1.

ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE STRESSES

Objectives:
 Review the types of simple stress and its principles.
 Learn how to use a factor of safety in the design.
 Know how to apply the ultimate strength and yield strength of a material in the design.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Simple stresses are expressed as the ratio of the applied force or load divided by the
resisting area. It is the expression of force per unit area to structural members that are subjected to
external forces and/or induced forces. Generally, there are two types of stress, namely normal
stress, and shear stress. Normal stress is a type of stress where the resisting area is perpendicular
to the applied or induced force while shear stress is a type of stress where the resisting area is
parallel to the applied or induced force. Figure 1.1 shows the classification of simple stresses.

Stress

Normal Shear

Axial Flexural Direct Shear Torsional

Figure 1.1 Types of simple stress.

If a load is applied to a material, stress will occur with corresponding deformation,

elongation or contraction, of the material. The ratio of the deformation of the material to its original
length is called strain. Figure 1.2 shows a graph of the stress-strain relation of a material subjected
to a tensile force. The mechanical properties of the material are defined as follows:
The proportional limit is the stress of a material where the straight line in the stress-strain
diagram ends.
The elastic limit is the highest stress that the material may attain and can return to its
original length after unloading.
The yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
yielding without any increase in load.

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

 The ultimate strength or tensile strength is the maximum stress of the material in the stress-
strain diagram.
The rupture strength is the stress of the material at failure. This is also known as the
breaking strength.

Figure 1.2 Stress-strain diagram.

In the design of machine elements, the ultimate strength or yield strength will not be used
directly. For safety purposes, a small strength will be used in the computation of the design and it
is called design stress or allowable stress or working stress. It is the maximum safe stress that
material may carry. To determine the design stress, a factor of safety will be divided into the
ultimate strength or yield strength of the material. Table 1.1 shows the desired factor of safety to
be used based on the load applied and material type.
Table 1.1 Factor of safety.

Cast Iron,
Steel,
Brittle Timber
Ductile Metals
Metals
Kind of Load
Based on Based on
Based on Ultimate
Ultimate Yield
Strength
Strength Strength
Dead Load 3-4 1.5-2 5-6 7
Repeated, one direction, gradual 6 3 7-8 10
(mild shock)
Repeated, reversed, gradual (mild 8 4 10-12 15
shock)
Shock 10-15 5-7 15-20 20

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

 𝑺𝒚 𝑺𝒖
𝑺𝒅 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒅 =
𝑵𝒚 𝑵𝒖

where:
Sd - design stress
Sy - yield stress or strength
Su - ultimate stress or strength
Ny - factor of safety based on yield stress
Nu - factor of safety based on ultimate stress
For the values of ultimate strength, yield strength, and modulus of elasticity of a certain
material used in the design, we will refer to a catalog or book.
Machine elements, which are available in the market, have standardized sizes. So after the
computation of the desired dimension of a machine part, the concluding answer should be on a
standard size. In determining the standard size, Table 1.2 can be used as a basis or a catalog from
the market if available. For safety, we should use the next larger standard size of the computed
size. But for economic reasons, we can use the next smaller standard size of the computed size as
long as the difference must not exceed 4%.
Table 1.2 Preferred sizes.
Range (in.) Variation (in.)

1 1 1
𝑡𝑜
64 32 64

1 3 1
𝑡𝑜
32 16 32

3 7 1
𝑡𝑜
16 8 16

7 1
𝑡𝑜 3
8 8

1
3 𝑡𝑜 6
4

1
𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 6
2

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

1.2 AXIAL STRESS

Axial stress is a normal type of stress caused directly by the applied load. There are two
types of axial stress, namely tensile and compressive stresses. Tensile stress is due to a tensile load,
force direction is away from the body as shown in Figure 1.3 (a), applied to the body which results
in elongation of the material. On the other hand, compressive stress is due to a compressive load,
force direction is toward the body as shown in Figure 1.3 (b), applied to the body which results in
contraction of the material.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 Bars under tensile and compressive stresses.

𝑭
𝑺𝒅 =
𝑨
where:
Sd - design stress
F – applied force
A – area perpendicular to the applied force
The amount of deformation caused by the applied load can be computed using the
following formula as long as the stress does not exceed the material’s proportional limit.
𝑭𝑳
𝜹=
𝑨𝑬
where:
𝜹 – axial deformation (elongation or contraction)
F – applied force
L – original length (before loading)
A – area perpendicular to the applied force
E – modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus

Sample Problem 1.1

A 20-ft. long hollow steel tube, made of AISI C1045, as rolled, with an inside
diameter of 4 in. must carry a repeated tensile load of 90 kips. Determine the outside diameter
of the tube with the design based on (a) ultimate strength, (b) yield strength, and (c)
elongation not exceeding 1/4 in.

