterway
terminals (the first of their kind), along with new
build terminals, and the expansion of existing
regasification terminals.7
Proposed and current additions
The announced Zhoushan II terminal will be the largest
contributor to the country’s regasification capacity
addition by 2027; the terminal is anticipated to begin
operations in 2025 with a capacity of 292 billion ft3,
which is expected to increase to 584 billion ft3 by 2027.7
Yantai I will be the second-largest terminal in
China in regards to LNG regasification capacity additions
by 2027. The terminal is being developed at the
Port of Yanti along the Bohai Sea in the Shandong
province, and was approved construction in 1Q20 by the
National Development and Reform Commission of China.
Yantai LNG Group is the proposed operator of the planned
terminal, and POLY GCL Petroleum Investment Ltd has a
100% stake in the project. The terminal is expected to
start operations in 2024 with an estimated initial capacity
of 287 billion ft3, increasing to 487 billion ft3 by 2027.7
Meanwhile, towards the end of 2023,
China Petroleum & Chemical Corp. (Sinopec) put the
world’s largest LNG storage tank into service at its
Qingdao LNG receiving terminal. The tank added
165 million m3 of storage capacity to help meet the
winter gas demand. The LNG storage tank, with a 100.6 m
dia. and height of 55 m, is a key part of Sinopec’s
Qingdao LNG receiving terminal’s phase III construction.8
On the same day (2 November 2023), the company
completed the phase II construction at its Tianjin LNG
12 March 2024
receiving terminal – three 220 000 m3 storage tanks were
entered into full service, adding over 400 million m3 of
natural gas storage capacity. This brought the terminal’s
total storage capacity to 1.08 billion m3, the largest
in China.8
Securing the delivery of LNG
To ensure China meets its demand, and in its endeavour
to move away from traditional fossil fuels, the key
Chinese companies have also signed long-term LNG
supply agreements. In September 2023, ADNOC Gas and
PetroChina International signed an LNG supply agreement
valued between US$450 – US$550 million.9
Another agreement from the Middle East was signed
between QatarEnergy and Sinopec in November 2023. The
companies signed a long-term sales and purchase
agreement (SPA) for the delivery of 3 million tpy of LNG
from QatarEnergy’s North Field South (NFS) expansion
project to Sinopec’s receiving terminals in China over a
span of 27 years. This SPA follows a previous agreement
that was signed in November 2022 for the supply of
4 million tpy of LNG over 27 years, the longest LNG supply
agreement in the industry’s history.10
In addition to this SPA, the two companies signed a
partnership agreement that will see QatarEnergy transfer
a 5% interest to Sinopec in a joint venture company
that owns the equivalent of 6 million tpy of LNG
production capacity in the NFS project. This follows a
similar agreement that was signed in April 2022 which
marked Sinopec’s entry as a shareholder in one of the
North Field East joint venture companies that own
the project.10
Moreover, Sinopec has signed a time charter contract
with NYK for the transportation of LNG to China for up to
23 years, beginning in 2024 or later. This will support the
country’s intent to be carbon-neutral by 2060.11
LNG exports
Although China is the largest importer of LNG, the country
does also export some LNG, although these are mostly
re-exports. In fact, China is now the second largest
re-exporter, after Spain, re-selling significant shipments
to other countries in Asia.12 According to Wood Mackenzie,
some Chinese players are also expected to continue
negotiations with LNG suppliers with the aim of building
a flexible portfolio to generate trading profits as they
compete in international markets with IOCs and traders.
Conclusion
In summary, the LNG industry in China represents a
dynamic and evolving sector that plays a crucial role
in the nation’s energy security, economic development,
and environmental sustainability efforts. With continued
investments, innovation, and policy support, China is
poised to solidify its position as a major player in the
global LNG market, while advancing towards a more
sustainable energy future.
References
A comprehensive list of this article’s references
can be found on the LNG Industry website at:
www.lngindustry.com/special-reports
Through the strength of our North American assets, we are
dedicated to helping enable the global energy transition,
thoughtfully pursuing avenues to lower the carbon intensity
of our LNG, and developing low carbon solutions to meet the
market demand for clean, reliable energy.

At Sempra Infrastructure we develop, build, operate and

invest in the infrastructure critical to meet the world’s
energy and climate needs.
 AI
sentinels
Rotem Battat, Chief Product Officer, Captain’s Eye,
Singapore, establishes how artificial intelligence
surveillance can improve safety in the LNG
maritime industry.

14
I
n the vast expanse of the maritime industry, where the open
seas hold both adventure and challenge, ensuring safety, security,
and operational efficiency is a constant quest. This exploration
delves into the depths of maritime challenges, and focuses on the
prevention of catastrophic accidents in the LNG industry.

The perils of LNG waters

LNG vessels sail through treacherous waters, laden with the
potential for disasters like leakage, fire, and human errors that can
lead to catastrophic consequences. Accidents in the LNG industry
can result in massive financial losses, environmental damage, and,
most critically, loss of life.
According to industry reports, LNG leakage or spillage
incidents pose a significant threat. LNG is highly flammable in its
vapour form, and a leak can result in a flammable cloud. The
consequences of such incidents can range from environmental
pollution to severe safety hazards, making the prevention of these
events paramount.

A sentry against disaster

Captain’s Eye offers a line of defence against
potential disasters in LNG waters. The
system’s primary focus
lies in the early
detection of
smoke, leakage,

