1.

0 Simple Stresses and Strains

1.1. Define the terms of Tensile stress, Compressive stress, Shear stress,
Linear strain, lateral
strain, Poisson‘s ratio and elastic limit - Identify the different types of stresses
and Strains.
State Hooke‘s law
1.2. Draw stress-strain curves for ductile and brittle materials under tension.
1.3. Define a) Working stress, ultimate stress, yield stress and factor of safety
b) Young‘s modulus, Modulus of rigidity, Bulk modulus
1.4. State the factors to be considered in selecting factor of safety.
1.5. State the relationship between the three modulii of elasticity –Simple
Problems
1.6. Olve a) Simple problems on the three modulii of elasticity
b) Simple problems on uniform bars subjected to loads
c) Simple problems on stepped bars subjected to loads
Loads :
Any external force acting on a body is called load. According to the effect
produced in the member, the loads are classified as :

.Tensile load : The loads applied along the

longitudinal axis of a member are called "axial
loads". Tensile load is an axial load which
tends to stretch the bar. Fig. 1.1 shows a bar
subjected to tensile load (P).

Compressive load : It is also an axial load

which tends to shorten the bar. Fig. 1.2 shows
a bar subjected to compressive load (P).
Shear load : This load acts perpendicular to the
axis of member, which tends to slide the surface
with respect to other . Fig. 1.3 shows a member
subjected to shear load (P).

.
Torsional load : It is the load which tends to
twist the member. It is shown in Fig. 1.4. The
load ‘P’ is applied at a distance of `d' from the
centre of the shaft whereas the other end is
fixed.

Bending load : The transverse load which

tends to bend the member is called
bending load. The member subjected to
bending load is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Stress : Every material is elastic in nature. That is why, whenever some
external system of forces acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. As
the body undergoes deformations, it sets up some resistance to deformation.

This resistance per unit area to deformation is known as Stress.

Mathematically, stress may be defined as the force per unit area.
 Types of stresses

The type of stress depends upon the nature of applied load, though there are many
types of stresses, yet the following three types of stresses are important.

1.Tensile stress
2.Compressive stress
3.Shear stress.

1. Tensile stress : When a section is subjected

to two equal and opposite pulls, as a result of
which the body tends to lengthen, the stress
induced is called Tensile stress.
2. Compressive stress : When a section is
subjected to two equal and opposite pushes,
as a result of which the body tends to shorten
its length, the stress induced is called
compressive stress.

3. Shear stress : The tangential load tending to slide or

cut the part is called shear load and corresponding
stress induced is called shear stress
STRAIN Whenever a single force (or a system of forces) acts on a body, it
undergoes some deformation. The ratio of change in length to original
length is called strain.

TYPES OF STRAIN
Elastic Limit
A material is said to be elastic when it undergoes a deformation on the
application of a loading such that the deformation disappears on the removal of
the loading.
When a member is subjected to an axial loading, its section will offer a
resistance or stress. When the loading is removed, obviously the stress will vanish
and the deformation will also vanish. But this is true when the deformation caused
by the loading is within a certain limit.
For every material the property of assuming or regaining its previous
shape and size is exhibited on the removal of the loading, when the intensity of
stress is within a certain limit called the elastic limit.
LINEAR STRAIN

LATERAL STRAIN
POISSON’s RATIO
 Tensile test
Tensile tests are performed on specimens
which are subjected to gradually increasing uni
axial load until failure occurs. Stress-strain
diagram is obtained automatically with the
help of instrument attached to machine.
The dimensions for standard test specimen for
tensile test are given below in Fig. 1.10
The stress-strain curve obtained for mild steel
is shown in Fig. 1.11.
 From 0 to A is a straight line (linear) i.e, point
'A' indicates proportional limit. The ratio of
stress to strain is constant and Hooke' s law
holds good from 0 to A.

The graph A to B is very small curve, which

indicates that the ratio of stress to strain is not
constant, but slightly changes. In this portion,
specimen deforms elastically i.e., deformation
disappears when the load is removed. The
point 'B' is known as elastic limit.
Beyond point 'B' the specimen deforms plastically. At point C, specimen length (strain)
increases without appreciable increase in load (stress). This phenomena is called yielding
and the point 'C' is called yield point.
After yielding, load increases upto point 'D' with corresponding increase in deformation.
The point 'D' represents ultimate tensile strength which is the maximum stress that a
specimen can withstand without fracture.
After point D, necking of section begins due to local extension. This reduction in cross-
sectional area causes the load to drop and fracture occurs at certain moment. The
point `E' is called breaking point and represents fracture. The load at the fracture is less
than the ultimate load.
Stress-strain diagram for both ductile and brittle material is shown
in Fig. 1.12. Unlike ductile materials, brittle materials fail without
appreciable deformation.
 ULTIMATE STRESS, WORKING STRESS YIELD STRESS & FACTOR OF SAFETY

Ultimate Stress
The maximum axial load that a member can withstand without failure is called
ultimate load. The maximum stress that a material can withstand without rupture
or failure is called ultimate stress. It is the ratio of ultimate load to the original
cross-sectional area.

Working Stress

The failure of a material takes place at ultimate stress. So while designing a

member, it should be remembered that the stress developed in structure
should not exceed the ultimate stress. This safe stress is called working stress
(or) permissible stress (or) allowable stress.

Yield Stress
Yield Stress (or) Yield Strength is the material property which is defined as the
stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. The point at which the
plastic deformation starts is called yield point.
Factor of Safety
The working stress of a machine part should be within elastic limit so as to prevent
its failure. The number by which ultimate stress is divided in order to obtain the
working stress is called factor of safety. It is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to
the working stress of any material.

Selection of factor of safety:

Factor of safety depends on the material, nature of material and working conditions.

Selection of factor of safety shall be made only after considering the following points:

The properties of the material used and the changes in its intrinsic properties over a
period of time.
The accuracy of the test results to the actual machine parts.
The applied load reliability.
The limit of stresses.
The loss of property and life in case of failures.
The initial stresses at the time of manufacture.
The extent to which the assumptions can be simplified.