HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

HARAMAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (HiT)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Strength of Materials (CEng 2101)

Prepared by Etsub M.(MSc.)

1
 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Introduction
Strength of material
 Concerned with analytical determination of the strength, stiffness and stability
of structural members.

 Defined largely by the internal stresses in the material.

Components of internal actions
 Axial force

 Shear force

 Bending moment
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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Stress
 A measure of internal forces in a body between its particles.

 Force per unit area: 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (σ) = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑃)/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝐴)

 Measured in MPa (SI unit).

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Normal Stress under Axial Loading

Axially loaded members Normal stress (σ):-
 Structural elements having straight  Develops when a force is applied perpendicular
longitudinal axes and carrying only axial to the cross-section of the material.

forces (tensile or compressive forces).  Considering a uniform distribution, the normal

stress is defined as: 𝜎=𝑃/𝐴

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members
To drive the relationship of normal stress with the force and area

The following conditions must be satisfied:

 Material must be homogeneous

 The bar is prismatic

 Axial load is applied through the

centroid of the cross-section.
∆𝑃
𝜎 = lim
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴

𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝜎= = 𝑁ൗ
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑚𝑚2
5
Strength of Materials
 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Types of Normal Stress

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑅)
 Tensile Stress = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑅)
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎  Compressive stress =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Shearing Stress

 Also known as tangential stress

 Develop when a force is applied parallel to resisting area

 It can cause one object to slide over another

𝑉
 Average shearing stress, 𝜏 =
𝐴

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads

Allowable Stresses Allowable Loads

 The stress lower than the maximum stress  The product of allowable or shear stress

at which failure of the material takes place and area, 𝑃 = 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴

 Also known as working stress or design stress

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Factor of safety(γ)
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐚𝐟𝐞𝐭𝐲(𝜸) =
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

 Pure number always greater than 1

 Which takes into account uncertainties arising due to a number of reasons such as :-

 Overloading.

 Unexpected impact and

 Temperature loadings may act in the lifetime of the member.

 The main purpose is to minimize the risk of part failure.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Design of axially loaded members

Allowable Stress

𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝜏𝑢𝑙𝑡
 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = and 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝐹𝑆 𝐹𝑆

In the design analysis

 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎𝑑 ) ≤ 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 )

 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏𝑑 ≤ 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 )

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Examples

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Examples
1. The homogeneous bar shown in Figure is supported by a smooth pin at C and a
cable that runs from A to B around the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the
cable if its diameter is 16 mm and the bar weighs 6000 N.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

2. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile
load of 400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is
limited to 120 MN/m2.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

3. A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable as shown

in Figure. Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is not to
exceed 90 MPa in bronze and 120 MPa in steel.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

4. The homogeneous bar ABCD shown in Figure is supported by a cable that runs
from A to B around the smooth peg at E, a vertical cable at C, and a smooth
inclined surface at D. Determine the mass of the heaviest bar that can be
supported if the stress in each cable is limited to 120 MPa. The area of the cable
AB is 250 mm2 and that of the cable at C is 300 mm2.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

5. What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm

thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m2.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

6. A punch for making holes in steel plates is shown in Fig. a. Assume that a
punch having diameter d = 20 mm is used to punch a hole in an 8-mm plate,
as shown in the cross-sectional view (Fig. b). If a force P= 110 kN is required
to create the hole, what is the average shear stress in the plate and the average
compressive stress in the punch?

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

7. A single rivet holds three sheets of metal together and is loaded as shown
below. If the maximum shear stress allowed for material is 125 MN/m2 and a
factor of safety of 3 is required by the design standards, find the minimum
rivet diameter.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Strain(𝜀)
Normal Strain under Axial Loading
 A unitless measure of how much an object gets bigger or smaller from an applied load.

 Strain accounts for elongation, shortening, or volume changes, or angular distortion

Types of strain:
 Tensile strain Compressive strain

 Shear strain
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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Stress-Strain Diagram
 A structural steel specimen or mild steel is installed
between the two large grips of a tensile- test machine and
then loaded in tension.

 Extensometer is fitted to test specimen which measures

extension over the length L1.

 The length over which extension is measured is called

gauge length.

 The load is applied gradually and at regular interval of loads

extension is measured.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members
Stress-Strain Diagram

 A graphical representation of the relationship between

stress and strain

 Expresses important information about the

mechanical properties and type of behavior.

 After performing a tension test, the results of the

stress and strain analysis are plotted.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Proportionality Limit :- Maximum stress up to which the
relationship between stress & strain is linear.

 Yield point :- the point at which the material will have an

elongation or yielding without any increase in load.

 During strain hardening :- the material undergoes changes in its

crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of the
material to further deformation.

 Ultimate Stress (D) :- the maximum stress the material can resist.

 Breaking Point (E): The stress at which finally the specimen fail

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members
Stress-Strain Diagram
 If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow part of
the neck is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-
strain curve (the dashed line CE' in Fig.) is obtained.