15
 and human errors, providing a proactive approach to safety and
accident prevention.
z Smoke and fire prevention: the system is designed to
swiftly identify the first signs of smoke, enabling the crew to
pinpoint the source before it escalates into a full-blown fire.
In LNG vessels, where the cargo is highly flammable, early
detection is not just a matter of operational efficiency but a
critical component in preventing catastrophic accidents.
z Human error detection: the company acts as an extra set of
vigilant eyes, capable of detecting various human behaviours
that could lead to accidents. Whether it is entering restricted
zones or neglecting personal protective equipment, the
system provides real-time alerts, allowing for immediate
corrective actions.
Annually, the industry faces a staggering number of incidents
that result in significant financial losses, environmental damage,
and human casualties. The proactive approach facilitated by the
Figure 1. Captain’s Eye dashboard with overview of the
cameras, events, and statistics.
Figure 2. No cross zone detection for safety and security
reasons.
Figure 3. Early detection of smoke from an oil leakage in
the main engine.
16 March 2024
company could alter this landscape, turning the tide in favour of
safety and prevention.
In incidents involving leakage or spillage, the system’s early
detection capabilities can make the critical difference between
a controlled event and a full-blown disaster. The Captain’s Eye
system has the capacity to enhance safety by mitigating
risks associated with LNG waters, potentially saving lives,
preventing environmental pollution, and minimising
financial losses.
The human factor: an overlooked
risk
While the industry acknowledges the technical challenges and
potential hazards posed by LNG, the human factor remains a
critical, and often overlooked, element in accident prevention.
Statistics from maritime safety databases indicate that a
considerable number of accidents in the LNG sector can be
attributed to human factors, ranging from procedural lapses to
communication breakdowns.
Captain’s Eye addresses this dimension of risk by
monitoring human behaviours in real time. The system’s ability
to detect deviations from safety protocols, such as entering
no-cross zones or neglecting personal protective equipment,
provides a proactive layer of defence against accidents
triggered by human error.
Navigating the evolution of
maritime security
As the maritime landscape evolves, so do the challenges
faced by vessel operators. New vessels come equipped
with CCTV systems, offering a foundation that makes
integrating Captain’s Eye into existing setups both easy and
straightforward. With vessels growing larger and crew sizes
diminishing, a technology-driven solution becomes imperative
to bridge this safety gap effectively.
Captain’s Eye compliments these existing CCTV systems,
adding a layer of advanced artificial intelligence (AI) that
transforms passive surveillance into an active and intelligent
safety net. The system’s adaptability to various CCTV setups
ensures a smooth integration process, making it an accessible
and practical solution for both new and existing vessels.
The landscape of maritime accidents
Statistics from global maritime safety databases paint a
concerning picture. Accidents in the maritime industry,
ranging from fires to human errors, contribute to substantial
financial losses and environmental damage. As vessels become
more sophisticated, the need for advanced safety solutions
becomes paramount.
The data behind maritime safety
Data from maritime safety organisations indicates a
persistent challenge in preventing accidents at sea. Collisions,
groundings, and fires rank among the top incidents, each
carrying the potential for catastrophic consequences. The
financial toll of these accidents is substantial, with repair
costs, environmental fines, and insurance claims reaching
unprecedented levels.
The company’s system offers a proactive solution to prevent
accidents before they escalate. The system’s real-time
monitoring capabilities provide an early warning system,
allowing crews to take immediate corrective actions and
 prevent incidents that could result in financial losses,
environmental damage, and human casualties.
The staggering reality of LNG
accidents
In the realm of LNG, where the stakes are even higher due to
the volatile nature of the cargo, the consequences of accidents
are particularly severe. Statistics indicate a concerning
number of LNG leakage incidents annually, each carrying
the potential for disastrous outcomes. Delayed responses to
such incidents can result in catastrophic explosions, causing
extensive damage to vessels and posing significant risks to the
surrounding environment.
The financial toll of LNG accidents is astronomical, with
repair costs, environmental fines, and insurance claims reaching
unprecedented levels. The company offers a solution to detect
LNG leakage in its early stages, mitigating the risks and
averting the catastrophic consequences associated with
delayed responses.
Human-caused accidents
While the focus often leans towards technical challenges,
accidents caused by human factors remain a silent and
persistent threat in the maritime industry. Human errors,
miscommunications, and procedural lapses contribute
significantly to incidents that could have been prevented with
heightened awareness and real-time intervention.
Captain’s Eye serves as an advocate for improved safety
culture, actively monitoring human behaviours to detect
deviations from established protocols. By providing real-time
alerts and visual evidence of non-compliance, the system
empowers crews to address potential risks promptly, thereby
reducing the likelihood of accidents caused by human factors.
Enhancing safety culture
A robust safety culture is not just a set of procedures but
a collective mindset that permeates every level of an
organisation. Captain’s Eye contributes to the enhancement
of safety culture by fostering a sense of accountability and
awareness among the crew. The system’s real-time monitoring
acts as a continuous reminder of the importance of adhering to
safety protocols, creating an environment where safety is not
just a rule but a shared commitment.
A case for early detection – the
unseen danger of oil leakage
Imagine a scenario where a small oil leakage occurs in the main
engine of an LNG vessel. This leakage is invisible to the cameras
installed onboard, and as the oil heats up, it starts creating
smoke. However, this smoke is slow to rise, making it virtually
undetectable by traditional smoke detectors.
In a situation where reliance is solely on traditional
detectors, minutes could pass before the system signals an alarm.
Meanwhile, the unseen danger continues to escalate. The severity
of such a situation is immense — a small oil leakage, if left
undetected, can lead to a full-blown fire in the main engine.
Here is where Captain’s Eye becomes a game-changer. Its AI
algorithms can swiftly detect the initial signs of smoke, providing
a real-time alert to the crew. Within seconds, a short video is
generated, allowing the crew to visually inspect the situation. In
a scenario where smoke is slow to rise, these crucial seconds can
make all the difference.
18 March 2024
The crew can now efficiently distinguish between a small fire
and a potentially catastrophic event. This level of early detection,
coupled with visual evidence, empowers the crew to take
immediate and targeted actions. The potential disaster is averted,
showcasing the instrumental role of Captain’s Eye in preventing
accidents and ensuring the safety of both the vessel and its crew.
Connectivity to shore
The company’s technology provides connectivity to shore. This
feature enables supervisors and fleet managers to access a
comprehensive suite of tools for enhanced monitoring, analysis,
and communication.
Captain’s Eye facilitates real-time and recorded video access
from on-board cameras, allowing shore-based supervisors to
have a continuous, vigilant eye on vessel operations. This
feature proves invaluable for assessing situations, responding
to alerts, and conducting remote inspections, as well as
post-incident investigations.
The system offers advanced statistical tools accessible
from shore, providing supervisors with insights into operational
patterns, incident frequencies, and safety trends. This
data-driven approach empowers decision-makers to implement
targeted improvements and preventive measures across
the fleet.
Incorporating robust operational communication tools
facilitate online and offline communication between on-board
crew and shore-based personnel. This ensures efficient
coordination, timely response to incidents, and streamlined
operational workflows.
Recognising the significance of satellite connectivity in
maritime operations, Captain’s Eye is optimised for minimal
data consumption. This ensures that even in remote areas with
limited satellite bandwidth, supervisors and fleet managers can
access critical information without compromising the efficiency
of other vessel communication systems.
This connectivity feature not only enhances the overall
efficiency of fleet management but also establishes a dynamic
link between on-board activities and onshore decision-makers,
fostering a collaborative and proactive approach to maritime
safety and operations.
Beyond standard monitoring:
unveiling anomaly alerts
In a stride towards maritime safety, Captain’s Eye extends
its vigilance with anomaly alerts. These alerts encompass
scenarios like forgotten hardware and potential fall hazards,
such as leaving a power cabinet open or materials too close to
the main engine. This proactive approach not only addresses
standard risks but also identifies unforeseen circumstances that
could compromise both crew well-being and vessel integrity.
Conclusion
The early detection of LNG leakage, smoke, and human errors is
a useful tool when navigating the waters of the LNG industry.
By providing a proactive approach to safety and accident
prevention, the system reshapes the narrative, ensuring
that vessels sail through waters that are not just navigable
but safe and secure. In the realm of maritime safety, where
every moment counts and the consequences of oversight are
profound, the system’s ability to prevent accidents, minimise
financial losses, and, most importantly, save lives, shows
its importance.
Tommaso Rubino, LNG Strategic Development Manager, Enrico
Calamai, LNG Strategic and Growth Manager, Rossella Palmieri,
LNG Decarbonisation Manager, Baker Hughes, Italy, outline the
delivery of LNG facilities for low-carbon operations.

s i n g L N G
b o ni
a r
c
De

T
he outlook for global LNG demand
is bullish. Given the current
LNG price environment and the
quickly changing dynamics, global
LNG capacity is believed to likely
exceed 800 million tpy by the end of
this decade to meet growing demand
forecasts. Despite some scepticism
over the depth of demand long term,
the industry is actively engaged in
developing many new projects in the
near term.
In every net-zero scenario that does
not involve choosing lower living
standards, half or more of the total
energy demand will still be met by fossil
fuels in 2050, primarily natural gas.
Baker Hughes sees natural gas as not
only key to the energy transition, but
also a ‘destination’ fuel.
While the IEA World Energy Outlook
report projects a significant drop in
demand for unabated natural gas, it also
forecasts that natural gas will remain a
major source of energy. The success of
shared net-zero ambitions therefore
depends on company’s capabilities to
produce and supply natural gas in more
efficient, decarbonised ways.
Focusing on the LNG value chain,
real opportunities exist today to
improve efficiency, reduce greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions, and lower costs.
This requires installing emissions
reduction technology into existing
plants and designing future plants with
even more powerful emissions
reduction technologies at the core.
There is no single leap to realise
this objective. Multiple technologies,
including those developed by
Baker Hughes, either exist today or are
in development that help to create low
carbon emissions operating
environments, including for liquefaction.
Two clear routes present the best
short-term opportunities to achieve
more sustainable operations:

19
 z First, emissions can be further reduced by improving the
efficiency of turbomachinery and optimising these complex
systems. In addition, there are several promising avenues
being explored that may unlock greater reductions in
time-to-market.
z Second, electrification is providing an attractive avenue
for emissions abatement. While speaking of electrification,
it should be clear there is no silver bullet, no unique
approach – on the contrary, there are different (and
necessary) possible paths towards electrification and carbon
reduction in the LNG industry, for both greenfield and
brownfield projects.
Figure 1. BCL centrifugal compressor for LNG applications.
Figure 2. BRUSH Power Generation, 2-pole generator.
Figure 3. Centrifugal compressor driven by an electric
motor assembled in the manufacturing site in Florence.
20 March 2024
Electrified LNG trains for new and
brownfield projects
To maintain their license to operate, LNG operators need
solutions today. For brownfield projects, electrification is
one option to be considered to help reduce emissions while
producing more efficiently.
For example, in the case for a brownfield project, by
substituting the gas turbine for an electric motor, significant
emissions reductions can be achieved – as long as the power to
feed the electric motor is obtained through renewable or other
net-zero emission sources.
Varying shaft-line sizes and configurations, methods of
delivering electrical power, and technical constraints inherent to
specific sites are some of the reasons why there are multiple
solutions and approaches to electrification.
In any scenario, a consistent benefit is the tangible and
quantifiable reduction in emissions. For every unit of
mechanical-drive power that transitions from a gas turbine to
an electric motor, the potential carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent
emission reduction amounts to:
z 20 – 40% if the electricity is sourced from a combined-cycle
gas turbine (CCGT) power generation plant. The exact
reduction depends on the comparative efficiency of the
CCGT plant and the original mechanical drive gas turbine.
z 100% if the electricity is sourced from renewable or other
net-zero emission sources.
State-of-the-art electric motors can run large scale LNG
operations. When paired with renewable energy and/or nuclear
power, net-zero power can be achieved.
A seminal e-LNG project is ADNOC Gas’ Ruwais LNG project,
a 9.6 million tpy facility being developed to run on a
combination of renewable and nuclear power. Baker Hughes is
set to provide two all-electric liquefaction trains for the project
that will utilise the company’s 75 MW BRUSH electric motor
technology, complemented by advanced compressor technology.
While this LNG project will inaugurate operations with net-zero
power, existing LNG terminals can also make the shift to
electrification combined with lower emissions power.
Modular option with lower
emissions drivers
The expansion of the LNG market has created demand for
medium-to-large projects, which can be developed relatively
quickly and scaled with a turnkey option that contains the
liquefaction train in modular form (1 – 1.5 million tpy).
This requires a compact yet powerful driver, such as the
Baker Hughes LM9000, a simple-cycle efficiency, aeroderivative
gas turbine designed with up to a 65 MW+ driver. This provides
high-power density with reduced fuel use and emissions. This
turbine design also allows for start-ups without venting process
gas. It can operate with emissions below 15 ppm for NOX and
25 ppm for CO at ISO condition. Such modular projects can
reduce CO2 emissions up to 30% compared to a traditional LNG
plant based on a large size train with heavy duty gas turbines.
The turbine’s high-power density results in a smaller
footprint than traditional LNG plants, making it suitable for
offshore settings, which will be critical to increasing the supply
of low emission natural gas. Its compact design and features
that enable quick and straightforward maintenance —
Designed for efficiency
enthusiasts: LM9000
With 44% efficiency in simple cycle, our LM9000 is the most efficient
gas turbine in the 65+ MW power range. It also helps reduce CAPEX
in LNG because it doesn’t need a helper motor, and its longer
maintenance intervals help reduce OPEX.

