Concrete and Materials Lab Report 2 (Group 2)

Concrete
Fresh and hardened properties
Kingston University London
10 January 2024
Concrete - Fresh and hardened properties Kingston University London
Quality information
Alpha Diallo Anmol Gill George Joshua Oliver Jeffery Kwaku Boakye
Worsfold Pelham
K1942624 K2007358 K2165553 K2166788 K2167039 K2165547
Prepared for:
Kingston University London
Compiled by:
George Worsfold
Apprentice Civil Engineer
T: D +44-7467702532
E: k2165553@kingston.ac.uk
Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background and Objectives - Fresh concrete ....................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background and Objectives – Hardened concrete ................................................................................ 2
2. Theoretical Information .................................................................................... 3
2.1 Concrete Characteristics ..................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 General Theory of Concrete Characteristics Behaviour......................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Theory of Slump Test .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.3 Theory for Concrete Bending of Beams Bending and cracking of concrete ............................................ 5
3. Literature Review............................................................................................. 9
3.1 Slump Test .......................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Compressive & Flexural Strength of Concrete .................................................................................... 10
3.3 Under and Over Reinforced Concrete Beams..................................................................................... 11
4. Test Materials, Equipment and Experimental Procedure ................................. 1
4.1 Concrete Mix....................................................................................................................................... 1
4.1.1 Materials ............................................................................................................................................. 1
4.1.2 Concrete Mix Equipment ..................................................................................................................... 1
4.1.3 Concrete Mix Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Workability (Slump Test) ...................................................................................................................... 8
4.2.1 Materials & Equipment ........................................................................................................................ 8
4.2.2 Slump Test Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 9
4.3 Casting and Curing Concrete............................................................................................................. 10
4.3.1 Materials & Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 10
4.3.2 Casting and Curing Concrete Procedure ............................................................................................ 11
4.3.2.1 Concrete cubes ............................................................................................................................. 11
4.3.2.2 Concrete Beams Procedure ........................................................................................................... 12
4.4 Compressive Strength Test ................................................................................................................ 13
4.4.2 Compressive Test Procedure ............................................................................................................. 13
4.5 Flexural Strength Test........................................................................................................................ 14
4.5.2 Flexural Strength Test Procedure ....................................................................................................... 15
5. Results, Sample Calculations, Graphs and Discussion ................................. 16
5.1 Results ............................................................................................................................................. 16
5.2 Calculations ...................................................................................................................................... 20
5.2.1 Concrete Beam ................................................................................................................................. 20
5.2.2 Cube samples ................................................................................................................................... 20
5.3 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 21
5.3.1 Lab F1: Properties of Fresh Concrete – Workability (Slump Test) ........................................................ 21
5.3.2 Lab F2: Properties of Hardened Concrete – Strength ......................................................................... 22
6. Conclusions ................................................................................................... 25
6.1 Lab F1: Properties of Fresh Concrete – Workability (Slump Test) ........................................................ 25
6.2 Lab F2: Properties of Hardened Concrete – Strength ......................................................................... 25
7.References ............................................................................................................ 26
Appendix A Lab Tutorial Sheets ............................................................................... 29
Appendix B ............................................................................................................... 29
Appendix C Individual Element ................................................................................ 37
C.1 Question 1 – George Worsfold and Alpha Diallo ................................................................................. 37
C.2 Question 2 – KK ................................................................................................................................ 46

C.3 Question 3 – Josh ............................................................................................................................. 49

C.4 Question 4 – Anmol ........................................................................................................................... 53
C.5 Question 5 – Oliver Jeffery ................................................................................................................ 56
Figures
Figure 1: The compressive strength of different grades of concrete at 7 and 28 Days after curing (The
Constructor, 2020) ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Figure 2: Guidelines of concrete slump requirements for the construction use of various concrete elements (The
Concrete Network, 2023). ................................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3: Visual representation of the four categories of slump test results (Total Concrete, 2023) ....................... 5
Figure 4: Formulae used to calculate basic span/effective depth (Obinna, 2020) ................................................. 5
Figure 5: Diagram showing crack patterns of a beam under flexural stress (Raja, 2023) ...................................... 6
Figure 6: Diagram showing crack patterns of a beam under shear stress (Raja, 2023) ........................................ 7
Figure 7: Diagram showing crack patterns of a beam experiencing tension stress (Raja, 2023) ........................... 8
Figure 8 – Type of Slumps (Illston, 2010) ........................................................................................................... 9
Figure 9 – The results table shows the Concrete Mix Ratio, the Slump Value, and the Degree of Workability
(Huey, no date) ................................................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 10. Histograms and normal distribution fits of the compressive strength of concrete samples (Chi-Cong
Vu, 2020)........................................................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 11. Comparative analysis of predicted flexure strength of combined age and confining conditions using
square root model equations. .......................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 12: Experimental Load-Deflection Graphs for CC Beams (Halit Cenan Mertol, 2015) .............................. 11
Figure 13: Concrete Compressive Strength and Section Behaviour for Beam Specimen (Halit Cenan Mertol,
2015).............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 14: Concrete Mix Procedure ................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 15: Slump Test Procedure....................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 16. Casting Concrete Cubes Procedure ................................................................................................ 11
Figure 17. Casting Concrete Beams Procedure ............................................................................................... 12
Figure 18. Compressive Test Procedure .......................................................................................................... 13
Figure 19. Flexural Strength Test Procedure .................................................................................................... 15
Figure 20. Slump Value (mm) for 2 No. mixes of C30 ...................................................................................... 16
Figure 21. Load and displacement in high and low yield concrete beams ......................................................... 19
Figure 22. Compressive strength results for 4 concrete cubes tested ............................................................... 20
Figure 23. Slump test #1 ................................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 24. Slump test #2 ................................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 25 - Concrete Cube Post Compressive Strength Test ............................................................................ 23
Figure 26: Over Reinforced Beam Cracking ..................................................................................................... 23
Figure 27 - Under Reinforced Beam Cracking .................................................................................................. 24
Figure 28. Formwork Illustration ( British Ready Mixed Concrete Association, 2008)......................................... 37
Figure 29. Improperly Cured Concrete Illustration (Anon., 2008) ...................................................................... 37
Figure 30. Interrelationships between Placing, Compaction and Curing ........................................................... 38
Figure 31. Moist Curing Time and Compressive Strength Gain (Zemajtis, n.d.) ................................................ 39
Figure 32: Concrete with Reinforcement (Online, 2021) ................................................................................... 46
Figure 33: Cross-section details of the tested RC specimens (FFEMS, 2022) ................................................... 47
Figure 34: Bar Sizes (Kingston University, 2023) .............................................................................................. 47
Figure 35 - Components of PT (The Concrete Centre, 2017) ............................................................................ 49
Figure 36 - Photo showing concrete burst (Pototschnig, 2023) ......................................................................... 50
Figure 37 - Incomplete Grouting (Langley, n.d)................................................................................................. 51
Figure 38 - Syndey Opera House (Concrete Conservation, 2018)..................................................................... 51
Figure 39 - Marina Bay Sands (Patrick McCafferty et al, 2011) ......................................................................... 51
Figure 40 - Incheon Bridge (New Civil Engineer, 2009)..................................................................................... 51
Figure 41: Diagram showing the composition range of various virgin and secondary cementitious source
materials (The Institution of Structural Engineers, 2021). .................................................................................. 53
Figure 42: Availability of common SCMs (The Institution of Structural Engineers, 2021). ................................... 53
Figure 43: Taylor Woodrow Eco Park South Project completed using Ultra Low Carbon Concrete (Constructing
Excellence, 2022) ........................................................................................................................................... 55

Figure 41 - Lifecycle Stages and Modules (IStructE, 2020) ............................................................................... 56
Tables
Table 1. Slump test ranges ............................................................................................................................. 16
Table 2. Slump Test Results ........................................................................................................................... 16
Table 3. Flexure in concrete beams tested ...................................................................................................... 17
Table 4. Compression in concrete cubes tested .............................................................................................. 20
Table 6 - Embodied CO2 of designated concretes showing the influence of different cements, Specifying
Sustainable Concrete, 2020 (Centre, no date) ................................................................................................. 56
Table 7 – Material of that make up concrete & the Embodied CO2 showed for each material (Centre, no date) .. 57

1. Introduction
The report detailed the analysis conducted in two separate laboratories, F1 and F2, both specialised in Concrete
- Fresh and Hardened Properties. Lab F1 focused on studying the Properties of Fresh Concrete, with emphasis
on its workability. Lab F2 explored the Properties of Hardened Concrete, with emphasis on strength-related
characteristics. These two labs were integral to our academic investigation to evaluate concrete properties within
the Materials Lab at Workstation F.
Sand (or crushed aggregates), aggregates, water, and cement, which act as a binding agent combine to form
concrete. When concrete is fresh, it reaches a fluid state that enables it to be moulded into various shapes. In
contrast to other materials, concrete shows out to be very affordable. It accelerates the construction of huge
projects without sacrificing structural integrity as well as improving the ease of transfer of materials to
construction locations through being able to be transported as a liquid.
1.1 Background and Objectives - Fresh concrete

The process involving pouring, compaction, and completion of a concrete mix, without producing any separation
or segregation of its mix, is defined as workability. It is imperative to recognise that workability and consistency
are distinct attributes. The consistency of the material is dependent on the water content ratio of the concrete.
A slump test serves as a means to determine the workability of a concrete sample. To achieve a more workable
concrete (defined by a higher slump) a proportional increase in cement content is needed, as excessive water
compromises the strength of concrete.
On a level surface, such as a smooth steel plate, a cone with predetermined measurements is placed. A
concrete sample is collected out of the batch to be used to fill the cone in three layers, and each layer is
compacted (by a tamping rod) to remove air pockets and allow the concrete to settle (25 times per layer). After
doing this, the cone is carefully pulled off the concrete, and the concrete should collapse in on itself. In order to
measure the slump, the technician places the cone next to the concrete, levels the steel rod approximately, and
measures from the bottom of the rod to the top of the collapsed concrete, rounding the measurement to the
nearest 5mm.

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1.2 Background and Objectives – Hardened

concrete
Because of its many uses in construction and relatively low cost, concrete is a very versatile material. A vast
variety of materials, including unconventional ones like rubber or glass, can be used as aggregates in addition to
the more common ones like crushed stone, sand, gravel, and recycled concrete. It is an extremely helpful
material for urban building because of its physical qualities, which include high compressive strength, hardness,
fire resistance, high weight carrying capacity, and customisability. Concrete's inability to withstand high tensile
stresses is a drawback, which is why steel or other materials are frequently used to reinforce concrete in order to
increase its tensile strength. When working with reinforced concrete the diameter, spacing, and size of the bars
used in reinforced concrete construction all influence the attributes that the steel will impart to the hardened
concrete. These factors help decide the sort of reinforcement that is employed.
In order to guarantee that the concrete being used for beams and other construction parts will be able to fulfil its
purpose and sustain loads that it will meet in its practical lifetime, hardened concrete strength testing is a vital
procedure within the construction industry. In order to obtain the required results that can verify if a batch of
concrete is suitable for use, two different types of strength tests are required: the Compressive Strength test of
specimens (BSI, 2009) and the Flexural Strength of test specimens (BSI, 2009).
One 150 mm cube and one 150 mm diameter x 300 mm long cylinder were cast for the experiment, and their
compressive strengths were measured (BSI, 2009)Flexural strength tests were performed on 1 100 mm x 100
mm x 500 mm mini beam, 1 100 mm x 150 mm x 2440 mm under reinforced concrete beam, and 1 100 mm x
150 mm x 2400 mm reinforced concrete beam (BSI, 1983). After a day of casting, all cubes, cylinders, and
beams were remoulded and allowed to cure in a climate-controlled room with a humidity level of 95% and a
temperature of 20 degrees Celsius. To ascertain the maximum load for every element, testing was done on each
one until it failed.