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

Solution:

From Table AT 7 of DME by Faires, for AISI C1045, as rolled: Su = 96 ksi, Sy = 59 ksi and
E = 30x106 psi.
-Based on strength,
𝑆 𝐹 𝜋(𝐷𝑜2 − 𝐷𝑖2 )
𝑆𝑑 = = , 𝐴=
𝑁 𝐴 4
4𝑁𝐹
𝐷𝑜 = √𝐷𝑖2 +
𝜋𝑆
From Table 1.1, for steel with repeated load, Nu = 6 and Ny = 3.
-Based on deformation,
𝐹𝐿 𝜋(𝐷𝑜2 − 𝐷𝑖2 )
𝛿= , 𝐴=
𝐴𝐸 4
4𝐹𝐿
𝐷𝑜 = √𝐷𝑖2 +
𝜋𝐸𝛿

(a) Based on ultimate strength

4(6)(90)
𝐷𝑜 = √42 + = 4.81 𝑖𝑛.
𝜋(96)
Try Do = 4 ¾ in.
4.81 − 4.75
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥100 = 1.26%
4.75
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 is <4%, therefore it is okay to use Do = 4 ¾ in.

(b) Based on yield strength

4(3)(90)
𝐷𝑜 = √42 + = 4.67 𝑖𝑛.
𝜋(59)
Try Do = 4 ½ in.
4.67 − 4.5
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥100 = 3.78%
4.5
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 is <4%, therefore it is okay to use Do = 4 ½ in.

(c) Based on the deformation

4(90)(20𝑥12)
𝐷𝑜 = √42 + = 4.43 𝑖𝑛.
𝜋(30𝑥103 )(0.25)
Try Do = 4 ¼ in.
4.43 − 4.25
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥100 = 4.35%
4.43
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 is >4%, therefore use Do = 4 ½ in.

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

 Skill-Evaluation Exercise 1.1

The truss shown in Figure 1.4 is to be made of AISI C1020 annealed steel, with a
rectangular cross-section where the depth is twice its width. Calculate the width and depth
if the load is repeated but not reversed.

Figure 1.4 Skill-evaluation exercise 1.1 figure.

1.3 DIRECT SHEAR STRESS

(a) (b)
Figure 1.5 Lap joints connected through rivets.
Direct shear stress is a type of stress caused directly by the applied shear force parallel to
the resisting area. It will cut or slice the material. An example of this is shown in Figure 1.5 where
the rivets are under shear stress. If the rivets are weaker than the plates, the rivets will be cut if the
applied load exceeds its shear strength. In Figure 1.5a, there will be one slice on the rivet, so it is
called a single shear. In Figure 1.5b, there will be two slices on the rivet so it is called double shear.
𝑭
𝑺𝒔𝒅 =
𝑨
where:
Ssd - design shear stress

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

 F – applied force
A – resisting area parallel to the applied force
The yield strength in shear can be approximated 60% of the yield strength, Sys = 0.6Sy.

Sample Problem 1.2

The member supported as shown in Figure 1.6 is pinned at B. Compute the minimum
diameter of the pin if it is to be made of AISI 1137 steel, annealed and the load is repeated
but not reversed.

Figure 1.6 Sample problem 1.2 figure.

Solution:

From Table AT 8 of DME by Faires, for AISI 1137, annealed: Sy = 50 ksi.

Referring to Figure 1.5, the pin at B will be under double shear, so the shear resisting area is
twice the cross-sectional area of the pin.
0.6𝑆𝑦 𝐹𝐵 𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋𝐷 2
𝑆𝑠𝑑 = = , 𝐴 = 2[ ]=
𝑁 𝐴 4 2
2𝑁𝐹𝐵
𝐷=√
0.6𝜋𝑆𝑦

From Table 1.1, for steel with repeated load, Ny

= 3.