LNG capacity up, carbon intensity down.

bakerhughes.com/LM9000

Copyright 2024 Baker Hughes Company. All rights reserved.

 including an engine swap capability within 24 hours — position
the LM9000 as a practical choice for both mechanical drive and
power generation applications.
Packaging power in modular liquefaction also provides plant
capacity flexibility by operating multiple units in parallel to
respond to market demand volatility. A power island
configuration based on mid-size high efficiency gas turbine in a
building block architecture couple perfectly with the modular
liquefaction approach.
The LM9000 gas turbine technology has been chosen for a
number of prominent global LNG developments, such as the
2 million tpy nearshore LNG project of PETRONAS in Sabah,
Malaysia, and the 9.3 million tpy LNG project of Commonwealth
in Cameron Parish, Louisiana, the US.
A configuration with multiple LM9000 aeroderivative gas
turbines in a combined heat and power plant (CHP) provides
99+% availability. For additional flexibility and emissions
reduction, renewable power can be integrated as well. For
example, a 5 million tpy LNG plant that utilises electric motor
machines to drive its refrigeration trains – potentially composed
by 3 NMBLTM modules, working together – and is equipped with
a 300 MW power generation unit, can decrease its CO2 footprint
up to 15% when 120 MW of renewable power is incorporated.
Driving the energy transition
Natural gas is key to the energy transition, and the industry is
now seeing a reversal of the under-investment in gas projects
experienced in recent years.
Figure 4. LM9000 gas turbine at the manufactuirng and
testing site in Massa, Italy.
Figure 5. LNG module under construction in Avenza, Italy.
22 March 2024
57% of 555 executives from leading energy and
hard-to-abate industrial firms across 21 countries claim to be
investing or planning to invest in natural gas/LNG as a result of
the energy security crisis, according to a survey commissioned
last year by Baker Hughes and FT Longitude.
The sector has clear demand and therefore ambition to
improve efficiencies and reduce emissions, along with costs.
Contracts are no longer simple transactions for equipment, but
long-term strategic partnerships with operational efficiency and
emissions reductions at the core.
Incorporating advanced emissions reduction technologies
into existing plants is imperative, ensuring even long-standing
facilities align with contemporary sustainability standards.
Whether the design is large scale, stick-built or for modular LNG
projects, net-zero objectives can be met with a variety of
viable options.
Natural gas is not the inherent issue; the primary challenge
is preventable emissions. Industry needs to support burgeoning
energy demand while actively reducing emissions with the
technologies available today.
Powering liquefaction trains with electricity sourced from
clean energy reduces emissions and – depending on location – is
a readily available option. The integration of renewables can also
be considered for powering further the terminal, presenting a
holistic approach to cleaner energy. These exciting developments
also include hydrogen as an alternative fuel source. As example,
replacing natural gas with hydrogen in heavy duty gas turbines
equipped with a diffusive combustion system, blending with
nitrogen, can help to lower CO2 and NOX in exhaust emissions.
In addition, carbon capture and storage are critical to remove
CO2 in LNG operations. By leveraging on existing technologies,
like CO2 compression and pumping, and continuing fostering
innovation of capture technology, the gas industry will be able to
move toward a sustainable development while ensuring the safe
supply of energy.
To orchestrate the integration of various configurations,
equipment types, and technologies, digitalisation is essential for
optimising efficiencies and further lowering emissions. Asset
performance management software is becoming increasingly
important to improve efficiency and achieve the global
2030 agenda.
An integrated approach combining advanced design and
digital intelligence can reduce carbon emissions from the gas
supply chain, including LNG.
Bibliography
1. ‘Baker Hughes Announces Milestone Electric-LNG Award
for ADNOC Ruwais LNG Export Terminal, Baker Hughes,
(4 October 2023), https://investors.bakerhughes.com/news-
releases/news-release-details/baker-hughes-announces-
milestone-electric-lng-award-adnoc-ruwais
2. ‘Baker Hughes to Supply Super Efficient LM9000 Gas
Turbine for PETRONAS Sabah LNG Project’, Baker Hughes,
(19 April 2023), www.bakerhughes.com/company/news/baker-
hughes-supply-super-efficient-lm9000-gas-turbine-petronas-
sabah-lng-project
3. ‘Commonwealth LNG and Baker Hughes Sign Strategic
Agreement’, Commonwealth LNG, (21 August 2023),
https://commonwealthlng.com/commonwealth-lng-and-baker-
hughes-sign-strategic-agreement/
4. ‘Baker Hughes 2023 Energy Transition Pulse: Confidence to
Hit Net-zero Emissions Goals Stable Despite Energy Trilemma’,
Baker Hughes, (24 January 2023), www.bakerhughes.com/
company/news/baker-hughes-2023-energy-transition-pulse-
confidence-hit-netzero-emissions-goals
 __________

F
loating LNG (FLNG) technologies have been proposed Keith Hutchinson, Head of
and solutions developed for all regions of the world,
from the arctic to the tropics. It is interesting to note the Professional Technical
that the first FLNG was actually built over six decades
ago and became operational in 1959. The vessel in
and Engineering Services and
question was a small inshore barge moored in a ‘notch’ Senior Consultant in Whole Ship
on Lake Calcasieu close to Lake Charles in Louisiana, the
US. It produced the first 2020 t of LNG shipped – to the Design and Naval Architecture,
UK’s Canvey Island terminal on 20th February 1959, in the
first LNG carrier Methane Pioneer, which was a converted Safinah Group, UK, discusses the
Liberty ship with 5088 m3 of storage. However, it was only
in May 2011 that the first offshore FLNG project, namely
key drivers and safety aspects
Shell’s 3.6 million tpy Prelude, gained final investment
decision (FID). Currently, there are five FLNGs in service
to be considered in designing
(one a conversion), with a further six (one a conversion) floating LNG assets for exploiting
under construction.
An FLNG is, usually but not exclusively, located over a stranded gas reserves worldwide.
stranded offshore natural gas reserve. The field can be
either lean or rich (i.e. with associated condensate or
petroleum gasses) and usually, but not necessarily, without
significant associated oil reserves. As with most traditional
offshore oil FPSO vessels, an FLNG is typically
permanently moored.
The FLNG receives the multi-phase well
fluids to the inlet treatment facilities via
either flexible, or possibly steel
catenary, risers. As with a FPSO, an
FLNG separates the multi-phase
well fluids and stabilises any
associated condensate, etc. for
storage within the hull.
However, following separation
instead of the gas being
compressed and exported via
pipeline, it is further
processed onboard into
marketable liquefied