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2. Theoretical Information
2.1 Concrete Characteristics
2.1.1 General Theory of Concrete Characteristics Behaviour
Concrete is a composite construction material, composed of cementitious materials such as cement, fly ash and
slag cement, aggregate, water, and other chemical admixtures. Note that the concrete referred to in the following
is “normal” concrete which usually refers to concrete with strength up to 50 MPa (Warner et al., 1998). Concrete
with strength beyond 50 MPa is considered high strength concrete which is not covered in here (FEAdvisory,
2021).
Unlike homogenous materials, concrete demonstrates completely different behaviour under different types of
stresses such as tension or compression. Hence different theories have been developed for analysing concrete
structures in tension and compression, also in shear. Tension and compression behaviours are discussed over
the following sections (FEAdvisory, 2021).
Properties of Concrete:
Grades of concrete
Concrete is known by its grade which is designated as M15, M20 etc. in which letter M refers to concrete mix and
number 15, 20 denotes the specified compressive strength (fck) of 150mm cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm2.
Thus, concrete is known by its compressive strength. M20 and M25 are the most common grades of concrete,
and higher grades of concrete should be used for severe and extreme environments (The Constructor, 2018a).
Compressive strength of concrete

Like load, the strength of the concrete is also a quality which varies considerably for the same concrete mix.
Therefore, a single representative value, known as characteristic strength, is used (The Constructor, 2018a).
The compressive strength of the concrete cube test provides an idea about all the characteristics of concrete. By
this single test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not. Concrete compressive strength
for general construction varies from 15 MPa to 30 MPa and higher in commercial and industrial structures.
Compressive strength of concrete depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio, cement strength, quality
of concrete material, quality control during the production of concrete, etc. (The Constructor, 2020).
Figure 1: The compressive strength of different grades of concrete at 7 and 28 Days after curing (The
Constructor, 2020)

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Characteristic strength of concrete

The characteristic strength is defined as the value of the strength below which no more than 5% of the test
results are expected to fall (i.e. there is 95% probability of achieving this value only 5% of not achieving the
same) (The Constructor, 2018a).
In flexural members, the characteristic strength of concrete is taken as 0.67 times the strength of a concrete
cube. The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known is known as design strength and is given by:
Design strength (fd) = characteristic strength/ partial safety factor for material strength
(The Constructor, 2018a)
The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and upon the type of limit state. According to
IS code, the partial safety factor is taken as 1.5 for concrete and the design strength of a concrete member is
taken to be 0.45fck (The Constructor, 2018a).
Tensile strength of concrete

The estimate of flexural tensile strength (or the modulus of rupture/cracking strength) of concrete from cube
compressive strength is obtained by the relations fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2. The tensile strength of concrete in direct
tension is obtained experimentally by split cylinder. It varies between 1/8 to 1/12 of cube compressive strength
(The Constructor, 2018a).
The tensile strength of concrete is one of the basic and important properties which greatly affect the extent and
size of cracking in structures. Moreover, the concrete is very weak in tension due to its brittle nature. Hence. It is
not expected to resist the direct tension. So, concrete develops cracks when tensile forces exceed its tensile
strength. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the tensile strength of concrete (The Constructor, 2018b).
2.1.2 Theory of Slump Test

Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete mix prepared at
the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work. Concrete slump test is carried out from
batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during construction. The slump test is the simplest
workability test for concrete as it involves minimal costs and provides immediate results (The Constructor, 2021).
Concrete with a slump that is low is very stiff, dry, and hard to work with. Concrete with a higher slump is more
fluid and workable (The Concrete Network, 2023).
Slump values are measured in the number of inches fresh concrete “slumps,” or sinks, when removed from an
inverted 12-inch-tall cone. The value can range from nearly zero, which means the concrete is extremely stiff and
has almost no workability, to a degree where the concrete is so wet and flowable that it completely collapses
when removed from the cone. On most projects, the ideal slump is somewhere in between these two extremes,
with the concrete being workable enough for easy placing and finishing but having adequate cohesion to prevent
segregation and loss of strength. (The Concrete Network, 2023).
Figure 2: Guidelines of concrete slump requirements for the construction use of various concrete
elements (The Concrete Network, 2023).
Depending on the water-cement ratio of the mix, the concrete slump will fall under one of four categories:
True slump — the concrete largely retains its cone shape, demonstrating that the mix is cohesive, and its
workability isn’t too high.
Zero slump — the concrete retains its shape completely. This shows that the mix is very dry (this kind of concrete
is best used in road construction).

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Shear slump — the top half of the concrete subsides dramatically, leaning to one side, meaning the mix has
workability but low cohesion. The mix may have too much water content and can be retested after being
amended.
Collapse — the mix doesn’t retain its shape at all and completely collapses. This means the water-cement ratio is
too high and needs to be fully amended.
(Total Concrete, 2023)
Figure 3: Visual representation of the four categories of slump test results (Total Concrete, 2023)
Water reducers and superplasticizers are great alternatives to increasing the slump of a concrete mix without
adding excess water. Not only will these admixtures increase the flow and enhance the workability of a concrete
mix, but they may also boost the strength because less water is needed, with reductions ranging from 10% to
40%, depending on the product used. (The Concrete Network, 2023).
2.1.3 Theory for Concrete Bending of Beams Bending and

cracking of concrete
Concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension. When a beam supported at 2 ends, cracking will occur
along the bottom of the concrete. Reinforcement is added to minimise cracking, and the top flange/section of
concrete will be in compression (Civil's Guide, 2020).
A beam should not deflect excessively under the service load. This can cause cracking to partition and finishes,
as well as impair the appearance of a structure causing concern for occupants/consumers using the structure.
The selection of limits to deflection will ensure that the structure is able to fulfil its required function while still
being economical. (Obinna, 2020).
In EC2, the deflection limits are calculated as follows. To satisfy basic span/effective depth requirements, actual
L/d must be greater than limiting L/d x βs. The limiting basic span/effective depth is given by:
Figure 4: Formulae used to calculate basic span/effective depth (Obinna, 2020)

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Types of Structural Cracks in Concrete Beams:
Several types of cracks occur in concrete beams due to shear stress called as shear crack, reinforcement
corrosion, insufficient rebar cover, bending stress and compression failure. The occurrence of various crack
patterns in the building mostly takes place during construction and/or after completion. A building component
develops cracks whenever the stress in the components exceeds its strength. Stress in the building component is
caused by externally applied loads (Raja, 2023).
01. Flexure Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Beams
Flexure word also means “Bending”. Cracking in reinforced concrete beams subjected to bending usually starts in
the tensile zone i.e. soffit of the beam. The width of flexural cracks in reinforced concrete beams for short-term
may stay narrow from the surface to the steel. However, in long-term under continuous loading, the width of crack
may get increased and become more uniform across the member (Raja, 2023).
Figure 5: Diagram showing crack patterns of a beam under flexural stress (Raja, 2023)
Causes or Possible Reasons:
• Flexural capacity of the beam is inadequate.
• When Cross section of the beam or main reinforcement in beam is insufficient. i.e. it is loaded more than
defined loads.
(Raja, 2023)
02. Shear Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Beams
Shear cracks in reinforced concrete beams occur in hardened stage and it is usually caused by structural (self-
weight) loading or movement. These types of cracks are better illustrated as diagonal tension cracks due to
combined effects of flexural (bending) & shearing action (Raja, 2023).

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Figure 6: Diagram showing crack patterns of a beam under shear stress (Raja, 2023)
• Shear Capacity of the beam is inadequate.
• Cross section or torsional reinforcement insufficient.
• Load on the beam is more than the designed load.
(Raja, 2023)

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• Concrete in a beam is disturbed at an early age when adequate strength not realised.
• Maybe due to disturbance of formwork at green stage or early de-shuttering.
(Raja, 2023)
06. Tension Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Beams
Tension cracks in reinforced concrete beams occur usually due to shrinkage or temperature variations. Tension
cracks usually appear in those members where restraint is provided in the longitudinal movements. Usually
tension cracks tend to propagate over the full depth of the cross-section of beam (Raja, 2023).
Figure 7: Diagram showing crack patterns of a beam experiencing tension stress (Raja, 2023)
• Capacity of the member in tension is inadequate.
• Tensile reinforcement is insufficient.
(Raja, 2023)

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3. Literature Review
3.1 Slump Test
The slump test is a means of assessing the consistency/ workability of fresh concrete. It is used, indirectly, as a
means of checking that the correct amount of water has been added to the mix. The test is carried out in
accordance with BS EN 12350-2, Testing fresh concrete. Slump test. (Society, no date ). The Slump test is widely
adopted on construction site to test the workability of the concrete that has arrived on site, by the type of slump
that is created relates to the workability of the concrete.
When the cone is removed, the slump may take one of three forms. In a true slump the concrete simply subsides,
keeping more or less to shape. In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips sideways. In
a collapse slump the concrete collapses completely. Only a true slump is of any use in the test. If a shear or
collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken, and the test repeated. A collapse slump will
generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which the flow test is more
appropriate (Society, no date ).
Figure 8 – Type of Slumps (Illston, 2010)
Figure 9 – The results table shows the Concrete Mix Ratio, the Slump Value, and the Degree of
Workability (Huey, no date)
Figure 9 – The results table shows the Concrete Mix Ratio, the Slump Value, and the Degree of Workability
(Huey, no date)showed the results of a similar experiment conducted by Ying Huey, where the object of the
Slump Test was to determine the effect of slump on different water/cement ratio and concrete mix (Huey, no
date).
The results of the Slump Test in Figure 8 – Type of Slumps (Illston, 2010), showed that the Concrete Mix Ratio of
Cement: Sand: Aggregate and water/ cement ratio plays an important role in the degree of Workability. Therefore,
the slump shape is direct function of these variables. Therefore, the ratio of all these quantities and values must
be choice precisely. The reliability of the results is considered to be acceptable because BS EN 12350-2 was
followed in this experiment.

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3.2 Compressive & Flexural Strength of Concrete
The assessment of compressive strength gauges how well a

substance can endure crushing forces. For example, in the
standard EN 1992 (The European Union Per Regulation,
1992), the concrete strength class ranges from C12/15 to
C90/105, meaning that the characteristic strength of cylinders
and that of cubic specimens are respectively in a range 12–90
MPa and 15–105 MPa. During the design stage, designers
must size the dimensions of the concrete members to resist
the imposed loads based on some compressive strength
classes (Chi-Cong Vu, 2020). The average compressive
strength of fine, medium and coarse-aggregated samples of
concrete can be seen in the figure below:
Figure 10. Histograms and normal distribution fits

of the compressive strength of concrete samples
(Chi-Cong Vu, 2020)
Flexural strength assesses the capacity of an unreinforced beam to withstand bending failure. A study by Mohd Ahmed
delved into the disparities in flexural and compressive strength within traditional concrete. Their findings indicated that
the flexural strength of the examined concrete samples ranged from 10-20% of the concrete's compressive strength.
However, this correlation was subject to various influences, including the degree of interlocking between aggregates and
cement paste, as well as the characteristics of the coarse aggregates incorporated into the mix. Anticipations were
aligned with the idea that the connection between compressive (cube and cylinder specimens) and flexural (mini beam
specimens) strength would mirror the outcomes obtained by Mohd. (Mohd. Ahmed, 2016). Mohd’s results can be seen in
the figure below:
Figure 11. Comparative analysis of predicted flexure strength of combined age and confining conditions using
square root model equations.

