16-Oct-16

Application of Forces and Deformations of Materials

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Mechanical Properties of Materials

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Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties • Reaction of materials to the action of
1. Strength external stresses is indicated as
2. Elasticity mechanical properties
3. Plasticity
4. Ductility
5. Brittleness
6. Malleability
Deformation
7. Toughness • Application of a stress causes a material
8. Fracture Toughness to change its size and shape.
9. Resilience • Change in size and shape is known as
10. Hardness deformation
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The speciman will be subjected to a progressively

Tensile Test increasing tensile force until it fractures.

• Mechanical properties of a material are

studied by performing a tensile test.

• Tensile test speciman

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Tensile Test • From the test, Force-Extension curve is obtained.

• There are four important stages in the testing.

F
– Original speciman
– Deformed speciman
– Necked speciman
– Fractured speciman

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Stress – Strain Curve

• Force-Extension curve is then converted to a Stress-
Strain curve.

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Stress-Strain Diagram of Steel Proportional Limit Stress

Proportional Limit - The greatest stress a material is capable
of withstanding without deviation from a straight -line
proportionality between stress and strain. If the force applied
to the material is released the material will return to it’s
original shape and size.

Graph

Calculation
Proportional/ Elastic Limit S= F/A
Stress (S) psi

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Strain () in/in

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Yield Point Stress Ultimate Tensile Strength

Yield point - The point at which a sudden elongation takes
place, while the load on the sample remains the same or Ultimate Strength - The point at which the maximum load for a
actually drops. If the force applied to the material is released sample is achieved. Beyond this point, elongation of the
the material will not return to it’s original shape and size. sample continues but the force being exerted decreases.
Yield Point

Graph

Calculation
Stress (S) psi

Ultimate Strength

Calculation

Stress (S) psi

S= F/A
Graph S= F/A

Strain () in/in 13 14

Strain () in/in

Breaking/Rupture Stress Modulus of Elasticity

Breaking/Rupture Stress - The maximum amount of stress that Modulus of Elasticity -A measure of a materials ability to regain
can be applied before rupture occurs. The material fractures in its original dimensions after the removal of a load or force. The
the necking region where the material reduces in diameter as modulus is the slope of the straight line portion of the stress-
the material elongates. strain diagram up to the proportional limit.
Necking Region

Rupture Point
Stress (S) psi

Calculation Proportional / Elastic Limit Calculation

Stress (S) psi

S= F/A Slope E = (F1 -F2)Lo / (1 - 2)A

Graph Graph

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Strain () in/in Strain () in/in

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of Resilience -A measure of a materials ability to
Modulus of Toughness
absorb energy up to the elastic limit. This modulus is
represented by the area under the stress versus strain curve Modulus of Toughness -A measure of a materials ability to
from zero force to the elastic limit. plastically deform without fracturing. Work is performed by the
material absorbing energy by the blow or deformation. This
Elastic Region measurement is equal to the area under the stress versus
strain curve from its origin through the rupture point.
Plastic Region

Calculation Calculation:
Ur = 1/2 (yp)( yp)
Stress (S) psi

Elastic Limit
Graph Ut = 1/3(Br) (yp + 2ult)
Stress (S) psi

Graph

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Strain () in/in Strain () in/in

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Proof Stress
Calculation
• Stress-Strain diagram of most metals does not
Total Strain/ Deformation -The total amount of give a clear cut yield point.
elongation of a sample to rupture
normalized(divided by) by the initial length. • Elastic limit
Calculation: total = total/Lo – Difficult to determine
Ductility : The ability of a material to be deformed
plastically without rupture.
– Results depends on the
Sensitivity of the testing
?
Calculation: % Elongation =  total(100)
machine
Ductility :The ability of a material to be deformed
plastically without rupture.
Calculations:
% Reduction in area = Aoriginal - A final / A original (100)
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Proof Stress Contd... Proof Stress Contd...

• In such cases yield stress could not be found.

• As such, proof stress is found and used in place of

the yield stress.

• Hence, 0.1% (or 0.2%) proof stress is found.

• 0.1% proof stress is the stress that is required to

cause a plastic strain of 0.1% (ε=0.001).
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ε=0.002 22

Work Hardening
YS2
• Strength (and hardness) of a metal increases as a B
F

result of plastic deformation. YS1

A

• This is known as work hardening or strain

hardening.

• Effect of work hardening on strength is

O
demonstrated by a tensile test. P

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Necking Engineering Diagram Vs True Diagram

• At the UTS a localized deformation begins at the

specimen.
• This localized deformation is called necking.
• The area of cross section continue to decrease at
the neck as test continues.
• Fracture occurs at the neck.
• Fracture surfaces give cup & cone appearance.