23
 gas products. This typically uses mature and proven
marinized-based natural gas liquefaction technologies in
order to minimise overall solution risk and, dependent upon
the field characteristics and process/number or trains, LNG
production rates range from 1 – (a proposed) 10 million tpy.
Typically, the gas is treated to remove the acid gas (carbon
dioxide [CO2] hydrogen sulfide [H2S]), water, and any
mercury (Hg). It is then cooled to extract heavier petroleum
gases and then the remaining gas, mainly methane (CH4)
and ethane (C2H6), is further cooled and liquefied in the
cryogenic heat exchanger before any excess nitrogen (N2) is
removed. The LNG, and any liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is
stored in cryogenic cargo tanks located in the hull, and any
condensate also stored in dedicated tanks within the hull.
The LNG, LPG, and condensate are offloaded, at required
intervals, to suitable trading LNG carriers, LPG carriers or
shuttle tankers respectively. The FLNG supply chain
typically basically consists of three elements:
z An FLNG offshore moored over the gas field.
z LNG carriers for transhipment to market.
z Either a standard onshore LNG reception terminal, or an
FSRU vessel moored near-shore/inshore.
Note that there are alternatives to ‘in field FLNGs’, i.e.
‘pipeline FLNG’ assets which are designed receive pipeline
gas from, typically, the shore and are moored near-shore or
Figure 1. 2016 newbuild 177 000 m3 membrane 1.2 million tpy
nitrogen cycle FLNG.
Figure 2. 2009 147 600 m3 spherical IMO Type B SS ST
LNG carrier.
24 March 2024
on jetties, as with FSRUs but export LNG to LNG carriers,
and are less complex.
Once the field development strategy has identified an
FLNG as a possible exploitation option, certain
fundamental aspects will influence the selection of an
appropriate hull design with the operational life dictating
corrosion margins, fatigue life, etc.
Configuration and dimensions
The upper deck area within the cargo region is typically
made available for locating the topsides modules. It
is good practice to site less hazardous utilities, power
generation/switching, etc. modules between the more
hazardous processing and liquefaction modules and the
accommodation block. The principal dimensions, regulatory
compliance, and safety of an FLNG are directly governed by
the overall topsides layout as this determines the required
‘real-estate footprint’. Drivers include:
z Location of accommodation, topsides modules, flare, etc.
z Separation (safety) areas/gaps between groups of
modules to prevent jet fires propagating and to
dissipate blast, etc.
z Process deck elevation requirements to afford suitable
separation of the process deck from the hull’s upper
deck regarding blast, etc.
z Appropriate blast protection.
z Suitable thermal protection on the upper deck, etc. in
way of cryogenic modules, etc.
z Mooring and offloading.
z Main power generation and process cooling water
system philosophies.
z Provision of craneage and maintenance ways.
z Incorporation of workshops and laydown/storage areas.
z Access and escape routes.
The accommodation block cannot be sited over spaces
contiguous with cargo tanks. Hence, on FLNGs and FPSOs,
accommodation blocks are invariably sited over machinery
spaces. Obviously, the size, layout, orientation, and
location of the accommodation block will influence the
design significantly.
If a turret mooring system is chosen, then this is best
sited forward of the process plant if a naturally weather
vaning swivel solution is adopted. If a spread mooring
system is applicable, then this is incorporated on the
forward and aft decks and, if moored to a jetty, then a
mooring arrangement based on a standard marine one can
be adopted, which will impinge little on the upper deck.
Offshore, the offloading solution for LNG and LPG is,
currently, side-by-side due to the predominant application
of ‘hard-arms’. However, this is not the case for condensate
where a tandem arrangement with the offtake shuttle
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 tanker in line astern of the FLNG is typically adopted;
hence, the offloading system needs deck space at the aft
end of the FLNG for turret moored designs – for spread
moored designs it is possible that a buoy system may
be utilised.
Topsides liquefaction and process
Only the N2 cycle and the mixed refrigerant (MR)
liquefaction processes, both single (SMR) and dual (DMR),
have been currently utilised offshore due to the inherent
footprint limitations of an FLNG compared to a land-based
development. The MR process offers the greatest
liquefaction efficiency and lower space requirements due
to using liquid rather than gas refrigerant(s). However, such
liquid refrigerants are flammable and hence a potential
source of vapour clouds. Practically, the SMR process and
the N2 cycle, even with pre-cooling, can only produce up
to approximately 1.5 million tpy of LNG per train; amounts
above this requires application of the DMR process.
Specific aspects of the topsides that drive the hull
design from the earliest stages are:
z Relative layout and separation requirements
of modules.
z Footprint of individual modules.
z Weight (dry and wet), extents, etc. of individual modules.
z Longitudinal and transverse centres of gravity of
individual modules.
z Vertical centre of gravity of individual modules and
elevation of the process deck.
Due to the large footprint required for LNG topsides
modules, it may be advantageous to site non-hazardous
process utilities, such as sea water cooling pumps and heat
exchangers, power generations/transformers/switchboard
rooms, etc. below the upper deck within the hull rather
than in modules on the process deck.
Containment system
The selection of the containment system is governed
the metocean environment, cost, and preference, etc.
Figure 3. 2018 newbuild 26 000 m3 IMO Type C jetty moored
50 million ft3/d mini-FSRU.
26 March 2024
It fundamentally drives the structural arrangements
and scantlings, together with the principal dimensions
and configuration. The common choices of containment
system are:
z Self-supporting spherical IMO Type B – converted LNG
carriers only.
z Self-supporting prismatic IMO Type B (SPB).
z Membrane – typically GTT’s Mk.III variants and
No.96 systems.
Storage capacity and configuration
A model of the production rate together with offloading
frequency/parcel size(s) and required buffer storage
for weather, and to a lesser degree tank inspection and
maintenance requirements, will determine the minimum
required LNG, LPG, and condensate cargo storage capacity.
In addition, the regulatory regime, chemical requirements,
refrigerant (for liquefaction process) requirements, etc.
must also be determined and accommodated within the
hull. Depending upon the required cargo storage, together
with the selected containment system and tank sizes,
etc. then the configuration of the cargo region can be
significantly affected as it may force cargo tanks to be
‘in-line’ or ‘wrapped’, etc.
Environment
The environment has many facets, such as: whether the
location is offshore or near-shore; waves categorised
as benign to harsh with unidirectional or bi-directional
seas; wind; currents, etc. Even sea areas with ice can
be exploited using FLNGs provided suitable hull forms,
construction materials, scantlings, and moorings are
applied. The environment imposes an upper and a lower
limit on FLNG dimensions – too small and motions will be
too extreme to provide a stable platform for the operation
of the topsides, too large and the mooring system will be
unduly affected. Other aspects which must designed for
include acceptability of motions regarding safe personnel
operations, extreme wave, loads, etc.
The wave environment can introduce large bending
moments and shear forces into the hull girder. In the more
extreme and harsh environments, actual site-specific
longitudinal wave bending moments can significantly
exceed the classification societies rule values from the
worldwide service. This therefore necessitates a new-build
specially-strengthened hull with extensive additional
longitudinal and other material compared with trading LNG
carriers designed for standard worldwide service. For more
benign locations utilising small-to-medium FLNGs,
conversion of existing LNG carriers' tonnage can be
advantageous but requires incorporation of significant hull
sponsons due to the large deck area required for the
topsides process and liquefaction trains and associated
equipment, not to mention their weight.
Mooring and heading control
Selecting the most appropriate mooring system is dictated
by the environment, water depth, and riser solution being
employed – in fact selection of the mooring and riser
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 solutions are directly linked, and the number and type of
risers can drive the selection of the mooring system. For
offshore locations a either a multi-leg spread mooring
system, yoke, external turret, or internal turret (which could
be and disconnectable and the FLNG self-propelled) could
be employed. If employed in sheltered waters an FLNG can
be pier/jetty moored or even located in a shoreline ‘notch’.
In moderate to harsh wave climates FLNGs must
weathervane into the predominant wave direction to
control roll motion and reduce mooring loads, motion
induced process and offloading downtime, etc. hence a
turret must be incorporated. In more benign environments,
an FLNG can be spread moored so that it is aligned into
the predominant swell in the knowledge that non-aligned
environments will not significantly increase mooring loads
or impact on motion induced downtime. If extreme
environmental events such as hurricanes, typhoons, or
floating ice are possible then a disconnectable mooring
system and installed propulsion system to facilitate the
FLNG to steam away (or possibly be towed dependent on
size the attendant ships) may be a desirable solution.
Thrusters can be an integral part of the mooring
solution or only be used to improve the operability of the
FLNG by, for example, maintaining best heading for low
motions or providing heading control during offloading
operations. If they are an integral part of the mooring
solution then classification society rules require high levels
of redundancy in the power generation, control and thruster
components. Thruster installations must consider access for
maintenance at sea, as the FLNG will remain on station
throughout its operational life.
Regulatory framework
Most of the major IACS classification societies now have
rules governing the design of FLNGs.
In nearly all regions of the world, some form of process
to permit the operation of an FLNG exists, which involves
audit of the design solution as well as its means of
operation. This is heavily regulated by some national
governments, while others simply accept classification
society approval. The regulations of some countries are
prescriptive in nature whereas others are ‘goal-setting’ in
approach and lay down requirements and require an
operator to demonstrate that the risks to the operators,
Figure 4. Author’s design of a condensate and 275 000 m3
SPB 5.1 million tpy DMR FLNG for an extremely harsh
remote location, offloading to a 137 500 m3 spherical IMO
Type B SS ST LNG carrier.
28 March 2024
third parties, and the environment are as low as reasonable
practicable (ALARP).
While the hull designer may refer to classification
society rules to demonstrate the safety of their solution,
this must be documented in design and operations safety
cases. Specifics relating to the field environment, mooring
solution and topsides, and subsea interfaces must be
addressed in the hull design safety case documentation.
Safety
As with the design of any marine artefact the primary
goals in designing an FLNG are personnel safety
(including possible de-manning) and asset operability. It
is imperative that the naval architect comprehensively
explores the design space in an efficient manner to arrive
at the safest and near-optimal FLNG design with respect
to integrity and operability, redundancy, etc. Specific safety
considerations include:
z Emergency shutdown.
z Survivability/stability.
z Blast and spill protection.
z Firefighting and protection.
z Access and escape routes.
z Lifesaving and evacuation.
It is imperative that the maintenance and inspection
strategies, etc. are inherent within the design from the
concept phase onwards. To ensure that a coherent and
near-optimal design is developed it is crucial that the
design team (process, marine, mooring, subsea, operations,
etc.) is fully integrated with an open communication
culture in which lessons learnt are freely communicated
and adopted and driven by an experienced design authority
with the skill sets to understand and rationalise all aspects
of the asset.
Summary
Just as that FPSOs enabled the development of remote
and deep-water oil reserves from the 1970s onwards, it is
obvious that due to their relatively low capital costs and
rapid project realisation FLNG solutions are the technology
catalyst for the successful development offshore stranded
gas fields. Given the recent financial climate growth has
been restrained over the past few years, however, given
the current energy market, FLNG is back in vogue with
five projects sanctioned in the past couple of years and
hence FLNG liquefaction capacity is set to double from the
current 12 million tpy to almost 25 million tpy by 2026,
and a further 16 FLNG projects in pre-FEED.
Disclaimer
The views expressed in this article are those of the author
and do not necessarily represent those of the organisations
with which he is affiliated and the professional institutions
of which he is a member.
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 Eric Farrell, Head of
Commissioning at EnerMech,
summarises how experience,
expertise, and the right
company ethos are key to
safely and efficiently delivering
fast-track projects.
30
I
n an era characterised by swift transformations in the
energy sector, the demand for a varied and flexible work
ethic within the supply chain has become more critical than
ever before. It is imperative for the supply chain to showcase
its agility and adaptability in meeting client requirements.
This emphasis on responsiveness has now evolved into the
necessity that can expedite and execute projects with both
efficiency and safety.
This trend is particularly evident in the way countries are
proactively addressing global developments. They are not only
diversifying their energy sources, but also placing significant
focus on reducing carbon emissions.
PUTTING THE
ELBEHAFEN
TERMINAL ON THE
FAST-TRACK
Germany, for example, has embarked on a major
undertaking to reduce reliance on Russian gas imports
through the development of its Elbehafen LNG import
terminal at the port of Brunsbüttel.
This underscores the increasing need for a supply chain
that can swiftly navigate these shifts in the energy landscape.
The commissioning strategy EnerMech OTS has devised
places strong emphasis on early involvement, ensuring that a
team of experienced engineers are engaged, if able, from the
very beginning of each project. This approach enables the
company to work in close co-operation with its client and all
stakeholders, from conceptualisation to execution, ensuring a
comprehensive understanding of project goals and
responsibilities. Integrating skilled experts at the outset
maximises efficiency, helps anticipate challenges, and
enhances the overall quality of the commissioning process.
Q. What does the Elbehafen project
involve?
A. The purpose is to enable the import of large amounts of
LNG as quickly as possible to a country that had no direct
access to the LNG market. The long-term establishment
of the LNG import terminal will help Germany reduce its
dependence on Russian energy.
31
 Phase one involved the construction of necessary
technical infrastructure at an existing jetty at the port of
Brunsbüttel to accommodate an FSRU commissioned by
German multinational energy company, RWE, on behalf of the
country’s government. Work on a dedicated new LNG import
jetty is also proposed and expected to begin between
2Q24 –3Q24.
Phase two will see the new state-of-the-art jetty, which
will accommodate the FSRU on a longer-term basis, come into
operation. The third phase will see gas being fed into a newly
constructed gas pipeline which will have the capacity to carry
7.5 billion m3 of gas, generated from 12.5 million m3 of LNG/y.
Q. What is EnerMech OTS’
workscope on the Elbehafen
project?
A. EnerMech OTS – a strategic partnership alliance
between EnerMech and Offshore Technical Services (OTS)
– was awarded a contract by Worley for the provision of
precommissioning and commissioning planning and execution
services, plus specialist services across the project, such as
nitrogen (N2) leak testing, flange management, boroscopic
inspection for pipeline cleanliness, and strength testing of the
newly built temporary oil pipeline (the original oil offloading
facility is now being used for LNG import).
At the client’s request, EnerMech OTS was involved in all
the main areas in phase one, including design and
engineering assistance, turnover, construction and
commissioning, handover, start up, and operations – meeting
the requirement for this to be completed within a timescale
that was ‘as short as possible’.
Prior to the contract award, acting on a verbal agreement
only, EnerMech OTS demonstrated its competence and trust by
performing the following:
z Early systemisation and scoping of the project.
z Development of completions management system
database, complete with construction and commissioning
completion inspection test records (ITR).
z Commissioning schedule and detailed plan.
Figure 1. Elbehafen LNG import terminal is being fast-tracked with
EnerMech’s help.
32 March 2024
A full commissioning team at Elbehafen has taken the
project from the construction/mechanical completion stage
through to operations handover, delivering enhanced
continuity of planning execution, interface reduction and the
project delivery.
Q. What experience and expertise
did EnerMech OTS bring to the
table?
A. EnerMech OTS has global experience in servicing the LNG
industry that has seen the company work across 20 different
facilities in a growing geographical spread which includes
Australia, Africa, the Americas, the Middle East, Caspian,
Europe, and Asia – and, as announced in 2023, Canada.
The Canadian project was a strategically important win for
EnerMech OTS as it looks to increase its foothold as a
specialist services provider for LNG production, storage, and
loading projects. This award further highlights the company’s
growing reputation for its capabilities to deliver specialist and
integrated mechanical, electrical and instrumentation services,
and equipment to clients in different geographies around
the world.
EnerMech’s track record of work spans the asset lifecycle
from early engineering to pre-commissioning, commissioning
and start-up, to operations and maintenance and specialist
shutdown and turnaround scopes.
The company’s experience and the broad range of services
it provides has expanded over the years, equipping us with
the scope to deliver a broader level of expertise and
capability than ever before.
Having this as a solid foundation was key to the
industry-leading project delivery of this strategically
important project for Germany.
Q. Where did the EnerMech OTS
LNG story begin?
A. Our legacy as a premier provider of integrated specialist
services in the LNG market stretches back over the last
15 years and has its roots in Australia, which led the way in
large scale global LNG projects.
The Gorgon and Wheatstone LNG developments
offshore Western Australia were two early flagship projects
which continue to supply gas to Australia’s domestic
market and exports to China, India, Japan, and South Korea.
The company’s legacy from working on Australian
mega-projects helped introduce its services and expertise
to the global LNG market, and this has continued to thrive
due to EnerMech’s toolbox of speciality services and
integrated approach, allied to its ability to quickly ramp up
activity as required by the Market Tier 1 contractors.
Q. What needs to be taken into
consideration when fast-tracking
projects?
A. Fast-tracking a project requires much more than just
pulling the timeline forward. Fast-track projects require
specific advance planning followed by detailed execution
to avoid problems regardless of the reduced timescales
and teamwork is essential to ensure project delivery at a
safe, accelerated pace.
This means the ability to mobilise quickly with a team
that has the specialist skills required, who can be
adaptable and flexible in responding to emerging needs and
demands of clients and the ability to fulfil a wide variety of
requirements through a broad range of specialist capabilities.
The partnering and trust though EPC is led by leadership
commitment and action, setting the tone for the company’s
can-do approach, common purpose and shared motivation.
Q. What is the EnerMech OTS
approach to fast-tracked projects?
A. We see communication, co-operation, and co-ordination
as the backbone of safe and successful project completion.
Project quality and HSE are equally critical in the delivery
process, and this came to the fore at Elbehafen with a 100%
safety record with EnerMech OTS incident and injury free.
Achieving this safety record emphasised the importance of
good communication and ensuring proven and experienced
individuals were in place for the more challenging aspects
of the work. Accident risks increase when unplanned
modifications to the schedule and congestion problems occur
therefore underlining the need for meticulous early planning
and dedicated reporting at all times.
Q. How important is good teamwork
in a project?
A. It is absolutely crucial. For example, different teams might
be working in areas simultaneously, which could lead to an
increase in safety risks. That means it is critical that managers
and teams communicate well to mitigate risk and ensure safe
working conditions. Commitment to simultaneous operations
workshops and risk assessment creation is essential to ensure
all parties within the project have complete understanding
and buy-in to daily activities
The fast-paced approach employed by the team
highlighted the importance of collaboration and proactive
involvement. In contrast to becoming delayed in the workings
of contractual documentation, which in some cases does not
lend itself to efficient work, the team proactively championed
a basis of trust with the client. This resulted in the
achievement of a shared goal, thereby successfully realising
the milestone of the first gas import.
As a result, team members were commended by the client
for their technical knowledge and also for their ethos and
approach to the project.
Q. What can we expect in the
future?
A. The demand for LNG is on a strong upward trajectory as
countries around the globe seek alternative forms of energy as
they move towards the energy transition. Germany’s example
in fast-tracking its access to LNG through the Elbehafen
project is a clear indicator that governments are prepared to
make significant investment into the development of their
LNG capabilities.
Clearly, there is an appetite to move projects forward at
pace. As an experienced contractor with a solid pedigree of
LNG projects successfully completed over many years, coupled
with its expertise and capability of handling fast-tracked
projects worldwide, EnerMech OTS is well-placed to support
the development of these strategically important
developments around the globe.
 Since February 2022, LNG has become an even more vital component
in the global energy mix as energy security climbs the agenda.
Jose Navarro, Lloyd’s Register’s Global Gas Technology Director,
addresses some of the pressures being put on safety as a result of
the rapid expansion of LNG.
ethane is fundamentally stable. In
fact, among the gases covered by the
International Code of the Construction
and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk
(IGC Code), LNG is actually one of the safest. As a liquid – at
-163˚C – it is completely safe provided that it is properly
contained and managed. So, thankfully, accidents involving
LNG carriers, which ship methane by sea as a liquid, are rare.
Historically, the sea transport of LNG was not a typical
shipping market. Ships were built and made available on
long-term contracts linked to specific LNG supply contracts.
There was no spot charter market for LNG carriers: long-term
rates were fixed in advance and only adjusted with small
annual escalations written into contracts in advance.
Over the last decade, however, the LNG market has
changed beyond recognition. A new generation of owners has
The impact
LNG
34
appeared on the scene, ordering ships on spec and prepared
to deploy their new vessels on medium, short, or even spot
contracts. The returns can be spectacular, with day rates well
into six figures when market conditions are tight.
Recently, global energy concerns have turned the heat up.
LNG exports from major producers including the US, Qatar,
and Australia are climbing fast. New LNG producers are
joining in as consuming nations ramp up their import capacity,
commissioning new floating terminals that can be brought
into operation far more quickly than shore-based facilities.
Dramatic fleet expansion
Increasing demand has driven exponential fleet expansion.
For many years, the world fleet of LNG carriers was
relatively stable at around 400 ships. Over the last five years,
this has risen sharply to around 700 vessels. With the
 Figure 1. LNG tanker at sunset.