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3.3 Under and Over Reinforced Concrete Beams

There are cases where the concrete beams can either be under-reinforced, where the reinforcement is not
enough, or the beam can be over-reinforced, where there is much more reinforcement than needed for the
concrete beam.
As seen in Figure 12: Experimental Load-Deflection Graphs for CC Beams (Halit Cenan Mertol, 2015) below,
there is a difference between the effects of loading from over-reinforced and under-reinforced concrete beams.
With under-reinforced beams, the load the beam can take is much lower compared to over-reinforced beams and
the deflection is much higher for under-reinforced beams. This suggests that there is not enough reinforcement,
and it is a beam which is inefficient for higher loading scenarios. However, the beam is much more ductile as it
has its deflection on a continual increase. This is much different in comparison to over-reinforced beams as they
can handle much larger loads compared to under-reinforced beams. But, past the ultimate tensile strength of the
beam, the deflection of the beam drops drastically, meaning that is it not as ductile as beams that are under-
reinforced.
Figure 12: Experimental Load-Deflection Graphs for CC Beams (Halit Cenan Mertol, 2015)
Figure 13: Concrete Compressive Strength and Section Behaviour for Beam Specimen (Halit Cenan
Mertol, 2015)
Also, Figure 13 above shows that the overall compressive strength of the concrete is higher if the concrete beam
is less reinforced compared to concrete beams that are over-reinforced.

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4. Test Materials, Equipment and

Experimental Procedure
4.1 Concrete Mix
4.1.1 Materials
The following materials were used to create C30 concrete:
• Cement CEM 1 – 37.66kg

• Water – 18.20kg
• Fine Aggregate (Sand) - 49.20kg
• Coarse Aggregate (NA) – 114.82kg
4.1.2 Concrete Mix Equipment

The following equipment was used for mixing concrete:
• Pan & Mixer
• Aluminium Scoopers
• Shovels
• Digital Weighing Scale
• Stopwatch

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4.1.3 Concrete Mix Procedure
Figure 14: Concrete Mix Procedure

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4.2 Workability (Slump Test)

4.2.1 Materials & Equipment
The following materials and equipment were used for the slump test:
• Base
• Slump cone
• Slump compacting rod
• Funnel
• Aluminium Scooper
• Measure (ruler)
• Data Sheet

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4.2.2 Slump Test Procedure
Figure 15: Slump Test Procedure

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4.3 Casting and Curing Concrete

The following materials and equipment were used to cast and cure the concrete specimens:
• Moulds for the following:
o 2No. 100x150x2440mm
o 4No. 150x150mm cubes
• Aluminium scooper
• Vibrating Table
• Wooden packers
• Float/trowel for finishing
• Reinforcement clips
• Bucket and brushes for cleaning
• Low yield steel reinforcement bars
• High yield steel reinforcement bars
• Curing tank

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4.3.2 Casting and Curing Concrete Procedure

4.3.2.1 Concrete cubes
Figure 16. Casting Concrete Cubes Procedure

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4.3.2.2 Concrete Beams Procedure
Figure 17. Casting Concrete Beams Procedure

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4.4 Compressive Strength Test

• Automatic compressive testing machine (CTM)
• Cloth
• 4No. 150mm sq. cube specimens
• Data sheet
• Pen/pencil
4.4.2 Compressive Test Procedure
Figure 18. Compressive Test Procedure

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4.5 Flexural Strength Test

• Dial gauge
• Load cell
• Bearing on either side
• 2No. steel support beams
• Data sheet
• Marker pen
• Pen/pencil
• 2No. beams 100 x 150 x 2440mm (1 under reinforced and 1 over reinforced)

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4.5.2 Flexural Strength Test Procedure
Figure 19. Flexural Strength Test Procedure

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5. Results, Sample Calculations,
Graphs and Discussion
5.1 Results
Workability
For workability, the value of the concrete’s slump was recorded. Sample calculations for highlighted rows are
shown on page 20.
Table 1. Slump test ranges
Slump value (mm) Type of Slump
0-25 Very low workability
25-50 Low workability
50-100 Medium workability
100-175 High workability
Source: (Testbook Edu Solutions, 2023)
Table 2. Slump Test Results
Attempt # Slump Value (mm) Slump Type Workability
1 10 "Zero" Very Low
2 105 "True" High
120
100
Slump Value (mm)
80
60
40
20
0
1 2
Attempt #
Figure 20. Slump Value (mm) for 2 No. mixes of C30

Strength
After 14 days of curing, the concrete beams were tested for flexural strength, whereas the concrete cubes were
tested for compressive strength. This can be seen in the data below.
Table 3. Flexure in concrete beams tested
Load (kN) High Yield Low Yield
Displacement (mm) Actual Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm) Actual Displacement (mm)
0 0.42 0.00 0.08 0.00
1 0.61 0.19 0.30 0.22
2 0.81 0.39 0.56 0.48
3 1.05 0.63 0.81 0.73
4 1.26 0.84 1.15 1.07
5 1.55 1.13 1.60 1.52
6 1.94 1.52 2.36 2.28
7 2.40 1.98 2.92 2.84
8 2.81 2.39 3.50 3.42
9 3.28 2.86 4.04 3.96
10 3.67 3.25 4.51 4.43
11 4.16 3.74 5.12 5.04
12 4.60 4.18 5.64 5.56
13 4.98 4.56 6.09 6.01
14 5.41 4.99 6.59 6.51
15 5.81 5.39 7.18 7.10
16 6.27 5.85 7.66 7.58
17 6.70 6.28 8.18 8.10
18 7.12 6.70 8.67 8.59
19 7.58 7.16 9.39 9.31
20 7.96 7.54 10.00 9.92
21 8.41 7.99 10.60 10.52
22 8.78 8.36
23 9.25 8.83
24 9.71 9.29
25 10.11 9.69
26 10.55 10.13
27 11.02 10.60
28 11.44 11.02
29 11.89 11.47
30 12.33 11.91
31 12.85 12.43
32 13.31 12.89
33 13.87 13.45
34 14.36 13.94
35 15.59 15.17
36 16.16 15.74
37 16.93 16.51
38 17.60 17.18
39 18.80 18.38
45
40
35
30
25
Load (kN)
20
15
Plastic
Elastic
10
0
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00
Actual Dispacement (mm)
High Yield Low Yield
Figure 21. Load and displacement in high and low yield concrete beams
Table 4. Compression in concrete cubes tested
Cubes (150mm) Failure Load (kN) Compressive Strength (Mpa)
1 723.0 32
2 483.9 22
3 431.8 19
4 556.3 25
Average 548.8 24.4
4
Cubes (150mm)
0 10 20 30 40
Compressive Strength (Mpa)
Figure 22. Compressive strength results for 4 concrete cubes tested
5.2 Calculations
5.2.1 Concrete Beam
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) − 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 0𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
0.42𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.61𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 0.19𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
5.2.2 Cube samples

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝑁𝑁) 723𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = = 32.133𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 ) 150𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 150𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
5.3 Discussion
5.3.1 Lab F1: Properties of Fresh Concrete – Workability
(Slump Test)
The Slump Test is covered in BS EN 12350-2, where it is known as single-point test (Illston, 2010).The concrete
slump test was developed to determine the workability or consistency of concrete mix prepared at the laboratory
or the construction site during the progress of the work. Concrete slump test is carried out from batch to batch to
check the uniform quality of concrete during construction. The slump test is the simplest workability test for
concrete, involves low cost and provides immediate results. (Constructor, no date ).
The results that were obtained on the Thursday 30th November 2023 for the Slump Test showed the following in
the figures below.
Figure 23. Slump test #1 Figure 24. Slump test #2
In Section 5.1 Results, in Table 2. Slump Test Results, showed that Error! Reference source not found.
(Attempt 1) had a slump value of 10mm, which meant that it was a Zero Slump and therefore had a very low
workability rating as 10mm fell into the range of 0-25mm in accordance with Table 1. Slump test , Whereas
Figure 24 (Attempt 2) had a slump value of 105mm, which meant that it was a True Slump. Therefore Attempt 2
was considered to have a high workability as the 105mm fell within the range of 100 – 175mm in accordance with
Table 1. Slump test .
Attempt 1 - Zero Slump - This meant the concrete retained its shape and showed the concrete was very dry.
Furthermore, this meant the mix consistency was very stiff (Limited, no date ). Therefore, this concrete could not
be used in the formwork of the reinforced concrete beams due to the workability being very low. This type of
concrete would be used for backing of kerbs for a highway scheme as it will allow the kerbs to rest against the
concrete, without the concrete falling over.
Attempt 2 – True Slump - The concrete largely retains its cone shape, demonstrating that the mix is cohesive,
and its workability isn’t too high (Limited, no date ). As Attempt 2 was a True Slump value, this meant that this
concrete at its current state was placed into the form work of the reinforced concrete beam moulds. This was
achieved because of the high workability of the concrete. Therefore, high workability concrete can be used to
create RC Beams as the mixture is not to wet but not too dry which allows the concrete to easily sink into the
corners of the form work after vibration.
In Civil engineering the workability of concrete is very important to make sure the concrete is useable for the job it
is intended for. The different slump test values are needed for different situations of construction. For example, a
Zero Slump workability is suitable for Highway Construction, where this concrete would be used for the bedding
and backing for kerbs due to the workability being stiffer, which allows operative to keep the kerbs in place.
Some factors that could have affected the Slump Test value and hence the Slump Type (Constructor, no date ):
• Material properties like chemistry, fineness, particle size distribution, moisture content and temperature
of cementitious materials. Size, texture, combined grading, cleanliness, and moisture content of the
aggregates,
• Air content of concrete,
• Concrete batching, mixing, and transporting methods and equipment,
• Temperature of the concrete,
• Sampling of concrete, slump-testing technique, and the condition of test equipment,
• The amount of free water in the concrete
• Water/ Cement Ratio, which was 0.48.
• Time since mixing of concrete at the time of testing.
The water cement ratio was 0.48 for the concrete that was tested. This ratio could have deviated from this value
slightly due to human error in the procedure of making the concrete. The function of the water cement ratio has
direct impact on the compressive strength, workability and durability of the concrete mix. The water cement ratio
of 0.48 gave a high workability, which allowed the concrete to be easily placed into steel form work. If the ratio
was any higher or lower the concrete mix would have been too wet or dry.
5.3.2 Lab F2: Properties of Hardened Concrete – Strength