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True Stress and Strain True Stress and Strain

• True stress is defined as the Load F divided by

the instantaneous cross sectional area Ai over • True and engineering stress and strain are related
which deformation is occurring. according to,

F 
T   
 T   1   
 Ai 

• True strain is given as l   T  ln1   

 T  ln  i 
l o 

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Comparison of Different Materials

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Comparison of Different Materials Comparison of Different Materials

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• The following plot shows the true stress versus

true strain behavior for many different materials

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Yield Tensile Fracture Elastic

Strain at
Material Strength Strength
(MPa) (MPa)
Fracture
Strength
(MPa)
Modulus
(GPa)
Yield Drop in Steel
A 310 340 0.23 265 210
B 100 120 0.4 105 150
C 415 550 0.15 500 310
D 700 850 0.14 720 210
E Fracture before yielding 650 350
1. Which will experience the greatest percent reduction in area? Why?
Material B will experience the greatest percent area reduction since it has
the highest strain at fracture, and, therefore is most ductile.
2. Which is the strongest? Why?
Material D is the strongest because it has the highest yield and tensile
strengths.
3. Which is the stiffest? Why?
Material E is the stiffest because it has the highest elastic modulus.
4. Which is the hardest? Why?
Material D is the hardest because it has the highest tensile strength. 36 37

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Stress – Strain (σ – ε) Diagram of Cu, Al Elasticity

• All materials show temporary deformation to a certain
extent – Elastic deformation.

• This property of the material is known as Elasticity.

• Elasticity of most of the materials gives a straight line in

the stress-strain diagram known as Linear Elastic
Materials.

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Elasticity Contd... Elastic Modulus

• Elasticity of some other materials does not give a
• For linear elastic materials
straight line in the σ-ε diagram.
• They are known as non linear elastic materials
   ;   E
(ex: rubber)
• E is known as Elastic Modulus or Young’s Modulus.

• E of steel is 2x1011 Pa

• Elasticity of materials is accounted to the stretching of

atomic bonds. 41 42

Plasticity Plastic Deformation

• The deformation becomes permanent beyond a
certain stress levels in metals.
• It is known as plastic deformation and the
property is known as plasticity.
• Plastic deformation in metals occurs due to a
phenomenon known as slip (relative displacement
of atomic planes).

• Plastic deformation begins at the yield stress.

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• In metals, plastic deformation at room The Movement of Edge Dislocation

temperature occurs by dislocation motion. The Through the Crystal
stress required to move a dislocation depends on
the atomic bonding, crystal structure, and
obstacles such as solute atoms, grain boundaries,
precipitate particles and other dislocations. If the
stress required to move the dislocation is too high,
the metal will fail instead by the propagation of
cracks and the failure will be brittle.

• Thus, either plastic flow (ductile failure) or crack

propagation (brittle failure) will occur, depending
on which process requires the smaller applied
stress.

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Movement of Edge Dislocation Through the (111) Plane of FCC

Crystal
• Movement of dislocations and slip occurs on close
packed planes in close packed directions.

• In FCC metals, slip takes place on (111) plane in

[110] direction.

• In BCC metals, slip takes place on (110) plane in

[111] directions.
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(110) Plane of BCC Ductile and Brittle Materials

• Ductile Materials
– Materials that exhibit plastic deformation (Most
metals are ductile)

• Brittle Materials
– Materials that do not have plasticity (glass, cast iron)

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Ductility Ductility Contd...

• Ability of a metal to undergo plastic • Ductility can be measured by:

deformation is defined as ductility.
– Percentage elongation  L f  Lo 
• Plastic strain at fracture ε pf  is a measure of
  x 100%
 Lo 
ductility.
– Percentage reduction in area  A f  Ao  x 100%
 
• Ductility of Cu is greater than that of steel.  Ao 

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Malleability Strength
• Ability of a material to withstand the applied
• Ability of a material to undergo plastic stresses without failure is defined as strength
deformation in compression. (maximum stress that can be applied on a material).

• Strength of a brittle material is given by it’s fracture

• All ductile materials are malleable but malleable
stress.
materials are not necessary to be ductile always.
• Yield strength is taken as the strength for a ductile
• A malleable material is preferred in process such material. (UTS is not considered since significant
as forging, rolling & rivets heading (hammering). plastic deformation takes place before the UTS is
reached.)
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Tensile Test for Brittle Materials Bending Test

• It is almost impossible to do a tensile test on

brittle materials, as they tend to break in the grips.

• Tensile strength of a brittle material is therefore

calculated from its MOR (Modulus Of Rupture). P

d
• Tensile strength x 1.3 = MOR
L b

• MOR is determined by perfoming bending test.  3PL 

MOR   2
55
 2bd  56

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Compression Test Compression Test

• However, as brittle materials are much stronger in

compression than in tension, their compressive strength
is more important than their tensile strength.