of rapid
growth
35
 current orderbook at record levels, this will add another 400
ships over the next few years – the specialist yards that build
these highly sophisticated ships are full until around 2028.
Rampant demand for LNG carriers has attracted a number
of new construction yards, with others preparing to join in.
And, despite the fact that shipyards in Europe, including
Navantia in Spain and Chantiers de l’Atlantique in France,
have built LNG carriers in the past – ships that have operated
safely and successfully throughout their lives – the new yards
are all in Asia, specifically China.
It is worth noting that not everyone is comfortable that
the newcomers have the expertise equivalent to the
old-timers. Careful oversight is essential and the role of
leading classification societies with expertise in this sector
cannot be underestimated. This is important at every stage of
Figure 2. Lloyd’s Register serveyor inside an LNG tank.
Figure 3. LNG tanker passing by the Strait of Singapore.
36 March 2024
the construction process – from the appraisal and approval of
individual components right through the build to the
finished product.
Safe management
LNG is inherently safe but, if it is not properly contained and
managed, it is extremely dangerous. If there is a source of
ignition, for example, even several hundred metres away from
a leak, there is a high risk of flash-fire and explosion.
So, recent developments indicate that there are new safety
implications relating to the transport of LNG by sea. As the
number of vessels is already rising quickly and set to
accelerate in the years ahead, a new generation of LNG
seafarers will be required to take control of these vessels.
There will be a combination, therefore, of new shipyards
building some of the world’s most sophisticated ships and
potentially quite unfamiliar seafarers operating them. An
actuary would inevitably conclude that the probability of a
major incident is bound to increase.
Rising ship prices
LNG builders hold the whip hand in the present market
because demand is strong but yards are full. No surprise,
then, that ship prices have risen sharply. At less than
US$180 million for a typical 174 000 m3 vessel during COVID,
prices have climbed to more than US$260 million for an
equivalent vessel today.
This is a positive development in some ways because
some standard ship specs now include what would previously
have been optional extras. Features such as shaft generators
or air lubrication systems may be included as standard.
However, higher prices mean higher day rates, and ultimately
owners must be able to offer charter deals that are
competitive in the market.
The choice of main engine could potentially provide a
safety and sustainability issue. Two-stroke, diesel-cycle,
high-pressure injection engines offer the best performance,
with lower fuel consumption and emissions than other engine
types, but they are more expensive because of the additional
equipment required for the fuel gas handling system.
Methane emissions
The issue of methane emissions should also be
highlighted. This is a growing focus for regulators
(notably in Europe) because methane is many times
more pollutant as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
International Maritime Organization (IMO) carbon intensity
regulations do not yet include methane in ship cargo intensity
assessments but will do so later this decade. Dual-fuelled
diesel-electric LNG carriers will be in the firing line because
emissions from four-stroke engines are higher than those of
two-stroke units.
This can be compensated to some extent by measures such
as the installation of pre-combustion carbon capture systems
where hydrogen is separated from the methane in boil-off gas
(BOG) and injected into the engine at a rate of about 25%. It
will also be possible to ensure that engines operate at their
most efficient level by using batteries, for example, to
compensate for the peaks and troughs of varying ship loads.
The Methane Abatement in Maritime Innovation Initiative
(MAMII), led by the Safety Accelerator and established by
Lloyd’s Register, is already making significant strides in
addressing the methane challenge.1 With a number of
high-profile LNG sector participants, the project is focusing on
new technologies that will monitor and mitigate methane
emissions through a variety of initiatives.
Meanwhile, for the 240-odd steam turbine-powered LNG
carriers, methane emissions are not an issue. However, from
an environmental point of view, their poor fuel performance
has significant implications for carbon intensity ratings. In
fact, experts have suggested that all steamers will fall into
MAY 7-9, 2024
the two ‘unacceptable’ categories under the IMO’s VANCOUVER CONVENTION
Carbon Intensity Indicator rating system. CENTRE,VANCOUVER, CANADA
There are technical measures that can be taken, such as
retrofitting dual-fuel engines with Power Take In (PTI) to the
shaft or installing reliquefaction units to handle excess BOG.
However, many of these steamers are already quite old and
the substantial investment that would be required could be
difficult to justify in terms of a satisfactory payback.
It is likely that these ships will be steadily phased out as
new ships join the fleet. As well as fleet expansion, that will
drive significant demand for fleet replacement – a further
pressure on LNG construction capacity.