There are a variety of properties hardened concrete has which make it beneficial when it comes to its use in the
engineering world. The most important property is the strength of the concrete, which was tested in this
experiment. There were two tests conducted; one where the concrete mix produced was moulded into cubes and
another made as a concrete beam. Compressive strength of the cubes was tested, and flexural strength of the
beam was tested. The testing for compressive strength is covered in BS EN 12350-3 (Anon, 2011) and the
testing for flexural strength is covered in BS EN 12930-5 (Anon, 2009).
The results that were obtained on the Thursday 30th November 2023 for the Strength Tests showed the following.
See Table 3, Table 4, and Figure 22 for further details:
Compression test:
- Results show the compressive strength of the concrete to average out at 24.4 MPa, with peak
compressive strength to be at 32.1 MPa, whilst the lowest compressive strength to be at 24.7 MPa,
showing a range in compressive strength overall between the cubes.
- The mix produced, labelled as C30 for a target compressive strength of 30MPa, yielded an average
strength approximately 19% below the specified value. This discrepancy may be due curing for 14 days
instead of the recommended amount of 28 days to reach full strength. Additionally, discrepancy may be
attributed to air voids in the concrete affecting cube strength. Consideration for a larger sample size is
advisable to obtain a more representative average. Additionally, variations in aggregate content between
the cube mix and the actual cast beams could contribute to the observed lower strength, emphasising
the need for more extensive testing to address this factor.
Figure 25 - Concrete Cube Post Compressive Strength Test
Figure 25 shows one of the four concrete cubes that were created in a very deformed and cracked state after the
compressive strength of the concrete cube had been tested. The cubes were made 150mm x 150mm. As seen in
Table 4, there was an outlier in terms of compressive strength and failure load. The first cube had a failure load of
723.0 kN which is much higher than the other values for failure load. Also, as mentioned before, there was a high
compressive strength as well. This could have been due to the actual makeup of the concrete within the block
and thus was a factor that could not have been controlled,
Flexural Strength test:
Over reinforced concrete beams utilising high yield bars was able to withstand a much larger force than under
reinforced concrete beam utilising low yield bars, failing at a force of 39 kN, while the under reinforced beam
failed at 21 kN, thus displaying it to have a much higher flexural strength than the under reinforced beam.
Flexural shear crack,

brittle failure
Flexural crack
Figure 26: Over Reinforced Beam Cracking

Flexural crack
at failure -
ductile failure
Only flexural
cracks
Figure 27 - Under Reinforced Beam Cracking
Figure 19 above shows the cracks and failure of the over reinforced beam while Figure 27 shows the cracks and
failure of the under reinforced beam. It was assumed by the group that the low yield beam would crack at a lower
applied force than the high yield beam before the experiment took place, and the experiment proved the
assumption to be correct. The over reinforced beam demonstrated a brittle failure at 39kN as indicated by the
shear flexural cracks. This is due to a large amount of tension being carried by the high yield bars, however the
same amount of load needs to be carried on the compression side (top). As the compression side did not have
the capacity to carry the load; failure was sudden as the concrete crushed before the steel had a chance to yield.
Brittle failure is not good for structural design due to sudden failure without warning and can be catastrophic.
On the other hand, Figure 19 shows the under reinforced beam where only flexural cracks were observed. The
cracks started to appear gradually as beam deflects due to the steel reinforcement yielding. Displacements were
gradual and beam failed at 21kN with a displacement of 10.52mm demonstrating a ductile failure.
This falls in line with the theory of under-reinforced and over-reinforced beams as it was shown in Figure 12 as
the results displayed the over-reinforced beam being able to taker a larger load but it has brittle failure whilst the
under-reinforced beam could only take a lower load but had ductile failure.
Ductile failure is preferred over brittle failure in structural engineering because ductile materials underwent
significant deformation before failing, providing warning signs and allowing for potential corrective actions. This
deformation allows structures to absorb and redistribute energy, preventing sudden and catastrophic collapses. In
contrast, brittle failure occurred with minimal deformation and often resulted in sudden and complete structural
collapse, posing a higher risk to safety and reducing the structure’s ability to withstand dynamic loads or
unforeseen stresses. Prioritising ductility enhanced the overall safety and resilience of structures.
This test is very important, as identifying the different strengths of the concrete enables the understanding of the
capabilities of the concrete, and thus it can be identified as to where and which situations said concrete can be
used, whether that be in building construction or any other avenue of construction.
Factors that could affect compressive and flexural strength of concrete (Krivenko, 2020):
• Alkali content of cement
• Air bubbles
• Curing conditions
• Concrete age
• Mixture
• Moisture Content
6. Conclusions
6.1 Lab F1: Properties of Fresh Concrete –
Workability (Slump Test)
In civil engineering, concrete workability is critical. Different slump test values are needed for various construction
situations to find out the workability of the concrete needed for the job at hand. The Slump Test is covered in BS
EN 12350-2, where it is known as single-point test (Illston, 2010). Moreover, the slump test is very quick and
cheap to find the workability of a batch of concrete, which has made this test very popular in the construction
industry.
The results that were obtained on the Thursday 30th November 2023 for the Slump Test showed that two different
slump types were achieved, these were a Zero Slump (Test 1) and a True Slump (Test 2). This meant that
workability of the concrete in Test 2 was greater than the concrete in test 1. Therefore, due to having a high
workability, this allowed the concrete to easily be placed in the formwork of the RC Beams. The workability is a
function of water cement ratio and therefore if the amount of water is too high the concrete mix will be highly
workable, thus a large slump test value will be obtained. Whereas, if the amount of cement is too high, the
concrete mix will be too dry and thus a smaller slump value will be obtained. This testing method is cortical on
construction sites to find the workability of the concrete mix as this plays a big role in how the concrete will
compact and cure, as this will directly impact the compressive strength of the concrete.
To conclude the Lab F1: Properties of Fresh Concrete – Workability (Slump Test) was successful because the
objectives were met as the workability of the concrete was found at different two distinct stages whilst making the
concrete. Therefore, the results obtained can be considered reliable and accurate.
6.2 Lab F2: Properties of Hardened Concrete –

Strength
In civil engineering, the compressive and flexural strengths of the concrete are important factors to take into
consideration. As engineers, depending on the application, it is key to consider what type of concrete must be
used, as well as the chemical and physical properties, which will improve the strength of the concrete.
The results that were obtained on Thursday 30th November 2023 from the Strength Tests for flexural strength and
compressive strength showed the concrete to be more effective if it was high yield, and that the mixture
presented had good compressive strength.
Lab F2's findings revealed that the C30 mix had unexpectedly low compressive strength, which resulted in the
premature failure of both beams. As a result, the beams did not achieve the required compressive strength.
However, both high-yield and low-yield beams exhibited success in flexural strength due to reinforcement, but the
high-yield beam experienced a brittle failure, which was a concern in structural design. However, the high yield
beam was successful in terms of being able to take a created load that then low yield beam, but is not
recommend to be used in construction. On the other hand, the under-reinforced beam showed ductile failure,
which was favourable for gradual deformation in structural design but could not take a greater load than over
reinforced beam. In the industry, a balanced and optimised design critical to allow for these factors to be
accounted for in structures.
Despite the challenges, the lab was successful overall and achieved its objectives by determining the
compressive and flexural strength of hardened concrete, providing valuable insights for practical applications.
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Appendix A Lab Tutorial Sheets
Appendix B
Appendix C Individual Element
C.1 Question 1 – George Worsfold and Alpha Diallo
In concrete production, it is important that concrete is placed, compacted, and cured properly in order to ensure the concrete
has the potential to achieve its full strength. Explain each of the methods and discuss the effects to the concrete if these are not
carried out properly: (i) placing, (ii) compaction and (iii) curing.
George Worsfold – K2165553

I. Introduction
The importance of appropriate placing, compaction and curing cannot be understated in the world of civil
engineering. Proper execution of the aforementioned is crucial in achieving optimal concrete strength, and
any negligence in these processes can have detrimental effects on the final product.
II. Placing of Concrete

Placing is defined by the American concrete institution as the deposition, distribution, and consolidation of
freshly mixed concrete in the place where it is to harden. It contributes to the determination of the concrete’s
characteristic strength, as well as its durability.
Before any concrete is placed, rigid, level, and clean formwork must be in position and accessible. And you
must have all the right equipment ready. If the truck mixer cannot discharge directly into the forms, you will
need skips, barrows, or pumps ( British Ready Mixed Concrete Association, 2008).
Controlled pouring is often implemented when there is a large amount of concrete

needed. A pouring pattern is used to ensure that fresh concrete is not poured onto areas
of already-settled concrete. This enables the concrete placing procedure to avoid
segregation and air entrapment within the mixture.
Figure 28. Formwork Illustration ( British Ready Mixed Concrete Association, 2008).
Poor concrete techniques almost always lead to flaking, deterioration, and premature failure (Maxwell,
2023).
III. Compaction of Concrete

Compaction is the process which expels entrapped air from freshly placed concrete and packs the
aggregate particles together so as to increase the density of concrete. It increases significantly the ultimate
strength of concrete and enhances the bond with reinforcement. It also increases the abrasion resistance
and general durability of the concrete, decreases the permeability and helps to minimise its shrinkage-and-
creep characteristics (Cement Concrete Aggregates Austrailia, 2006).
Methods of compaction include the following:

• Hand compaction. Used for small, simple structures, hand compaction involves “rodding” the
concrete at sharp corners and edges.
• Mechanical compaction. Vibration is imparted to the concrete by mechanical means. This causes
temporary liquefaction so that air bubbles come to the top and are expelled.
• Pressure compaction. In this method, stiff concrete is subjected to external pressure from the top
and vibration from the bottom along with a series of jolting actions.
• Compaction by spinning. Also known as centrifugation, this method is used in the manufacture of
concrete pipes, lamp posts etc.
(Designing Buildings Wiki, 2022)
The effects of inadequate compaction on the hardened properties of

concrete are vast, with voids and honeycombing easily visible on the
surface of the concrete when the formwork is removed, decreasing the
strength of the concrete.
Figure 29. Improperly Cured
Concrete Illustration (Anon., 2008)
IV. Curing of Concrete
Concrete curing is the process of maintaining adequate moisture in concrete within a proper temperature range in
order to aid cement hydration at early ages. Hydration is the chemical reaction between cement and water that
results in the formation of various chemicals contributing to setting and hardening.
Careful control of moisture and temperature of your in-situ concrete during curing is an essential part of quality
control and quality assurance of your concrete structure. Proper curing techniques will prevent in-situ concrete
from drying, shrinking, and/or cracking.
(Hearns, 2023)
Methods of concrete curing include:

Shading concrete work. This prevents water from evaporating from the concrete surface.
Covering concrete surfaces with hessian or gunny bags. These are periodically wetted.
Sprinkling of water. This is mostly used for curing floor slabs. The concrete is allowed to set sufficiently before
sprinkling is started.
Ponding method. After placing the concrete, its exposed surface is first covered with moist hessian or canvas.
After 24 hours, these covers are removed, and small ponds of clay or sand are built across and along the
pavements. The area is thus divided into several rectangles. The water is filled between the ponds.
Membrane curing. A membrane prevents the evaporation of water from the concrete and can be either in solid or
liquid form. They are also known as sealing compounds.
Steam curing. With this method of curing, the strength development of concrete is very rapid. It is best used in
precast concrete work.
(Suryakanta, 2014)
Improper curing reduces the concrete’s strength, increases its permeability, and promotes the development of
cracks in the structure. It also fosters surface defects and a reduction in durability. Appropriate curing, using
sufficient moisture for a suitable amount of time, is essential to ensure optimal concrete performance and
structural duration, preventing issues such as cracking and insufficient structural integrity.
V. Interactions Between Placing, Compaction, and Curing

All three of the aforementioned processes are symbiotic with each other and define the strength, duration, and
quality of the produced concrete structure. These relationships are summarised in the figure below:
Figure 30. Interrelationships between Placing, Compaction and Curing

VI. Case Studies
The Hoover Dam’s construction was conducted in fits and starts. Rather than being a single block of concrete,
the dam was built as a series of individual columns. Trapezoidal in shape, the columns rose in five-foot lifts. The
reason that the dam was built in this fashion was to allow the tremendous heat produced by the curing concrete
to dissipate. Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam were built in a single continuous pour,
the concrete would have gotten so hot that it would have taken 125 years for the concrete to cool to ambient
temperatures. The resulting stresses would have caused the dam to crack and crumble away (Bureau of
Reclamation, 2015).
During the construction phase of the Millenium Bridge in 2000, challenges arose from the placement and
compaction of the bridge’s supporting piers. Along with inadequate curing combined with heavy pedestrian
footfall, the bridge had to be shut down two days after its opening for engineers to address the hairline cracks
that had started to form.
VII. Best Practices and Recommendations