Solving for the shear force 𝐹𝐵 :

Σ𝑀𝑐 = 0
10𝐹𝐵𝑉 = 8(9)(cos 35𝑜 ) + 10(9)(sin 35𝑜 )
𝐹𝐵𝑉 = 11.06 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

Σ𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝐹𝐵𝐻 = 9(cos 35𝑜 )

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

 𝐹𝐵𝐻 = 7.37 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

𝐹𝐵 = √11.062 + 7.372
𝐹𝐵 = 13.29 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

2(3)(13.29)
𝐷=√ = 0.92 𝑖𝑛.
0.6𝜋(50)
Try D = 7/8 in.
0.92 − 0.875
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥100 = 5.13%
0.875
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 is >4%, so it is not okay to use D = 7/8 in., therefore use pin diameter D =
1 in.

Skill-Evaluation Exercise 1.2

In the clevis shown in Figure 1.7, compute the minimum bolt diameter if it is to be
made of AISI C1015, as rolled, and with a shock load F = 5 kips.

Figure 1.7 Skill-evaluation exercise 1.2 figure.

1.4 TORSIONAL STRESS

Torsional stress is an indirect type of shearing stress due to twisting. Figure 1.8 shows a
rod subjected to a torque T which results in an angular deformation θ, on the rod’s cross-section,
from one end of the rod relative to its other end. We know that torque is the product of force and
its perpendicular distance, T = Fr. The force F is parallel to the cross-section of the rod so it is a
shear type of stress and it is not directly applied but it exists due to the applied torque T so it is an
indirect type of shear stress.

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

 Figure 1.8 A cylindrical rod subjected by torque.

𝑻𝒓
𝑺𝒔𝒅 =
𝑱
where:
Ssd - design torsional stress
T - torque
r - radius
J – polar moment of inertia
The angular deformation θ is also known as angle of twist and computed using the
formula
𝑻𝑳
𝜽=
𝑱𝑮
where:
𝜽 – angular deformation or angle of twist
𝑻 – torque
L – original length (before loading)
J – polar moment of inertia
G – modulus of rigidity or modulus of elasticity in shear.

Sample Problem 1.3

A steel shaft is transmitting 40 hp at 500 rpm with minor shock. (a) What should be
its diameter if the deflection is not to exceed 1 o in 20 D length? (b) If deflection is primary
what kind of steel would be satisfactory?

Solution:

(a) Based on the angle of twist 1o/20D

𝑇𝐿 𝜋𝐷 4
𝜃= , 𝐽=
𝐽𝐺 32
𝑜
𝜃 1 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
= 𝑥 =
𝐿 20𝐷 180𝑜 3600𝐷

𝑛𝑇 63000𝐻𝑃
𝐻𝑃 = , 𝑇= = 5040 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑖𝑛.
63000 𝑛

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

For steel G = 11.5x106 psi

Putting the values on the angle of twist formula

𝜋 32(5040)
=
3600𝐷 𝜋𝐷 4 (11.5𝑥106 )
3 32(5040)(3600)
𝐷=√ = 1.72 𝑖𝑛.
𝜋 2 (11.5𝑥106 )
Try D = 1 5/8 in.
1.72 − 1.625
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥100 = 5.85%
1.625
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 is >4%, so it is not okay to use D = 1 5/8 in., therefore use shaft diameter
D = 1 ¾ in.

(b) Solving for the kind of steel

0.6𝑆𝑦 16𝑇
𝑆𝑠𝑑 = =
𝑁𝑦 𝜋𝐷 3
From Table 1.1, for steel under minor shock and one direction, Ny = 3.
16𝑁𝑦 𝑇 16(3)(5040)
𝑆𝑦 = = = 23,947.30 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑜𝑟 23.95 𝑘𝑠𝑖
0.6𝜋𝐷 3 0.6𝜋(1.75)3
From Table AT 8 of DME by Faires, we can use AISI C1117 normalized steel with Sy =
35 ksi.

Skill-Evaluation Exercise 1.3

The solid shaft, made of AISI 1137 annealed steel, is to transmit the torques applied
to the gears, as shown in Figure 1.9. Determine the uniform diameter of the shaft and the
angle of twist from A to B.

Figure 1.9 Skill-evaluation exercise 1.3 figure.

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

1.5 BENDING OR FLEXURAL STRESS

Flexural stress is an indirect normal type of stress due to the bending of a material caused
by the applied load. Figure 1.10 shows a simply supported beam with an arbitrary load. It also
shows the effect of bending to the fibers of the beam, from which the upper portion is under
compression while the lower portion is under tension. The neutral axis, N.A., is the transition point
between compressive stress and tensile stress. We can say that the maximum flexural stress is
located at the uppermost and lowermost fibers of the beam.