Operational issues
There is concern regarding two specific aspects of ship
operation that can generate safety issues. The first of these
CANADA’S
ONLY EVENT
is cargo tank filling levels. Prior to the publication of the
IGC Code in 2014, LNG carrier operators were accustomed to
filling cargo tanks to a level of 98.5%.
The revised code required additional measures to load

DEDICATED
tanks to more than 98%, but these requirements only applied
to new ships. There are now steps that can be taken to load
tanks to 99% or even 99.5%.
Operators of older ships have looked for ways to compete

TO GAS
on tank filling levels – the additional revenues from slightly
higher cargo volumes can total millions of dollars a year for
their cargo-owning customers. The result is a large number of
LNG carriers with tank levels up to 99.5%.

INDUSTRIES
This reduces ullage but also cuts safety margins. Crews
have less time to take action and prevent an overflow of
cargo. The risk of an incident is likely to increase.
However, this issue is being addressed by the Society of
International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators (SIGTTO). The
society is currently working on a new set of requirements
which will apply to all LNG carriers across the entire fleet,
regardless of age.
A second issue of concern is that as strong day rates make
ship downtime more expensive, owners do not want to take

SCAN TO BOOK
ships out of service for the usual five-year survey but would
rather keep them in operation beyond this cycle, thereby
extending the cargo tank entry period.
This should not necessarily be seen as a reduction in YOUR STAND
safety, but nevertheless poses an extra challenge for ships’
crews as they carry out maintenance and certificate renewal
during routine ship operation, rather than when the ship is
under repair in a drydock. Seen in another light, however, the
result and quality of a ship’s overhaul undertaken while a ship
is operating cannot possibly be as sound as one undertaken
in dock.

References canadagaslng.com
1. Methane Abatement in Maritime Innovation Initiative,
https://mamii.org
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The LNG carrier segment is recognising the need for improved vessel
and fuel efficiency – clean technology can meet those needs today
and in the future, says Alistair Mackenzie, Chief Commercial Officer
at Silverstream Technologies.

T
he global LNG carrier fleet is expected to exceed
1000 ships in the ocean by 2026. This includes
300 new LNG carriers over the next three years, as
demand for natural gas grows to fuel decarbonisation efforts
across the world.
The existing LNG carrier fleet presents strong opportunities
for vessel fuel efficiency retrofits, and the impending orderbook
is fertile ground for newbuild efficiency improvements. Both will
be achieved through the implementation of clean technology.
Silverstream Technologies’ air lubrication system (ALS), the
Silverstream® System, is one such solution. It releases a carpet
of air to reduce the frictional resistance between the hull and
the water, reducing average net fuel consumption and
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 5 – 10%.