Concrete mix proportions are designed to achieve it desired properties it’s placing, compaction and curing are
also critical to realize potential of a concrete as an end product. Mixing, transporting, and handling of concrete
should be cautiously synchronized with placing and finishing operations. Concrete should not be deposited more
rapidly than it can be spread evenly, struck off, consolidated, and finished to its final position. It must also be
allowed a substantial time to cure. Planning concrete pour plays important role to achieve above along with its
placing, compaction and finally finishing (happhoadmin7, n.d.).
I am -=-igure 31. Moist Curing Time and Compressive Strength Gain (Zemajtis, n.d.)
VIII. Conclusion
It is important to note the how significant parts proper placing, compacting and curing practices can play in the
production of concrete structures. This essay has highlighted the interconnectedness of all three processes and
how they each influence concrete’s strength and durability, both individually and as related pairs (see Figure 30).
Adherence to the previously mentioned “best practices” is vital to ensure that concrete is produced both durable
and strong. However, the field of concrete production is not completely accounted for; additional education and
research into the exciting topic will undoubtedly advance the world of civil engineering even further.
IX. References
British Ready Mixed Concrete Association, 2008. A practical guide for site personnel: Placing, compacting and
curing concrete. [Online]
Available at:
https://brmca.org.uk/documents/BRMCA_TCC_Placing_compacting_and_curing_concrete_May_2008.pdf
Maxwell, S., 2023. 12 Most Common Mistakes When Pouring Concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://www.familyhandyman.com/list/mistakes-pouring-
concrete/#:~:text=Pouring%20Concrete%20Mistakes&text=Poor%20concrete%20techniques%20almost%20alwa
ys,flaking%2C%20deterioration%20and%20premature%20failure.
Cement Concrete Aggregates Austrailia, 2006. Compaction of Concrete. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.boral.com.au/sites/default/files/media/field_document/Compaction%20of%20Concrete.pdf
Designing Buildings Wiki, 2022. Concrete compaction. [Online]
Available at: https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Concrete_compaction
Hearns, A., 2023. Curing Techniques for Improving the Compressive Strength of Concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://www.giatecscientific.com/education/curing-techniques-for-measuring-the-compressive-
strength-of-
concrete/#:~:text=Concrete%20curing%20is%20the%20process,contributing%20to%20setting%20and%20harde
ning.
Suryakanta, 2014. Methods Used For Curing of Concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://civilblog.org/2014/05/16/6-methods-of-curing-of-concrete/
Bureau of Reclamation, 2015. The Story of Hoover Dam - Essays. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/history/essays/concrete.html#:~:text=Bureau%20of%20Reclamation%20engi
neers%20calculated,to%20crack%20and%20crumble%20away.
happhoadmin7, n.d. Concrete: Placing, Compaction and Curing. [Online]
Available at: https://happho.com/concrete-placing-compaction-curing/
Zemajtis, J. Z., n.d. Role of Concrete Curing. [Online]
Available at: https://www.cement.org/learn/concrete-technology/concrete-construction/curing-in-construction
Question 1 – Alpha Diallo K1942624
In concrete production, it is important that concrete is placed, compacted and cured

properly in order to ensure the concrete has the potential to achieve its full strength. Explain
each of the methods and discuss the effects to the concrete if these are not carried out
properly:
(i) placing, (ii) compaction and (iii) curing
When it comes to casting concrete elements in construction, several factors play a

crucial role in determining the ultimate durability and effectiveness of the concrete,
aside from the inherent material properties. Three of these influential factors
encompass the proper placement, thorough compaction, and meticulous curing of
the concrete. If each of these steps is executed correctly, in accordance with the
designer’s specifications and established best practices, the concrete mixture will
achieve its intended performance, attaining the desired strength level with minimal or
no defects or imperfections.
On the contrary, if they are not carried out correctly, they have the potential to cause
structural and visual defects, some of which could result in significant financial
implications to resolve. Ultimately, the placing, compacting, and curing of concrete
need to be thought of and planned in detail by the construction teams well in
advance of all concrete pours to ensure that all factors, specific to that individual
pour, are considered. On the contrary, if they are not carried out correctly, they have
the potential to cause structural and visual defects, some of which could result in
significant financial implications to resolve. Ultimately, the placing, compacting, and
curing of concrete need to be thought of and planned in detail by the construction
teams well in advance of all concrete pours to ensure that all factors, specific to that
individual pour, are considered.
Placing:
The initial phase of concrete placement involves the transfer of concrete from the
delivery wagon into the designated element being poured. This process can be
accomplished through various means, ranging from the use of concrete skips and
tremie pipes to static and mobile concrete pumps, or even directly from the chute at
the rear of the concrete wagon. The choice of method may be influenced by the
specific concrete mix requirements, especially concerning its workability. For
instance, in the case of an S3 classified concrete mix with a slump of 100mm, it
would be unsuitable for pumping due to its dry consistency, which could potentially
block the pipework. Hence, this factor must be taken into account during planning
and execution.
Once the concrete has then been discharged into the element, it should then be
placed in equal layers in no more than 500mm thickness. This will allow that layer of
concrete to be compacted sufficiently before the next layer is applied.
(www.concrete.org.uk, n.d.)
Good concrete placement is vital to avoid structural failures an example of this but
not limited to are cold joints however not all cold joints are structural problems, but
they are inherently weaker than the surrounding concrete, thus presenting a potential
plane of fracture. On exposed concrete surfaces, a cold joint can lead to cosmetic
issues and become visually unappealing. Another consideration in preventing cold
joints is the time interval between each concrete load placement. Generally, this
duration should not exceed 2 hours, but it diminishes considerably in warmer
weather conditions due to the accelerated setting of the concrete.
Figure 1- photo of a cold joint

(taken by Alpha 2023)
When pouring elements such as columns, walls, and deep foundations, correct
placement is crucial to prevent the separation of aggregates when pouring from a
height. Separation leads to voids within the concrete, making it more vulnerable to
water entry, which can cause corrosion and failure of the concrete. This condition,
referred to as honeycombing, is not visually appealing on exposed concrete surfaces
and results in reduced strength. To avoid this tremie pipes are employed to enable
the placement of concrete at the pile’s base, while also preventing the separation of
aggregates from the cement. This separation would occur if the concrete were
allowed to free fall from ground level.
Compaction:
After the concrete is placed, the following step is to ensure it is thoroughly

compacted to eliminate any significant voids and air pockets from the mixture.
Insufficient compaction and the presence of voids can compromise the concrete’s
integrity for several reasons:
• The concrete’s overall strength can be reduced by up to 5% for each 1% of

void or air pocket present.
• Similar to the effects of segregation, the presence of voids increases the
concrete’s permeability, decreasing its durability and its resistance to
corrosion of the steel reinforcement.
• There’s poor adhesion with and around the steel reinforcement, resulting in
diminished strength performance.
• Voids lead to honeycombing and flaws on the exposed concrete surface,
which are unsightly and aesthetically displeasing, necessitating repairs.
• Air entrainment will reduce concrete strength. As
“a general rule, a 1% increase in the concrete air content will decrease the 28-
day compressive strength by about 3 to 5%.”
(https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/trailer/resources/hif20085.pdf)
To mitigate these issues, the most widely used method of compaction in construction
is vibration, particularly through the use of vibrating pokers. This technique increases
the fluidity of the concrete and forces entrapped air to the surface.
Vibrating pokers are come in various sizes to suit different concrete mixes. The size
of the poker affects its radius of action, with a larger diameter leading to a wider area
of effect. In situations where the reinforcement is densely packed or access is
restricted, such as in deep wall pours, external vibrators can be attached to the
formwork. The concrete is then laid in layers, and the vibrator is activated once the
required length is filled to achieve compaction. However, there are drawbacks to this
method: the equipment generates significant noise, there’s a risk of losing grout, and
the formwork must be strong enough to endure the vibrations, which is not a concern
when using a standard concrete poker.
Curing:
The curing of concrete can be described as the process of providing sufficient

moisture, temperature, and time to enable the concrete to reach its required
properties for its intended application. It is essential to protect concrete while it is
curing from factors such as high temperatures, drying winds, and freeze-thaw cycles
to prevent negative effects on the concrete. Failure to adequately protect the slab
during these conditions may result in defects like cracking, crazing, and
delamination.
Cracking in concrete can arise from various causes, but effective curing is crucial in
preventing it. A common form of cracking is plastic shrinkage cracks, which occur
when the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of bleeding, leading the concrete to
dry out before it has fully cured throughout the depth of the element.
To mitigate these issues, the following strategies are crucial:
Placement: Implementing techniques such as layering, timing between concrete

deliveries, selecting the correct mix, and using the right placing equipment.
Compaction: Employing the appropriate vibration method and equipment type for the
concrete mix and structural element.
Curing: Utilising the correct curing methods under the given pouring conditions,
including the use of frost blankets or polythene sheets.
This type of cracking is particularly likely in warmer temperatures or high wind

conditions, which accelerate the evaporation of bleed water. Mitigation strategies
include shielding the concrete from wind, providing shade possibly through polythene
membranes, or applying spray-on membrane curing agents to protect against these
factors.
In colder weather, particularly below 5°C in the UK, it is important to insulate the
concrete to prevent the water within the mix from freezing before the concrete has
fully cured. If freezing occurs, it will expand and cause cracking. A common
mitigation method is the use of frost blankets to keep the concrete insulated.
A modern method for monitoring the curing process involves the use of
thermocouples, which are cast into the concrete and provide real-time temperature
readings at regular intervals. This allows for the early identification of potential
defects, including cracks, by understanding how the concrete is curing and what
measures may be needed to control and manage the process effectively.
In summary, the placement, compaction, and curing of concrete are crucial steps in
ensuring the concrete achieves the desired strength.
Corrosion Visual Cracking Segregation Voids/cold joints Mitigations

defects
Placing Implement layering, schedule

intervals between concrete batches,
ensure proper mix and use suitable
placing equipment.
Implement layering, schedule
intervals between concrete batches,
ensure proper mix and use suitable
placing equipment.
Compacting Use the appropriate vibration

