1.

Introduction
Learning Objective: Define proof techniques, the forward-backward method, and the use of mathematical
definitions; and explain how keywords can be used to identify an appropriate proof technique.

A proof is a convincing argument, expressed in the language of mathematics, that a statement is true.
Thus, to do proofs, you must learn this “language of mathematics” which, like any language, takes time,
effort, and practice. With regard to proofs, the language of mathematics consists of a collection of proof
techniques. Just as a game of chess can be described as a sequence of moves of the individual pieces, so
a proof can be described as a sequence of applications of the proof techniques. These proof techniques are
described in detail in the book How to Read and Do Proofs, 6th ed. (John Wiley and Sons, 2014) for
which the author, Daniel Solow, has developed a collection of 15 video lectures corresponding to the first
15 chapters of that book. As a user of ELA/12e, you have access to these videos. The subsequent
discussion here is designed to help you identify an efficient way to use those videos.

The first three video lectures form the foundation that is necessary to understand the remaining
proof techniques. In particular, Lecture 1: What is a Proof? provides an explanation of exactly what a
proof is and what is involved in reading and doing one. Lecture 2: The Forward-Backward Method
explains the most fundamental proof technique called the forward-backward method. This technique is
crucial because, if you truly understand this one, then you will understand all of the other techniques,
each of which is explained in terms of the forward-backward method. Lecture 3: Definitions and
Terminology explains one of the key ideas used in the forward-backward method—and in virtually every
proof—namely, using mathematical definitions. This video also explains how to use previously proved
theorems to prove new theorems—an approach used frequently in ELA/12e. Before proceeding further,
you should view all three of the following videos if you haven’t already done so:

Lecture 1: What is a Proof?

Lecture 2: The Forward-Backward Method
Lecture 3: Definitions and Terminology

Once you have mastered the forward-backward method and can use mathematical definitions and
previous theorems, you will then have the foundation needed to learn the remaining proof techniques,
each of which is keyword based. By this is meant that, associated with each proof technique is a
keyword, or group of keywords, with the property that when you see those keywords in the theorem you
are trying to prove, then you should consider using the associated technique in your proof.

In contrast to doing a proof yourself, reading someone else's proof (such as the ones found in ELA/12e)
presents its own challenge—even if you know all of the proof techniques. One reason is that, often, a
written proof does not explicitly include the names of the techniques that are used in the proof. For
example, virtually no proof in any textbook mentions the forward-backward method explicitly by that
name, even though this technique is used in many of the proofs. In addition, a single sentence of a written
proof can omit several steps and even include the use of more than one technique. To draw an analogy
with the game of chess again, reading a proof is like viewing a chess board at different points in time, but
only after several pieces have been moved. For example, suppose you know the current positions of the
pieces on the board and are then shown the board after the players have each made several moves that you
do not see. When you then look at the board for the second time, you will have to determine which pieces
have moved from their original positions. So it is with reading a proof in that, from what is written, you
will have to determine which proof techniques were used and how they were applied in this case, as well
as possibly having to fill in missing steps.

The subsequent material presented here assumes that you have viewed the first three videos and
understand what a proof is (including an implication), the forward-backward method, and how to use
mathematical definitions and previously proved theorems in the forward-backward method.