• Compressive strength is found by performing the

compression test.

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Toughness

• Work done during the deformation of a material

is stored in the form of strain energy (energy due
to deformation).

• Strain energy absorbed by a material up to

fracture is defined as toughness.

• Toughness can also be defined as the work done

at fracture. • Area under the σ-ε diagram is a measure
59 of toughness 60

Resilience Modulus of Resilience

Modulus of Resilience -A measure of a materials ability to
• Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb absorb energy up to the elastic limit. This modulus is
energy when it is deformed elastically. represented by the area under the stress versus strain curve
from zero force to the elastic limit.

• The associated property is the modulus of

Elastic Region

resilience Ur
Calculation

• Ur is the strain energy per unit volume required Ur = 1/2 (yp)( yp)
Stress (S) psi

Elastic Limit
to stress a material from an unloaded state up to
Graph
the point of yielding.
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Strain () in/in

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Impact Test Impact Test Apparatus

• Impact test is used to measure the toughness.
• It employs a notched specimen as shown.

Charpy Impact
Test

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Energy of Pendulum Ductile to Brittle Transition

• At position 1 = Mgh1 + 0 • Whether a material is ductile or brittle depends

• At position 2 = Mgh2 + 0
• Energy Change = Mg(h1- h2)
• This is the toughness of the material used.
on the temperature.
• Ductile materials show brittle behavior as the
temperature is lowered.
• This is known as ductile to brittle transition.
• Ductile to brittle transition behavior of materials
is studied by performing impact test over a range
of temperatures.

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Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature

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• With decreasing temperature, FCC metals do not experience a

ductile-to-brittle transition. Why?
because a relatively large number of slip systems remain
operable at very low temperatures. On the other hand, BCC and
HCP metals normally experience this transition because the
number of operable slip systems decreases with decreasing
69 temperature. 70

Ductile fracture surface. Cleavage fracture surface.

• BRITTLE FRACTURE: Transgranular • DUCTILE FRACTURE: Clear ductile

fracture with flat, cleavage planes
and sharp edges along the atomic
steps. A small amopunt of ductile
dimpling is visible in the upper
right of the image.
dimples with lots of plastic
deformation of the material
between dimples. Many of the
dimples show a defect in the
center of the dimple which may
have been responsible for the
dimple formation. 71 72

Ductile Brittle

Deformation Extensive Little

Crack propagation Slow, needs stress Fast

Type of materials Most metals (not too cold) Ceramics, ice, cold metals

Warning permanent elongation None

• A. Transgranular fracture: Fracture cracks pass through grains. Strain energy Higher Lower
Fracture surface have faceted texture because of different orientation
Fractured surface Rough, Dull Smoother, Bright
of cleavage planes in grains.
• B. Intergranular fracture: Fracture crack propagation is along grain Necking Yes No
boundaries (grain boundaries are weakened or embrittled by
impurities segregation etc.) 73 74

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DBTT
• In BCC metals like steel, a sudden change in
behavior is observed over a narrow range of
temperature.
Hardness
• Hardness of metals is defined as the resistance to
indentation.
• Hardness is measured by indentation test.

• In the indentation test, the metal is subjected to

• DBTT is the middle value of this temperature indentation with a hard indenter.
range.
• Depth of indentation is the measure of hardness.
• In FCC metals like Copper, the change is gradual.
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Brinell (HB) Brinell (HB)

• 10mm diameter steel/ WC ball indenter.

• Any load ‘F’ can be applied.
• Diameter ‘d’ of the indentation is measured in
place of the depth.

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Hardness Measurement Vickers (HV)

• Pyramid shaped indenter made of diamond is used.

• Any load ‘F’ can be applied.

• Diagonal lengths d1 and d2 of the diamond shape

indentation are measured.

 d d 
• Average d  1 2  is used in the calculation.
 2 

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Rockwell Hardness
• Rockwell A, C & D – These 3 units are cone shaped
indenter made of diamond.
– HRA – 60kg
– HRD – 100kg
– HRC – 150kg

• Rockwell B, F & G – These 3 units are 1/16” diameter

(1.5mm approx), ball made of steel/ WC.
– HRF – 60kg
– HRB – 100kg
– HRG – 150kg
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Vickers (HV) Contd..

Creep Failure
• High Temperature progressive deformation of
a material at constant stress is called Creep.
(Condition – High temp, Stress & Time)
• Can observe in Boilers, Gas turbine engines,
ovens etc..
• Easy to identify due to the deformation that
occurs. Failure may appear ductile or brittle.
Cracking may either transgranular or
  136  
 2F Sin   intergranular.
  2  1.854F
HV     
 d 
2 2
 d 

 

84 85

Creep Curve

86 87

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