method and equipment tailored to
the concrete type and structural
component.
Use the appropriate vibration
method and equipment tailored to
the concrete type and structural
component.
Curing Apply the appropriate curing
method for the prevailing
conditions of the pour, using
insulating materials such as frost
blankets or plastic sheeting.
Apply the appropriate curing
method for the prevailing
conditions of the pour, using
insulating materials such as frost
blankets or plastic sheeting.
Reference:
Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete Observations from the FHWA Mobile Concrete Technology
Center. (n.d.). Available at:
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/trailer/resources/hif20085.pdf.
Concrete.org.uk. (2020). Available at: https://www.concrete.org.uk.
C.2 Question 2 – KK
Explain as to why concrete needed to be reinforced, the purpose of having
spacing, the different diameter of the reinforced steel used and the role of
concrete in reinforced concrete. Explain what FRP reinforcement is and what
other types of fibre reinforcement commonly used in the industry. Talk about
construction projects where fibre reinforcement are being used.
I. Introduction
Concrete is a very useful material within construction. It is used in various scenarios, such as in the creation of
buildings, bridges, and many other structures due to its compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength,
stability, and durability. However, concrete alone is not enough to support many of the modern-day structures in
the world and thus require adaptation such as reinforcements to allow it to be stronger and much more durable.
II. Need for Reinforcement
Reinforcement in concrete is used for many advantages. The main purpose of using reinforcement within
concrete is that it provides additional support and strength to the concrete without drastically increasing size of
structures. The steel reinforcement that is usually used in concrete is used to support the concrete in tension
when it is as a beam and is also used as a compressive support for concrete columns and walls as it provides
more extra strength (American Concrete Institute, n.d.).
This application of reinforcements is very important. For example, in locations where buildings are designed to be
vertically high in length, the supports of the builing must be much stronger. Therefore, notrmal concrete coulmns
or beams would most likely not be able to hold the weight of such buildings. Thus, the reinforcemnt would be
included as a measure of increasing the strength of the concrete beam or column.
Figure 32: Concrete with Reinforcement (Online, 2021)
III. Purpose of Spacing
Minimum spacing in concrete is needed for several reasons. One of the most important reasons is that the
spacing in bars within the concrete allows for a reduction in cracks within the concrete. If there is a reduction or
elimination of cracks within the concrete, it will mean that the concrete is working at the most optimal ability and
can withstand the most amount of force as cracks within concrete lead to the concrete getting weaker and
forming instability of a structure. (FFEMS, 2022).
Figure 33: Cross-section details of the tested RC specimens (FFEMS, 2022)
IV. Diameter of Reinforced Steel
Figure 34: Bar Sizes (Kingston University, 2023)
Figure XX above details the bar sizes. Depending on the size of the flexural reinforcement required for the beam
itself, this will dictate the diameter of the bar required to be placed in the concrete as reinforcement. So that the
bar itself does not deflect to the point of cracking an eventual collapse, the bars are put in place so that this does
not occur. The bigger the reinforcement calculated is, the larger the diameter of the steel beam used to reinforce
the concrete is required. For example, the most used diameter of bar within the engineering industry when it
comes to concrete beam design is 32mm also known as C32 bars.
V. Role of Concrete in Reinforced Concrete
Concrete by itself is a useful material when it comes to construction. However, on its own, it does not have the
capabilities to undergo an enormous amount of load such as in a concrete beam, as it lacks the flexural stability
to sustain itself and a load. However, by adding reinforcement bars into the concrete, the reinforcement allows
the beam to become even stronger and allow for the use of the concrete in many other ways. The concrete thus
allows for the binding of the reinforcement in place and thus allows for it to be much stronger (Dyer, 2014).
VI. FRP reinforcement and Fibre Reinforcement
FRP (Fibre Reinforced Polymer) reinforcement is an alternative method for reinforcement for concrete beams
instead of using steel reinforcement. FRP is a composite material that has strong fibres which are imbedded in a
resin matrix (Institute, n.d.). There are several advantages of using FRP compared to using normal steel
reinforcements such as the reinforcement is corrosion resistant, is not magnetic, has a high tensile strength and
is not heavy, but instead light weight. However, some disadvantages of having fibre reinforced polymer are that it
is not resistant to high temperatures and there is a significant loss in strength when the reinforcement is subject.
to bending. Additionally, the cost for such reinforcement is very high compared to steel reinforcement (Tan, 2006).
VII. Examples of Fibre Reinforcement
There are four main types of Fibre Reinforced Polymer. Those four types are glass, carbon, natural and aramid
with each type of Fibre Reinforced Polymer having their own individual advantages and disadvantages in their
uses (Plastics, n.d.). For example, carbon FRP is used in the creation of office buildings as it is sustainable,
meaning it is very efficient in its use and is why it is also used in bridges and other structures (Bisley, 2021).
Another example is FRP plastic plates that are applied to the tension part of the reinforced concrete beam
(ScienceDirect, 2023).
VIII. References
Institute, A. C., n.d. Fiber Reinforced Polymer. [Online]

Available at:
https://www.concrete.org/topicsinconcrete/topicdetail/Fiber%20Reinforced%20Polymer?search=Fiber%20Reinfor
ced%20Polymer
Tan, K. H., 2006. Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement for Concrete Structures. 1st ed. s.l.:World Scientific
Publishing Company.
Plastics, B., n.d. The Basics of FRP. [Online]
Available at: https://beetleplastics.com/custom-frp-fabrications/about-fiberglass/basics-of-
frp/#:~:text=There%20are%20four%20main%20types,processes%20and%20end%2Dproduct%20requirements.
Bisley, 2021. What Is the Use of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Concrete?. [Online]
Available at: https://bisley.biz/news/what-is-the-use-of-carbon-fibre-reinforced-concrete/
American Concrete Institute, n.d. Reinforcment in Concrete. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.concrete.org/topicsinconcrete/topicdetail/Reinforcement%20in%20Concrete?search=Reinforcement
%20in%20Concrete
Kingston University, 2023. Intoduction to RC Beams. [Online]
Available at: https://canvas.kingston.ac.uk/courses/26173/pages/unit-22-rc-rc-beams
FFEMS, 2022. Influence of concrete cover thickness and clear distance between tensile bars on crack spacing
behavior of large-scale reinforced concrete members. Fatigue & Failure of Engineering Materials & Structures,
45(4), pp. 943-1295.
Dyer, T., 2014. Concrete Durability. s.l.:CRC Press.
Online, R. P., 2021. Reinforcement for Concrete: How to reinforce concrete and why, s.l.: s.n.
ScienceDirect, 2023. Flexural Strengthening. [Online]
Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/flexural-
strengthening#:~:text=In%20concrete%20flexural%20strengthening%2C%20the,a%20near%2Dsurface%20mou
nted%20system.
C.3 Question 3 – Josh
Briefly discuss the principle of post-tensioned concrete floors, its design
consideration and end-of-life. Also, discuss its challenges during construction.
What are the defects of post-tension concrete beams in construction? Talk
about construction projects where this application is being used.
I. Principle of post-tensioned concrete floors
Post tension (PT) structures involve pre-stressing a concrete element “so that when flexing under applied loads it
still remains in compression” (The Concrete Centre, 2017) which enables a more efficient design to be achieved.
This also creates a stiffer structure as cracking is delayed by post tensioning the structure.
In the construction of post-tensioned floors, concrete is poured around sheaths or ducts that house either
unbonded or bonded tendons. After the concrete has fully cured and attained the required strength, the tendons
are stressed against the concrete and secured in place by anchor grips. This ensures that all tendon forces are
directly transferred to the concrete, eliminating any stress on the formwork, and allows the use of conventional
formwork (The Concrete Centre, 2017).
Structural floor systems include:
• PT flat slab
• PT band beam and slab
• PT ribbed slab
• PT waffle slab
Benefits of using PT slabs include:
• Thinner slabs, resulting in less material and space being gained in high rise buildings i.e. potential to
add extra floor/s
• Longer spans
• Less reinforcement required
• Less material = reduced embodied carbon
• Quick to construct
• Deflections can be controlled
As mentioned previously, tendons are either bonded or unbonded encased in ducts. These are a primary part of
the system and comprise of multiple tendons which are fixed at each end by anchorages. The stressing is done
using a jack where it pulls the tendons at either one or both ends depending on whether it is bonded or
unbonded.
II. Design Considerations
It is important to consider what type of system should be used. In

the UK bonded systems are most widely used.
Both bonded and unbonded systems are illustrated in Figure 35.

Unbonded systems comprise of a strand made up of multiple
tendons connected to a sheath and will be covered in grease.
The duct is made from plastic and is not grouted after installation
and remains free to move freely and is anchored the ends where
the jack is connected and stretches out the tendons. Unbonded
tendons are more susceptible to brittle failure.
Bonded systems consist of tendons running through flattened Figure 35 - Components of PT (The
ducts made from galvanised metal which are grouted after Concrete Centre, 2017)
stressing the concrete which creates a bonded between concrete and the tendons.
There are numerous other design impacts that must be considered. In PT slabs there are shortening effects
which can lead to cracks due to elastic shortening, creep, early thermal shrinkage, and drying shrinkage. This
requires an evaluation of potential and appropriate restraints and include mitigating measures.
Losses and extensions in the tendons need to be considered. Initial losses can be caused by friction, wedge
draw-in and elastic shortening. Long term losses can occur through concrete shrinkage and creep and relaxation
of tendons. Extensions from stressing PT is a method for checking the correct force is put into the slab and the
expected and design values need be within 0-10% difference. In addition, it is fundamental to consider length of
tendons, detailing and spacing of tendons, anchorage ends, rebar coordination. A maximum of one horizontal
curvature is required to avoid pinching. Anchorage detailing is another important consideration particularly in
deeper slabs where both anchorage and anti-burst reinforcement may be required (Langley, 2019).
Large service penetrations should be coordinated early so that they do not interfere with tendons. It is
recommended that larger voids be located in the middle of a strip (i.e. between tendons). It is possible for
tendons to be cut and carbon fibre strips can be added to increase slab capacity. Small penetrations are easier
accommodated ensuring tendons are avoided and can be cut after casting is complete. It is important to record
the positions of the tendons accurately, so they are avoided (Langley, 2019).
III. End of Life
There is an added risk associated with demolishing a PT structure. Although demolishing bonded PT slabs follow
the methods used for traditional reinforced concrete slabs where percussion and cutting methods will release the
prestressing forces locally. For unbonded PT slabs, the floor will be required to be propped and release the
tension in the tendons often using jacks, heating wedges, break concrete out behind the anchorage until de-
tensioning or strands to be cut at high points whilst anchorages are protected (The Concrete Centre, 2017) .
IV. Challenges During Construction
Tilly Langley, a Post tension specialist at Arup has commented on the following challenges during constructing
post tension structures:
• Specialised labour and machinery is required including appropriate training and accreditation
• Structural elements are prone to corrosion and require protection
• There are live and dead anchorages at both ends respectively. The grouting performance is critical as if
tendons are not fully grouted or have an incorrect mix it can lead to failure. Pre mixed grout should be
used.
• Column details can have congested areas of reinforcement, therefore extreme attention is required
when installing to ensure everything is in the correct place
• Extra care when stressing elements. Possibility of over stressing and cause concrete ‘blow out’
• The correct concrete grade must be used, otherwise there is a potential risk of failure (Langley, 2024)
Audley Square House is a high-end residential project in Mayfair where

post tension slabs were designed and constructed. A health and safety
concern were raised when there was an issue with the live anchorage
which caused the concrete to burst as shown in Figure 36 which
caused the tensioner jack to jump with the potential to cause harm.
This meant inclusion of barriers/exclusion zones to avoid site staff
getting close to the post-tensioning equipment/operation was required.
Figure 36 - Photo showing

concrete burst (Pototschnig,
V. Defects of post-tension beams
Designing bridges using post tension concrete is commonly

used in the industry. In 1967 the first UK collapse of a PT
bridge occurred and in 1985 the Ynys-y-Gwas bridge was a
fatal collapse due to corrosion via grout leakage which is the
most common defect in post tension beams. This can be a
result of poor workmanship or poorly mixed grout or tendons
that are not grouted at all. Blockages can occur which can
lead to incomplete grouting as shown in Figure 37.
Hammersmith flyover is another example where tendons

corroded over the piers. The system used unbonded tendons
and caused the tendon to be corroded over time. This
required ‘remedial external prestressing” strengthening works
as a loss of prese locations would result in major cracks Figure 37 - Incomplete Grouting (Langley, n.d)
(Engineer, 2012).
VI. Project Examples
Sydney Opera house in Australia is an example of a project

where 2200 precast concrete ribs (Concrete Conservation,
2018) which were post tensioned for the ‘sail’ roofs where a
bonded system was utilised to bond the steel and concrete
and as a sealant. In recent times as the structure is exposed
to the marine environment, regular inspections are required to
monitor the condition of the structure.
Figure 38 - Syndey Opera House (Concrete