39
 Silverstream’s technology is uniquely suitable for both
retrofit installations and newbuild vessels. It is a proven
lifecycle solution for efficiency, with class-approved
components that are designed to last the lifespan of a vessel.
This means it can deliver fuel burn and GHG emissions
reductions today, while futureproofing assets for shipping’s
longer-term efficiency and decarbonisation drives.
The system is applicable to all shipping segments and is
effective in all sea states, but it is particularly well suited to the
LNG carrier segment as these vessels have a large flat bottom
that maximises the system’s ability to reduce friction. It
reduces average net fuel consumption and emissions for LNG
carriers by 7 – 10%, which typically equates to a 1 MW net
power saving. Plus, it is important to remember that reducing
fuel burn not only lowers emissions, but also cuts fuel costs for
ship operators.
The system can also help to reduce LNG boil-off and
increase delivered cargo volume, or cut fuel consumption and
associated emissions, depending on the operator’s commercial
and sustainability priorities. This is because ALS can be used
either to enable vessels to travel at higher speeds for the same
fuel consumption, or to cut fuel consumption and emissions
without sacrificing speed.
According to VesselsValue data, the value of the 162 LNG
newbuilding orders placed in 2022 reached US$33 billion,
leaving a huge orderbook of assets that must all be effectively
managed through shipping’s energy transition to retain their
value. The world is at a critical point in time for adopting clean
technology; there is a real and present danger of stranded
assets, and the incentives and disincentives for improving
vessel efficiency are incrementally gaining more weight.
Looking specifically at evolving industry regulations, the
EU’s Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), FuelEU Maritime, and
the International Maritime Organization’s Carbon Intensity
Indicator (IMO CII) are, in a nutshell, all set to enhance the
value of proven fuel efficiency solutions. The LNG carrier
segment in particular has recognised this, and has been putting
its commercial weight behind air lubrication technology, such
as that offered by Silverstream.
LNG carrier efficiency investments
At the time of writing (February 2024), there are 196 vessels
contracted to have the Silverstream’s technology installed
across all shipping segments, with 63 systems in-service
today. 37 of the current orders are for LNG carriers and there
are currently 13 systems already in-service on LNG carriers
today. Customers include Carnival, MSC, Maersk, Grimaldi,
Shell, Vale, Knutsen, and ADNOC L&S, amongst other major
industry names.
Most recently for the LNG tanker segment, in
August 2023, the company announced 10 new orders for LNG
Figure 1. A rendered example of the Silverstream® System.
40 March 2024
carrier installations. Six of the undisclosed orders are for retrofit
projects taking place between 2023 – 2025, and four are for
newbuilds which will be delivered between 2026 – 2027.
Meanwhile, back in January 2023, the company signed an
agreement with CSSC Jiangnan Shipyard Group Co. Ltd to
supply the ALS to six 175 000 m3 LNG carriers which form part
of the newbuild LNG carrier programme being constructed for
Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC).
The company also signed an agreement with
China Merchants Energy Shipping in January 2023 to install
the system on four 175 000 m3 LNG carriers being built at
Dalian Shipbuilding Industry Company (DSIC). The installations
will take place over the next two years, with work expected
to be completed by the end of 2024, in line with DSIC’s
building schedule.
Shipyard collaboration
With LNG carrier orders booming in recent years, owners are
working with shipyards worldwide on construction – including
in Asia. Additionally, with shorter lead times available,
shipowners may be driven to ordering from Chinese shipyards
for the first time, in order to get their new ships earlier and
leverage the high LNG shipping rates.1 In 2022, there were
a record 180 vessels contracted from Chinese and Japanese
shipbuilders alone.
The Silverstream team collaborates with a growing number
of LNG carrier and other shipyards in the Asia-Pacific (APAC)
region and beyond. This includes Jiangnan Shipyard, China
Merchants Energy Shipping, CSSC and China Merchants Group,
Malaysia Marine and Heavy Engineering (MMHE),
Dubai Drydocks, and Seatrium. The company also has an
agreement in principle for its technology with the China
Classification Society. In April 2023, Silverstream also signed an
agency agreement with Orient Marine to facilitate the export of
its technology to Japan.
This growing relationship with APAC shipyards and other
stakeholders is a direct result of the company’s Shanghai office.
Shipyards now have a good understanding of the system and
how to quote installation projects accurately. These
partnerships are critical to Silverstream’s operations, and also
for scaling clean technologies more broadly, as they bring local
expertise and third-party validation into the process of
installing solutions.
Most clean technologies can be efficiently fitted during the
vessel build phase, and some can also be efficiently retrofitted.
On the retrofit front, Silverstream has been working with
shipyards to install during pre-existing scheduled dry dock
periods. For example, the retrofit could be done at the vessel’s
first drydock for LNG carriers, which is normally five years
after delivery.
These relationships also reinforce global supply chains –
which are key to commercialising clean technologies in an
international industry. Despite the supply chain challenges
affecting many other companies, Silverstream has never failed
to deliver a project on time. The company believes its ALS can
become a standard application on all newbuild vessels in the
global fleet, as well as a go-to retrofit option, and is realistically
targeting 500 orders across all vessel segments by 2025.
Futureproof solutions
Ship owners and operators are increasingly recognising
that clean technologies will play a significant role in
decarbonisation today, but it is also important to recognise
2024
how they will evolve over the lifespan of a vessel. When
planning for the energy-transition long-term, a proven full OPERATIONS CONFERENCE
lifecycle solution for efficiency must be the focus.
With this in mind, shipping will have to change its clean SEATTLE, WA • APR 30–MAY 2
technology outlook. Currently, technology – whether physical HYATT REGENCY SEATTLE
or digital, traditional or innovative – is generally seen as a
means to fulfil the requirements of today, not to anticipate the
future. However, data and digitalisation are already driving the
evolution of Silverstream’s technology and will continue to do The American Gas Association’s annual Operations Conference
so into the future. is the natural gas industry’s premier networking event. Put
When it comes to data and digitalisation, the shipping yourself among the industry’s thought leaders to collaborate,
industry is following the well-trodden route of other sectors
exchange leading practices, and drive innovation that promotes
that have effectively integrated technology and leveraged its
potential to advance their businesses. Shipping now broadly the safe, reliable, and cost-effective delivery of natural gas.
recognises the importance of the digital journey and the
Register at www.aga.org/events for this two-day event, which
potential of data. It is no longer a matter of whether the
industry will embrace digitalisation and data but, rather, when will provide opportunities to learn from your industry peers
and how rapidly it will do so. with over 120 presentations focusing on the following topics:
So, how can data and digitalisation ‘level up’ clean
technology? Firstly, looking at the company’s ALS, it already Engineering
delivers fuel efficiency and reduces carbon emissions across Emergency Management & Public Safety
every vessel it is installed on. However, it is important to
Gas Control
accurately calculate, measure, and report the precise efficiency
level and decarbonisation impact. Consequently, monitoring Gas Utility Management
and measuring performance data, as well as system health, is Hydrogen
already becoming an integral component of the system.
Integrity Management – Distribution & Transmission
Secondly, the integration of an ALS within the vessel’s
ecosystem provides unparalleled insights into a ship’s Measurement – Distribution & Transmission
hydrodynamic performance. Data from the company’s system Pipeline Safety Management Systems
can be harnessed, as well as multiple sensors around the Piping Materials
vessel, to gain an in-depth understanding of air lubrication
Renewable Natural Gas
technology and identify factors that could influence the ship’s
overall performance. Underground Gas Storage
In basic terms, data can and will be used by clean Worker Health & Safety
technology manufacturers to raise both the floor and ceiling
Workforce Development
of fuel saving potential. Like the intelligent systems within
modern cars that tune the vehicle’s engine as it drives, …And More!
maritime clean technologies will learn and respond to their
environment and operate in a way that ensures For questions, contact Allison Hartle at ahartle@aga.org.
maximum efficiencies.

Conclusion
In summary, with the LNG carrier segment growing, there are
increasing opportunities to adopt vessel efficiency solutions
such as clean technologies. With the emissions reductions
and the fuel cost reduction benefits clear, this represents a
win-win-win for shipowners, operators, and clean technology
providers. Plus, with the changing regulatory and market
landscape starting to support cleaner vessels and punish
polluters, the time is right to adopt these efficiency solutions.
As well as the LNG carrier segment, the APAC market is
generating opportunities for both retrofits and newbuild
installations of clean technologies. Finally, it is important to
view clean technologies as a longer-term efficiency solution
that will evolve alongside shipping’s energy transition and
improve efficiency across the entire lifespan of a vessel.

References
1. WILLMINGTON, R., ‘LNG carrier newbuilding orderbook hits
59% of the existing fleet in service’, Lloyd’s List, (12 July 2023),
https://lloydslist.com/LL1145871/LNG-carrier-newbuilding-
orderbook-hits-59-of-the-existing-fleet-in-service

SAFETY & OPERATIONAL EXCELLENCE – ACROSS THE GLOBE!

Global Publication

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 With its increased focus on environmentally-friendly designs
and operations, the global LNG carrier fleet has accepted boil-off
gas management systems as the de-facto standard for today’s
LNG carrier designs. Pål Steinnes, Heads of Sales and Business
Development for Midstream and LNG, Wärtsilä, Norway, examines
developments that have been made for enhanced flexibility and
efficiency of cargo management on LNG carriers.