Ao  A f L f  Lo
% RA  x100 %EL  x100
Ao Lo

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members
Stress-Strain Diagram
 A material that experiences no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle such
as aluminum, glass, brass and zinc

 Constant yielding will not occur beyond the elastic range.

 This metal often does not have a well defined yield point.

 Therefore, the standard practice to define yield strength for this metal is graphical
procedure called the offset method.

 Normally a 0.2% (0.002 mm/mm) is chosen,

 A line parallel to the initial straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram is drawn.

 The point where this line intersects the curves defines the yield strength.
Strength of Materials 24
 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Brittle and Ductile materials

Ultimate tensile strength Yield strength

 A common engineering parameter  A common engineering parameter

when designing brittle material when designing ductile material

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
▪ 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Hooke’s Law; Modulus of Elasticity

linear relationship between stress and strain
Linearly elastic
 𝝈 = 𝑬𝜺 , 𝑬=
𝝈
𝜺
=
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑂𝑟 𝑬 =
𝝈
𝜺
=
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
 When a material behaves elastically and
Modulus of elasticity( E):
also exhibits a linear relationship between
 The slope of the stress-strain diagram in the linearly
stress and strain
elastic region.

 A high modulus of elasticity represents a hard, like

steel & generally assumed E = 200GPa.

 A low modulus of elasticity represents a soft, like

rubber.
Strength of Materials 26
 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Deformations of Members under Axial Loading

 Axially loaded bars elongate under tensile Bars consisting of multiple constant
sections elongate under tensile loads
loads and shorten under compressive loads.
Bars consisting of uniform sections
elongate under tensile loads
∆𝐿
▪𝜀=
𝐿

𝑃𝐿  The total elongation of a member consisting

▪𝛿=
𝐸𝐴
of multiple constant sections is given by
 The product EA is known as the axial rigidity
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝑃𝑖 𝐿𝑖
∆𝐿 = 𝑃 + + =෍
of the bar. 𝐸1 𝐴1 𝐸2 𝐴2 𝐸3 𝐴3 𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Examples

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

8. An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod and a bronze rod as
shown in Figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the
maximum value of P that will not exceed a stress in steel of 140 MPa, in
aluminum of 90 MPa, or in bronze of 100 MPa.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Thermal strain 𝜺𝑻 = 𝜶𝑻 ∆𝑻
 Coefficient of thermal expansion (𝜶𝑻 ) has units equal to 1 ⁄ ℃.

 Changes in temperature produce expansion or contraction of the material.

 If the expansion of the member is freely permitted  If the expansion of the member is prevented fully or partially
Thermal expansion ∆𝑳 = 𝜶𝑻 . (∆𝑻). 𝑳 → ∆𝑳 = 𝛼 𝑇 . ∆𝑇(𝑳 – 𝜹)
 It shrinks at a thermal decline  The expansion is prevented by developing compressive force
P at supports

 It expands at a thermal increase

Strength of Materials 30
 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Poisson’s Ratio and Generalized Hooke’s Law

Poisson’s Ratio
 A phenomenon in which the materials extend and contract in the perpendicular
directions to the direction of the compression and tension respectively.

 The ratio between the relative contraction and relative expansion

𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜺′
▪𝝂= − =
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝜺

Where, 𝝂 ranges between 0.25 and 0.35. A upper limit for 𝝂 is 0.5.
∆𝑳 𝑳−𝑳𝒐
▪ 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = = ,
𝑳 𝑳𝒐
∆𝒅 𝒅−𝒅𝒐
▪ 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = =
𝒅𝒐 𝒅𝒐

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Poisson’s Ratio and Generalized Hooke’s Law

Generalized Hooke’s Law
 When an element is subjected to normal stresses in the x-, y- and z- directions
simultaneously, the total strain component in the x-, y- and z- direction due to the normal
stress in that direction is

𝟏
 𝛆𝐱 = 𝛔𝐱 − 𝛎 𝛔𝐲 + 𝛔𝐳 ,
𝐄

𝟏
 𝛆𝐲 = 𝛔𝐲 − 𝛎 𝛔𝐱 + 𝛔𝐳 and
𝐄

𝟏
 𝛆𝐳 = 𝛔𝐳 − 𝛎 𝛔 𝐱 + 𝛔 𝐲
𝐄

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Examples

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Examples
10. A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.8mm is
tensile tested to fracture and found to have an engineering fracture strength σf
of 460MPa. If its cross-sectional diameter at fracture is 10.7mm, determine:
(a) The ductility in terms of percent reduction in area
(b) The true stress at fracture

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

11. Tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod
that has a diameter of 10mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required to
produce a 0.0025mm change in diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic.
Use E = 97 GPa.

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Quiz

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 Chapter 2: Stress and strain of axially loaded members

Quiz ( 5%)

1. State at list two mechanical properties that should be considered when selecting a
material for a particular purpose. Give a brief explanation of each property. (2%)

2. Describe and draw the engineering stress-strain curve for typical structural steel
during the tensile test. From the Stress-strain diagram, which parameter do you
prefer to use as a design parameter for a proper selection of materials for
structural applications? Explain. (3%)

Strength of Materials 37