Conservation, 2018)
Marina Bay Sands Resorts structure comprises of three towers with

the Skypark resting on top and demonstrates the capable versatility
of using PT structures. The long span capabilities of PT allow the
slabs to span between the shear walls which creates a simple and
efficient floor system enabling rapid construction. Additionally, the flat
slabs provide a flexible room layout for services. The base slab is
post tension to resist the horizontal forces produced by the inclined
legs as shown in Figure 39 (Patrick McCafferty et al, 2011).
Figure 39 - Marina Bay Sands (Patrick

McCafferty et al, 2011)
The Incheon Bridge, South Korea is a 12.5km long which links

the Songdo to the airport. It is a huge structure “providing
strength and durability” (Converge, 2023). Utilising the long
span and form flexibility capabilities of post tension, 250mx50m
precast girder sections were split in five and post tensioned
were separated by an expansion joint which enabled efficient
and economic construction and design (New Civil Engineer,
2009).
Figure 40 - Incheon Bridge (New Civil

Engineer, 2009)
VII. References
Concrete Conservation, 2018. Sydney Opera House, Concrete Conservation Project, Final Report Summary,
Sydney: s.n.
Converge, 2023. Post tensioning in building structures. [Online]
Available at: https://www.converge.io/blog/post-tensioning-in-building-structures
[Accessed 31 01 2024].
Langley, T., 2019. Post Tensioned Concrete Design - The Basics, London: Arup.
Langley, T., 2024. Post Tension Concrete [Interview] (29 01 2024).
Langley, T., n.d. Quality control, best practice and TR47/TR72, London: Arup.
New Civil Engineer, 2009. Korean Colossus: Incheon Bridge. [Online]
Available at: https://www.newcivilengineer.com/archive/korean-colossus-incheon-bridge-14-05-2009/
[Accessed 31 01 24].
Patrick McCafferty et al, 2011. Engineering an Icon, The Marina Bay Sands Integrated Resort. s.l.:Structure
Magazine.
The Concrete Centre, 2017. Post-tensioned Concrete Floors, A guide to design and construction. London: MPA
The Concrete Cente.
C.4 Question 4 – Anmol
What is Ultra Low Carbon Cement Alternative? Describe in detail how this new
innovative cement work and its key technical features including its carbon
footprint? Talk about a construction project featuring the use of this new
cement.
What is Ultra Low Carbon Cement (ULCC)?
Concrete is made up of aggregates, water, cement and air. Of these four ingredients, aggregates make up the
largest amount of volume and fortunately are low in embodied carbon. However, cement has the highest
embodied CO2, and this is where the focus has been to find alternatives to OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement), to
reduce the carbon footprint of this important building material Invalid source specified..
The key component of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is clinker, which is formed by baking limestone with clay
in a rotating kiln. The resulting product becomes the component in cement or concrete that forms such a strong
bond when mixed with sand and aggregate. However, making clinker generates a huge amount of carbon. For
every tonne of cement produced, an estimated 622kg of CO2 is emitted. The carbon produced to create a
standard concrete mix is 72kg per tonne Invalid source specified..
Types of ULCCs:
An effective way of reducing the carbon associated with concrete construction is to replace a substantial portion of clinker
in the cement mix with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Today these are primarily ground granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBS) or pulverised fly ash (PFA). PFA and GGBS are both industrial waste products, so their use in
cement reduces the carbon emissions from clinker production. Their effect on concrete is well understood, with high
strength and durable mixes being readily available Invalid source specified..
Almost all the GGBS and PFA currently produced in the UK is already being used, primarily in concrete, so specifying
these SCMs does not necessarily help to reduce construction sector emissions. In addition, most slag production is
localised to a few iron-producing countries, whereas cement demand is far more pervasive. To meet the massive
demand for cement globally, new SCMs are needed which are both abundant and widespread Invalid source
specified..
Figure 41: Diagram showing the composition range of various virgin and secondary cementitious source
materials Invalid source specified..
Figure 42: Availability of common SCMs Invalid source specified..

Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS)
Currently, within British standards there are several ways to reduce embodied carbon by reducing the percentage
of clinker in a mix. The use of ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) for example, instead of clinker, can
have a significant effect on lowering embodied carbon. CEM III/B contains up to 80% GGBS and has a 73%
lower embodied carbon than Portland Cement (CEM I) Invalid source specified.. In ready-mixed concrete,
GGBS is usually used to reduce the proportion of Portland cement by 50 per cent Invalid source specified..
When iron is smelted, the limestone, ore and coke fed into furnaces produce iron and slag, which, when
quenched, forms a substance that’s able to replace the largely clinker-based Portland cement in certain
quantities. In ready-mixed concrete, GGBS is usually used to reduce the proportion of Portland cement by 50 per
cent Invalid source specified..
Alkali Activated Cementitious Material (AACM)

Currently, the greatest reduction in embodied carbon can be achieved using cement-free concrete, utilising an
Alkali Activated Cementitious Material (AACM). These alternative binders to OPC are typically produced from
widely occurring natural materials or industrial by-products such as GGBS and PFA. The resulting binder is
comparable to OPC in strength development and durability. Replacing 100% of the OPC with a cement-free
binder results in an embodied CO2 that is up to 80% lower than OPC-based concretes. These advancements
have now allowed us to produce an ULCC mix which replaces OPC by up to 70%, yet still complies to British
Standards, allows overnight strengths for demoulding, and delivers an 80% CO2 reduction Invalid source
specified..
Greenbloc
In February 2021 PPG launched the UK’s first cement-free ultra-low concrete building block under the brand
Greenbloc. Concrete blocks are used extensively in the construction of real estate and infrastructure across all
sectors. CCP’s new Greenbloc range materially reduces the carbon footprint of these blocks when compared to a
traditional product Invalid source specified..
Greenbloc is completely cement-free, making it unique in the UK market and provides on average a significant
net reduction in embodied CO2 (‘eCO2’) of 77% per concrete block, resulting in the following specific decreases:
• an average reduction of 1.1kg of eCO2 per concrete block.
• an average reduction of 2.7 tonnes of eCO2 per average semi-detached house.
• these average reductions are equivalent to the CO2 emitted by an average household’s electricity consumption
for four years.
Invalid source specified.
Case Study
Taylor Woodrow’s Eco Park South Project are the first in the UK to use this sustainable Ecocem Ultra Low
Carbon Concrete, containing zero traditional Ordinary Portland Cement, and the first project worldwide to develop
a pumpable mix for use with a concrete pump Invalid source specified..
The Ultra Low Carbon Concrete is a new and innovative sustainable product at the forefront of technology and is
consequently not covered by British Standards. There were many challenges that were overcome to enable the
use of this concrete and a case study has been developed to share the lessons learnt and promote the use of
carbon reduction through the utilisation of Ultra Low Carbon Concrete throughout the industry Invalid source
specified..
Key achievements:
• A total of 350m3 of Ultra Low Carbon Concrete was poured, resulting in a saving of up to 70% CO2
compared to traditional concrete.
• Taylor Woodrow’s Eco Park South Project are the first in the UK to use this sustainable Ecocem Ultra
Low Carbon Concrete, containing zero traditional Ordinary Portland Cement, and the first project
worldwide to develop a pumpable mix for use with a concrete pump.
• The Ultra Low Carbon Concrete is a new and innovative sustainable product at the forefront of
technology and is consequently not covered by British Standards.
Invalid source specified.

Figure 43: Taylor Woodrow Eco Park South Project completed using Ultra Low Carbon Concrete Invalid
source specified.
Conclusions
Reducing construction industry emissions by the extent necessary to limit warming to 1.5°C will require a huge increase
in the use of alternative cements and a shift away from Portland clinker, GGBS and fly ash, in addition to lowering the
overall demand for cement where possible. While these new materials currently have a limited production capacity
compared to the vast quantities required, it is important we educate ourselves and be prepared to incorporate these
alternative cements into our designs as they become available. Engineers can help create a market for, and build
acceptance of, these alternative cement products. The future of the cement industry could conceivably involve the
development of a wide range of cements based on locally available, highly abundant, low carbon natural resources, with
massive reductions in embodied carbon as a result. The problem with GGBS and PFA is one of supply. The amount of
slag available globally is only 5-10% of cement production2, with a similar figure for PFA. As by-products of high-carbon
industries, their availability will decrease further as coal power stations are shut down and more steel is recycled over the
coming years Invalid source specified..
In the long term, alternative cementitious materials have the potential to replace up to 100% of Portland clinker, GGBS
and PFA in cement mixes. Some raw materials high in alumina and silica include volcanic rocks (common in southern
Europe, the Andes and the Middle East), lateritic soils (common in the tropics) and clays high in kaolin (common
worldwide). These raw materials are widely distributed and exist in quantities vastly exceeding global cement
production. They can be heated and crushed to form a powdered precursor for use in cement. The resulting product is
known as an alkali-activated material, or a geopolymer when minerals lacking calcium are used. When combined with a
strong alkali ‘activator’, the precursor reacts to form a hardened binder. In the case of geopolymers, this binder consists
of aluminosilicate phases, rather than calcium hydrates present in Portland cement, but with similar properties. This
technology may play a critical role in achieving the emissions reductions required of the construction industry. Invalid
source specified..
Bibliography
Constructing Excellence, 2022. Taylor Woodrow eco park south project – ultra low carbon concrete - constructing
excellence. [Online]
Available at: https://constructingexcellence.org.uk/taylor-woodrow-eco-park-south-project-ultra-low-carbon-
concrete/
[Accessed 01 02 2024].
Construction News, 2021. Cement: How its carbon impact can be reduced. [Online]
Available at: https://www.constructionnews.co.uk/sustainability/carbon-cementing-net-zero-22-11-2021/
[Accessed 01 02 2024].
Poundfield Precast, 2023. Ultra-low Carbon Concrete: Greenbloc. [Online]
Available at: https://poundfield.com/low-carbon-concrete/
[Accessed 01 02 2024].
The Institution of Structural Engineers, 2021. Beyond Portland cement: Low-carbon alternatives. [Online]
Available at: https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/beyond-portland-cement-low-carbon-alternatives/
[Accessed 01 02 2024].
C.5 Question 5 – Oliver Jeffery
Q5: Low Carbon Concrete. Discuss (a) What is it? (b) Key technical features to include its carbon footprint (c)
Talk about a construction project featuring the use of this Low Carbon Concrete (include description the project,
how are this special concrete been used, challenges, issues and advantages).
Introduction
Low Carbon concrete offers a viable alternative to traditional concrete by significantly reducing its embodied
carbon. The purpose of utilising low-carbon concrete is to minimise carbon emissions and reduce a project's
overall carbon footprint throughout its life cycle. According to Figure 1, Stage A1 - Raw Material Supply accounts
for approximately 50% of a project's overall carbon emissions, underscoring the importance of considering low-
carbon alternatives. Globally, concrete is the second most used material after water and specified low carbon
concrete alternatives is very important to reducing global carbon emissions to help reach the UN Sustainability
Goals such as Goal 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities (Burridge, 2020).
Main Body
Traditional concrete consists of Air, Cement, Water,
Fine Aggregate, and Coarse Aggregate. The main
material that caused the high embodied carbon is
the cement, which typically around about 10% of the
mixture (Centre, no date). Low carbon concrete
consists of industrial cement combined with mineral
compounds, such as calcined clays, fly ash or blast-
furnace slag. Depending on the dosage of these
additions, the carbon footprint of concrete can be
reduced by up to nearly 70% (Construction, no
date).
Table 1 highlights the efficacy of substitutes for