O
ver recent decades, natural gas has become a vital
energy source for the world. Even though much of
it is carried through pipelines, a significant portion
is still liquefied and transported across the globe on
purpose-built LNG carriers.
Since LNG has a boiling temperature of around -163˚C,
one of the main challenges when transporting LNG is the
cryogenic temperature level required to maintain the
cargo in a liquid state.
Boil-off gas management
As the LNG trade consists of different parcel sizes and
ships, different concepts are applied for different trades,
but all large-size LNG carriers (> 40 000 m3) are fitted

43
 with containment systems that allow an operating
pressure only slightly above atmospheric. Therefore,
handling the boil-off gas (BOG) generated as a result
of heat ingress created by the temperature difference
between ambient surroundings and the cold cargo is
one of the biggest operating challenges onboard LNG
carriers. Venting of natural gas to the atmosphere results
in direct emissions of greenhouse gases and is therefore
prohibited, except as an absolute last safety-measure in
emergency situations.
As a climate-friendly fuel, the majority of BOG is
utilised for the ship’s propulsion machinery or power
generators, which is also an efficient way of managing the
cargo tank pressure levels. However, as ships have various
operational scenarios with different consumption modes,
and are exposed to different ambient conditions, tank
pressure management is a daily requirement on LNG
carriers. Previous generations of ships disposed of
excessive BOG in gas combustion units, where the natural
Figure 1. The newest reliquefaction modules by WGS are robust, easy
to operate and provide unmatched efficiency.
Figure 2. The global LNG carrier fleet is continously renewing itself
and looking for the most energy-efficient solutions.
44 March 2024
gas is combusted rather than being released into the
atmosphere. Nevertheless, natural gas combustion is still
a source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and, unlike
combustion on propulsion or generator machinery, pure
combustion is a waste of both valuable cargo and pure
energy without any returns.
As a result of this, all modern LNG carriers being
designed today are fitted with BOG management systems.
These enable safe handling of unused or excessive BOG to
maintain safe pressure levels in the cargo tanks, while
also serving the cargo owner’s interest by minimising
valuable cargo and energy-losses throughout the voyage.
BOG reliquefaction
Managing BOG onboard ships can be achieved by different
technologies or methods, which are typically based on
the specific design of the vessel. However, the preferred
technology is often a direct BOG reliquefaction system,
since this can recapture BOG in a more controlled
manner than the alternatives. BOG reliquefaction
also enables synergistic effects with the onboard
machinery, as the core principle is the removal of
BOG from the cargo tanks through compression by
existing LD compressors. These compressors are
already being used as fuel compressors, thus there
is no need for additional machinery to operate the
system. This treatment also enables a steadier and
more controlled vapour space, as the process does
not increase the risk of additional vapour generation
caused by introducing new variables that can change
the dynamics within the cargo tank. It also prevents
the accumulation of non-condensable components to
form pockets in the vapour space. This is a common
challenge with comparable technologies, leading
to unmanageable pressure increases or derated
operation of other machinery.
Downstream of the LD compressors, the
compressed BOG is treated by the reliquefaction
plant by being recondensed back to a liquid state
before it is returned to the tank bottom. This allows
the entire composition of cargo to be properly
mixed. It also utilises all the cold energy present in
the liquid stored in the cargo tanks to achieve a
uniform and stable distribution of the LNG.
A direct BOG reliquefaction system also works
independently of filling levels in the cargo tanks,
making it the optimal system during both laden and
ballast voyages. This is because the vapour
management and the effect it has on the dynamics
of the cargo tank, is not affected at lower filling
levels, thereby ensuring predictable performance
during all the different phases of the vessel trade.
Despite its critical functionality to maintain a
safe and cost-efficient trade, the cooling and
liquefaction of natural gas is traditionally an
energy-demanding process, and therefore a large
contributor to the overall energy consumption of the
ship. The combination of being able to meet more
stringent requirements for a greener and more
environmentally friendly trading profile, and
technological developments that address both
maintaining a safe and carefree operation for the
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 crew onboard, while at the same time reducing energy
consumption, has obvious attraction.
A real-life voyage from operational
experience to the development of
new technology
With more than 60 years in designing cargo handling
systems onboard gas carriers, and more than 20 years
of design and operational experience of LNG BOG
reliquefaction systems, Wärtsilä Gas Solutions (WGS) is
specifically geared to take on the challenge of developing
an efficient and reliable reliquefaction system suited for
the most modern and state-of-the-art LNG carriers.
Relying on design and operational experience from a
wide range of technologies and capacities, WGS has drawn
from its experience with the reversed Brayton cycle, the
most robust and reliable refrigeration technology.
Previous system designs were picked apart, evaluated
piece-by-piece, and ultimately put together in a new and
improved product portfolio, the Compact ReliqTM.
The main features of the Compact Reliq are that it
relies on pure commercial grade nitrogen as the
refrigerant. Nitrogen has the advantage of being an inert
gas, making it easy to handle, transport, refill and store
onboard the vessel. This makes it safe for the crew and
easily available as a consumable for re-stocking. Nitrogen
is also a cryogenic gas, which makes it an optimal
refrigerant, since the process does not rely on phase
change. It is therefore more versatile, flexible, and robust
during operation compared to other refrigerants that rely
on phase-change for efficiency, which greatly narrows the
operational flexibility.
The Compact Reliq also features state-of-the-art
technology, with conventional bearings being replaced
with active magnetic bearings. This technology prevents
excessive vibration and significantly reduces wear, tear
and replacement intervals, as the rotation is contactless,
which also keeps lifecycle costs to a minimum. In addition,
all stages of the compression and expansion are placed
on a single shaft, thus eliminating several components
and functionalities that have proven to require frequent
maintenance on previous systems.
The rotating equipment is also fitted with variable
speed drives. Combined with the high-speed rotation
achieved by the active magnetic bearings, turn-down of
the system is easily achieved without compromising the
efficiency of the system. Such a functionality is seldom
applied on other BOG management systems, but it offers
greater operational flexibility. The system can be adjusted
to the actual loads required during different scenarios
with regards to overall fuel consumption and
environmental conditions, whereas conventional systems
have a limited capacity adjustment functionality.
As the overall concept is still BOG reliquefaction
technology, the core of the process is still based on
integration with the existing LD compressors for minimum
interference and design changes to the remaining ship
design. The integration itself, however, has now been
elevated to a new level, drawing on a patented
technological concept by WGS, where the system design
can take advantage of the cold energy available in the
BOG. Conventional integration with existing LD
46 March 2024
compressors leads to the cold energy stored in the BOG
being rejected to the vessel’s central cooling water
system, and thus the potential is wasted. The enhanced
integration that can be applied in the Compact Reliq takes
advantages of the cold energy in the BOG by absorbing it
into a purpose-made thermal liquid able to withstand
cryogenic temperatures by preheating the BOG prior to
compression. This liquid is then returned to the
refrigeration plant to contribute to the reliquefaction
process, resulting in the beneficial combination of
increased capacity and reduced energy consumption.
Without this particular feature, conventional BOG
management technologies operate with a specific efficiency
of around 0.9 – 1 kg/kWh, while the Compact Reliq can
operate at a specific efficiency of abt 0.6 kg/kWh. For a
normal LNG carrier this can trigger savings of up to
500 kWh, while specifically designed vessels can gain a
saving of up to 900 kWh. Based on the operating profile of
the vessels, energy savings of this scale will enable direct
cost savings for owners, operators and charterers of up to
several hundred thousand US Dollars every year. In addition
to the immediate cost savings that can be harvested from
simply using less fuel, reductions in fuel consumption also
result in a significant reduction of CO2 emissions, which
have a direct impact on the EEXI and CII ratings of the
ships. EEXI and CII ratings are seen as one of the most
important parameters in evaluating a vessel’s
competitiveness and compliance today.
Looking to the future
Looking at the demands from virtually all industry
stakeholders today, the top priority is to reduce emissions
and achieve more environmental voyage profiles. WGS
is committed to contributing to these critical targets. By
developing a robust and reliable reliquefaction system
that is smoothly integrated with existing designs without
the need for additional equipment, safety and reliability
throughout the trade is ensured. In addition to achieving
a level of efficiency that has previously not been seen
on these applications, it is also designed in a compact
and robust way with a minimised footprint to ensure
trouble-free integration and installation. It is not only
easy to install on a newbuild vessel, but is also well
suited for retrofitting on existing vessels. By elevating the
environmental profile of the current fleet, it ensures that
older vessels can be operated for years to come, which
is an obvious advantage. The Compact Reliq is, therefore,
considered to be the optimal and most fit-for-purpose
reliquefaction configuration for both the existing and
next generation modern LNG carriers. It ensures that
the global fleet is fitted with the most advanced and
environmentally-friendly technology available.
To date, the company has secured deliveries of the
Compact Reliq technology to 20 top-modern and
state-of-the-art LNG carriers, where some have already
been in operation for more than a year. With an exciting
demand outlook for LNG carriers in the years to come,
combined with the need to reduce emissions throughout
the current value chain, it is believed that this is only the
start of the journey towards increased efficiency and
flexibility for cargo operations and BOG management
onboard LNG carriers.
 Hydrocarbon Engineering

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 ...ON CHINA

15FACTS
Most of China’s LNG imports in
2023 came from Qatar, Australia,
and Malaysia

China has the most international borders, neighbouring

China is expected to 14 countries: Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal,
see a 5% rise in LNG North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Vietnam
demand for 2024
China alone
China is now the
will add over
China is expected to account
50 million tpy of
second-largest
for approximately 35% of Asia’s
regasification
re-exporter,
total regasification capacity
capacity in 2024 after Spain
additions by 2027

Zhoushan II terminal will be the largest Chinese brides

Chinese contributor to China’s regasification wear red instead
New Year capacity addition by 2027, and is of white; red is
celebrations anticipated to begin operations in 2025 considered to be
with a capacity of 292 billion ft3
last for 15 days a lucky colour

China has the highest number of UNESCO sites

The mortar used to
in the world
bind the Great Wall’s The Forbidden City The Yangtze River
stones was made in Beijing has 9000 is the longest river
with sticky rice rooms in total in China, and the
continent of Asia
China imported
8.2 million t of LNG Chopsticks were
in December 2023, originally used for
the highest since
cooking, not eating
January 2021 (Kpler)

48 March 2024
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