Figure 1.10 Beam under flexural stress.

𝑴𝒄
𝑺𝒅 =
𝑰
where:
Sd - design flexural stress
M – maximum bending moment
c – distance from the neutral axis (N.A.) to the uppermost fiber or lowermost fiber
I – rectangular moment of inertia

Sample Problem 1.4

The bar shown in Figure 1.11 is subjected to two vertical loads, F1 = 4000 lb and F2
= 2000 lb, that is 10 in. apart and 3 in. from the ends of the bar. The design factor is 4 based
on the ultimate strength h  3b . Determine the dimensions h b if the bar is made of AISI
C1040, as rolled.

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

 Figure 1.11 Sample problem 1.4 figure.

Solution:

𝑆𝑢 𝑀𝑐 𝑏ℎ3 ℎ
𝑆𝑑 = = , 𝐼= , 𝑐=
𝑁𝑢 𝐼 12 2
𝑆𝑢 6𝑀
= 2 , ℎ = 3𝑏
𝑁𝑢 𝑏ℎ
𝑆𝑢 2𝑀
= 3
𝑁𝑢 3𝑏
So the width of the beam can be computed as
3 2𝑁𝑢 𝑀
𝑏= √
3𝑆𝑢
From Figure AF 1 of DME by Faires, for AISI C1040, as rolled, Su = 89,000 psi.

Determining the maximum bending moment M:

Σ𝑀𝐷 = 0
16𝑅1 = 3(2000) + 13(4000)
𝑅1 = 3625 𝑙𝑏

Σ𝐹𝑉 = 0
𝑅2 = 4000 + 2000 − 𝑅1
𝑅2 = 2375 𝑙𝑏
Shear values:
𝑉𝐴𝐿 = 0
𝑉𝐴𝑅 = 0 + 𝑅1 = 3625 𝑙𝑏
𝑉𝐵𝐿 = 3625 + 0 = 3625 𝑙𝑏
𝑉𝐵𝑅 = 3625 − 𝐹1 = −375 𝑙𝑏
𝑉𝐶𝐿 = −375 + 0 = −375 𝑙𝑏
𝑉𝐶𝑅 = −375 − 𝐹2 = −2375 𝑙𝑏
𝑉𝐷𝐿 = −2375 + 0 = −2375 𝑙𝑏
𝑉𝐷𝑅 = −2375 + 𝑅2 = 0
Moment values:
𝑀𝐴 = 0
𝑀𝐵 = 0 + 3(3625) = 10875 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑖𝑛.
𝑀𝐶 = 10875 − 10(375) = 7125 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑖𝑛.

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide

 𝑀𝐷 = 7125 − 3(2375) = 0
So the maximum bending moment is 10,875 lb-in.

Solving for the beam width b:

3 2𝑁𝑢 𝑀 3 2(4)(10,875)
𝑏= √ =√ = 0.69 𝑖𝑛.
3𝑆𝑢 3(89,000)
Try b = 11/16 in.
0.69 − 0.6875
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥100 = 0.36%
0.6875
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 is <4%, so it is okay to use b = 11/16 in.

Solving for the beam depth h:

1
ℎ = 3𝑏 = 3(0.6875) = 2.0625 𝑖𝑛. 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑖𝑛.
16
Based on Table 1.2, for sizes between 7/8 in. to 3 in., the variation is 1/8 in., so the beam
depth h should be 2 1/8 in.

Therefore, use b = 11/16 in. and h = 2 1/8 in.

Skill-Evaluation Exercise 1.4

The steel shaft, made of SAE 1035, as rolled, is supported on smooth journal bearings
A and B which exert only vertical reactions on the shaft and is subjected to the pulley
loadings shown in Figure 1.12. Determine the desired shaft diameter.

Figure 1.12 Skill-evaluation exercise 1.4 figure.

References:
Faires, V. M. Design of Machine Elements, 4th Edition. The Macmillan Company, New York,
1965.
Pytel, A. and Singer, F. L. Strength of Materials, 4th Edition. Harper Collins Publishers Inc. New
York, 1987.
Hibbeler, R. C. Mechanics of Materials 10th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. USA
Hibbeler, R. C. Engineering Mechanics – Statics 12th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. USA

PME 416 – Machine Design 1 Student Guide