CEM 1 (Portland Cement), namely Fly Ash and
GGBS, in curbing the amount of embodied carbon in Figure 44 - Lifecycle Stages and Modules (IStructE, 2020)
concrete by up to 30% and 50% respectively. By
incorporating these alternatives into the design of concrete
structures such as ground floors and reinforced foundations,
conscientious designers can significantly lower the project's
embodied carbon and overall carbon footprint.
BS 8500: This British Standard provides specifications for concrete,

including different classes and exposure conditions. It may be
referenced when specifying the properties of low carbon concrete.
(Construction, no date).
BS EN 206-1: This European Standard specifies performance and

production criteria for concrete. It is often used in conjunction with
BS 8500 (Construction, no date).
BS EN 197-1: This standard covers common cements and may be

relevant when specifying alternative cementitious materials in low
carbon concrete (Construction, no date).
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)

Most producers are already using Portland Limestone Cements
(PLCs) and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in their
cement or concrete mixes. Further optimising the use of these materials Table 5 - Embodied CO2 of designated
could reduce cement and concrete emissions greatly (Cure, no date ). concretes showing the influence of different
cements, Specifying Sustainable Concrete,
Fly Ash - Pulverised fuel ash, commonly referred to as fly ash, is a 2020 (Centre, no date)
byproduct of coal-fired electricity power stations. This fine ash is separated
from the flue gases using electrostatic precipitators. When combined with Portland cement, fly ash is typically
used in varying proportions between 20% and 40%, depending on the intended application (Society, No Date ).
fly ash can replace up to 50% of cement in concrete mix, reducing carbon footprint by 10-20% (Cure, no date )
Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS) - GGBS is a cementitious material whose main use is in concrete
and is a by-product from the blast-furnaces used to make iron (CSMA, No Date). As well as the environmental
benefit of utilising a by-product, GGBS replaces something that is produced by a highly energy-intensive process.
By comparison with Portland cement, manufacture of GGBS requires less than a fifth the energy and produces
less than a fifteenth of the carbon dioxide emissions (CSMA,
No Date ).
Each year, the UK uses up to two million tonnes of GGBS as

cement, which (CSMA, No Date ):
• Reduces carbon dioxide emissions by some two
million tonnes.
• Reduces primary energy use by two thousand
million kWhs.
• Saves three million tonnes of quarrying.
• Saves a potential landfill of two million tonnes.
Limestone Powder/Fines - Limestone fines to BS 7979,

Specification for limestone fines for use with Portland cement Table 6 – Material of that make up concrete & the
is a fine powder obtained from the processing of limestone Embodied CO2 showed for each material (Centre, no date)
cement (Society, No Date ). Limestone fines can be added to
Portland cement as an addition, either at the factory to create a composite cement or at the batch plant to form a
combination cement (Society, No Date ). CEM I content in concrete can be replaced with up to 20% of limestone
powder, a product widely available in the UK, according to UK Concrete. Every 5% of limestone powder added
can deliver a 5% reduction in CO2 per tonne of concrete (Mann, 2023).
Moreover, Aggregate and Reinforcement within concrete can be altered to reduce the carbon footprint of a project
and the embodied carbon within the concrete. For example, recycled aggregate stone as it has already been
mined. Furthermore, an industry-first low carbon reinforced concrete solution is being tested in the M42 Junction
6 improvement scheme, a £282 million project aimed at alleviating congestion in the Midlands (SKANSKA, 2022).
Led by Skanska in collaboration with the National Composites Centre and funded by National Highways (NH), the
trial involves comparing traditional steel-reinforced concrete with a low carbon alternative reinforced with basalt
fibre (SKANSKA, 2022). The use of low carbon materials, such as basalt fibre and an Alkali Activated
Cementitious Material (AACM), aims to reduce the environmental impact of concrete production, a significant
source of global CO2 emissions (SKANSKA, 2022). Tarmac, a project supplier, provided two concrete mixes for
the trial (SKANSKA, 2022). Tarmac claims can achieve a carbon footprint up to 80% lower than standard
concrete. The basalt fibre reinforcement, provided by Basalt Technologies, is being tested as a lightweight, non-
corrosive alternative to steel, with potential for increased durability and safety. (SKANSKA, 2022).
Thames Tideway Tunnel, London

The Thames Tideway Tunnel is a 25km addition to London's sewage network to make it fit for the 21st century
and prevent the release of untreated sewage into the River Thames (Centre, no date ). Tideway challenged the
project teams to achieve an 8% reduction in embodied carbon, with a stretch target of 10% (Centre, no date ).
The team on the eastern tunnel sections identified opportunities to reduce materials and substitute lower-carbon
alternatives (Centre, no date ). From 2017 to August 2021, 87,000m3 out of 137,000m3 of concrete used low-
carbon mixes. Excluded precast segments, low-carbon mixes were used for over 98% of permanent structures.
The carbon footprint was calculated based on volume, composition, and transportation (Centre, no date ).
Initially specified mixes were further optimised as the project progressed. The low-heat mix's GGBS proportion
was increased from 67% to 73%, reducing embodied carbon by 26kgCO2e/m3, saving 125 tonnes CO2e. In the
abrasion-resistant mix, the GGBS proportion was increased from 40% to 50%, and 450m3 was poured, leading
to a carbon reduction of 20 tonnes CO2e. (Centre, no date ).
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) was used on the Thames Tideway Tunnel to reduce the carbon
emissions and hence the carbon footprint of the scheme. Through the usage of GGBS, the ratio of cementitious
material like Portland Cement (CEM 1) was reduced and therefore carbon savings were made on the project. The
GGBS not only allowed for a reduction in CEM1 but allowed high compressive strength values to be achieved.
The ultra-low carbon mix for reduced carbon associated with C30/37 to C40/50 mixes, to meet a higher strength
requirement of 35-40MPa. Across various sites, the compressive strength reached 50MPa at 28 days and more
than 57MPa at 56 days. Therefore, this represented a saving of at least 100kgCO2e/m3compared to
conventional mixes. (Centre, no date ).
Additionally, these low carbon concrete mixes where also used as self-healing products, which allowed for
minimised repairs on site, so the contractor would have saved money and time on the project. (Centre, no date ).
The most challenged part of the project was to create these low carbon concrete mixes that still had the desired
compressive strength, therefore lots of testing of site would have to be done to get these mixtures acceptable for
construction (Centre, no date ).
Conclusion
In conclusion, low carbon concrete emerges as a pivotal solution to mitigate the environmental impact of
traditional concrete, substantially reducing embodied carbon and overall project carbon emissions. The
imperative to minimise carbon emissions throughout a project's life cycle, particularly in Stage A1 - Raw Material
Supply, underscores the significance of adopting low-carbon alternatives.
Notably, concrete, being the second most used material globally, emphasises the importance of transitioning to
low carbon alternatives to align with UN Sustainability Goals, such as Goal 11 on Sustainable Cities and
Communities. The incorporation of supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash, GGBS, and limestone
powder showcases tangible strategies to curtail carbon emissions in concrete production.
The Thames Tideway Tunnel project serves as a noteworthy example, achieving a remarkable 63% utilisation of
low-carbon mixes for permanent structures, demonstrating the feasibility and benefits of extensive engineering
efforts in optimising low carbon concrete applications. Despite challenges, the overall reduction in the project's
carbon footprint highlights the positive environmental impact of adopting low carbon concrete in construction
projects.
References
Burridge, J., 2020. How to specify lower carbon concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/how-to-specify-lower-carbon-concrete/
Centre, T. C., no date . Thames Tideway Tunnel London. [Online]
Available at: https://www.concretecentre.com/Case-Studies/Thames-Tideway-Tunnel,-London.aspx
Centre, T. C., no date. Concrete Compass: Low carbon concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://www.concretecentre.com/Resources/Concrete-Compass/Low-Carbon-Concrete.aspx
[Accessed 21 01 2024].
Construction, B., no date. Low carbon concrete a low impact material. [Online]
Available at: https://www.bouygues-construction.com/en/innovation/all-innovations/low-carbon-concrete
CSMA, No Date . Sustainability. [Online]
Available at:
https://ukcsma.co.uk/sustainability/#:~:text=As%20well%20as%20the%20environmental,of%20the%20carbon%2
0dioxide%20emissions.
CSMA, No Date. What is GGBS?. [Online]
Available at: https://ukcsma.co.uk/what-is-ggbs/
Cure, C., no date . A Complete Guide to Low Carbon Concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://www.carboncure.com/concrete-corner/a-complete-guide-to-low-carbon-
concrete/#:~:text=Fly%20ash%2C%20for%20example%2C%20is,on%20the%20replacement%20level%20speci
ed.
IStructE, 2020. A brief guide to calculating embodied carbon, s.l.: IStructE.
Mann, W., 2023. BSI concrete standard changed to promote decarbonisation. [Online]
Available at: https://constructionmanagement.co.uk/bsi-concrete-standard-changed-to-promote-
decarbonisation/#:~:text=With%20the%20new%20standard%20now,of%20concrete%2C%20the%20organisation
%20added.
SKANSKA, 2022. Skanska trials low carbon reinforced concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://www.skanska.co.uk/about-skanska/media/press-releases/260896/Skanska-trials-low-carbon-
reinforced-concrete
Society, T. C., No Date . Fly ash or Pulverised fuel ash. [Online]
Available at: https://www.concrete.org.uk/fingertips-nuggets.asp?cmd=display&id=136
Society, T. C., No Date . Limestone fines as an addition to cement. [Online]
Available at: https://www.concrete.org.uk/fingertips-
nuggets.asp?cmd=display&id=925#:~:text=Limestone%20fines%20to%20BS%207979,to%20form%20a%20com
bination%20cement.

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Concrete

Fresh and hardened properties

Kingston University London

K1942624 K2007358 K2165553 K2166788 K2167039 K2165547

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

C.3 Question 3 – Josh ............................................................................................................................. 49

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Figure 41 - Lifecycle Stages and Modules (IStructE, 2020) ............................................................................... 56

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1.1 Background and Objectives - Fresh concrete

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1.2 Background and Objectives – Hardened

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Compressive strength of concrete

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Characteristic strength of concrete

Tensile strength of concrete

2.1.2 Theory of Slump Test

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2.1.3 Theory for Concrete Bending of Beams Bending and

Figure 4: Formulae used to calculate basic span/effective depth (Obinna, 2020)

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Types of Structural Cracks in Concrete Beams:

01. Flexure Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Beams

• Flexural capacity of the beam is inadequate.

02. Shear Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Beams

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

• Shear Capacity of the beam is inadequate.

• Cross section or torsional reinforcement insufficient.

• Load on the beam is more than the designed load.

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Causes or Possible Reasons:

• Maybe due to disturbance of formwork at green stage or early de-shuttering.

06. Tension Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Beams

• Capacity of the member in tension is inadequate.

• Tensile reinforcement is insufficient.

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Figure 8 – Type of Slumps (Illston, 2010)

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3.2 Compressive & Flexural Strength of Concrete

The assessment of compressive strength gauges how well a

Figure 10. Histograms and normal distribution fits

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3.3 Under and Over Reinforced Concrete Beams

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4. Test Materials, Equipment and

• Cement CEM 1 – 37.66kg

4.1.2 Concrete Mix Equipment

• Pan & Mixer

• Digital Weighing Scale

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4.1.3 Concrete Mix Procedure

Figure 14: Concrete Mix Procedure

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4.2 Workability (Slump Test)

• Slump compacting rod

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4.2.2 Slump Test Procedure

Figure 15: Slump Test Procedure

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4.3 Casting and Curing Concrete

• Moulds for the following:

o 4No. 150x150mm cubes