Group 2 Lab B1 Report

Mechanical Characteristics of
Aggregates
Aggregate Impact Value Testing
Kingston University London
12 February 2024
Physical Characteristics of Aggregates Kingston University London
Quality information
Introduction & Theoretical Literature Test Equipment Results Discussion &
Objectives Information Review & Procedure Conclusion
Alpha Diallo Anmol Gill Oliver Josh Pelham George Kwaku Boakye
Jeffery Worsfold
Prepared for:
Kingston University London
Prepared by:
George Worsfold
Apprentice Civil Engineer
T: D +44-7467702532
E: k2165553@kingston.ac.uk
Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Objectives .................................................................................................................................................... 1
Theory and Literature Review ................................................................................................................................. 2
Theoretical Information ................................................................................................................................ 2
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)...................................................................................................................... 2
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) ................................................................................................................ 3
Mechanical Properties of Concrete Aggregates ........................................................................................... 5
Hardness ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Moisture Content.......................................................................................................................................... 5
Specific Gravity ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Literature Review – Aggregate Impact Value ............................................................................................... 7
Test Equipment and Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 8
Materials ...................................................................................................................................................... 8
Test equipment ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Procedure .................................................................................................................................................... 8
Results .................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Discussion & Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Discussion ................................................................................................................................................. 12
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 14
References ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
Appendix A Individual Questions ........................................................................................................................... 18
A.1 Q1 – George Worsfold .................................................................................................................... 18
A.2 Q2 – Alpha Diallo ............................................................................................................................ 20
A.3 Q3 – Josh Pelham .......................................................................................................................... 21
A.4 Q4 – Anmol Gill ............................................................................................................................... 24
A.5 Q5 – Kwaku Boakye, Oliver Jeffery ................................................................................................ 28

Figures
Figure 1: Aggregates used for drainage (A. Diallo, 2024) ....................................................................................... 1
Figure 2: Foundation Layers and Pavement Layers (Highways England, 2020) ..................................................... 1
Figure 3: A table showing the recommended aggregate impact values (CementConcrete, 2023) .......................... 2
Figure 4: A table showing the maximum allowable aggregate impact values for different types of pavements
(Mahajan, 2023a) .................................................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 5: A table showing the aggregate crushing value limits for different types of roads and pavements
(Testbook, 2023) ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 6: A table showing the results of the LAAV test on various rock types (Shraddhu, 2017) ............................ 5
Figure 7: Diagrams depicting the composition of aggregates in the four different moisture states (Khan, 2020b) .. 5
Figure 8: A table showing the specific gravity of various aggregate types (Shraddhu, 2017) .................................. 6
Figure 9 - Results of the Lab B1 completed by Coco’s Group in 2024 at Kingston University of the AVI Test
(Group, 2024) .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 10: Annotated Impact Test Machine Sketch (School of Engineering and the Environments, n.d) ............... 8
Figure 11: Aggregate Impact Test Procedure .......................................................................................................... 9
Figure 12: Aggregate impact values for different materials ................................................................................... 11
Figure 13: Aggregate Impact Test Machine ........................................................................................................... 12
Figure 14: Natural Coarse Aggregate Before (Left) Aggregate Impact Test vs After (Right) Aggregate Impact Test
.............................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 15: Recycled Aggregate Before (Left) Aggregate Impact Test vs After (Right) Aggregate Impact Test....... 13
Figure 16: Decorative Granite Before (Left) Aggregate Impact Test vs After (Right) Aggregate Impact Test ......... 14
Figure 17. AIV apparatus (Labs, n.d.) .................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 18: Strength/density ranges for normal and lightweight aggregate concrete ............................................. 28
Figure 19: The effect of dryness on the thermal expansion coefficient of hardened cement paste and concrete (P
Domone, 2010) ..................................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 20: Round and Smooth Aggregate vs Angular and Elongated Aggregate (CivilBlog.Org, 2014) ................ 29
Figure 21 – List of the tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregate within BS EN 1097 (Concrete &
Society, n.d.) ......................................................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 22 – M20 Concrete Repairs (Highways, n.d.) ............................................................................................ 32
Tables
Table 1. Natural Coarse Aggregate AIV Results ................................................................................................... 10
Table 2. Recycled Aggregate AIV Results ............................................................................................................ 10
Table 3. Decorative Granite AIV Results .............................................................................................................. 11
Table 4. Disparities between BS812 and lab B1 .................................................................................................. 18
Table 5: Compressive Strength of American Rocks Commonly Used as Concrete Aggregates (Neville, Adam,
2011) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Table 6: Porosity of some rock types (Neville, Adam, 2011) .................................................................................. 21
Table 7:Typical Values of Absorption of Different British Aggregates (Neville, Adam, 2011) .................................. 22
Table 8: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Different Rock Types (Neville, Adam, 2011) ........................ 22

Physical Characteristics of Aggregates
Introduction
Aggregates are crucial in construction, serving as backfilling material, drainage infiltration, and components in
concrete and road construction. Selecting appropriate aggregates based on their mechanical characteristics—
such as load-bearing capacity, porosity, and resistance to wear—is critical for the success of these applications.
For example, permeable aggregates like shingle are optimal for drainage, while well-graded materials are
necessary for load distribution in structures like crane mats. Road surfaces require hard, wear-resistant
aggregates. The choice of aggregate is not only about compaction but also about the material’s strength and
ability to withstand loads without crushing. Laboratory tests like AIV and ACV help determine these properties,
distinguishing between materials like shingle and limestone for their different mechanical strengths. The photo
bellow for example shows the use of coarse aggregates (larger aggregates) in drainage for their permeable
characteristics.
Figure 1: Aggregates used for drainage (A. Diallo, 2024)
Objectives
The aims of these lab tests (AIV & ACV) are to assess the response of various aggregates when subjected to
gradual compressive forces and to determine the maximum load they can endure before failure (ACV). The AIV
test measures the aggregates’ resistance to sudden impacts or shocks before they fracture.
Editor’s note: This report only contains information regarding lab B1 (AIV), however the theory of both labs has been
considered throughout.
These experiments include three different material types: primary aggregates (natural materials from quarries),
recycled aggregates (from crushed concrete or non-hazardous construction waste), and granite aggregates.
Typically, primary aggregates, which are generally more robust than recycled ones, are favoured for use in the
road base sub-layers, providing a solid foundation for the asphalt overlay (Figure 2) and for the construction of
the surface layer. Conversely, in road construction, recycled aggregates are often utilized in the capping layer
(Figure 2).
Figure 2: Foundation Layers and Pavement Layers (Highways England, 2020)
Prepared for: Kingston University London

Theory and Literature Review

Theoretical Information
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
The aggregate impact value is the quantified expression of the ability of aggregates to resist sudden impact or
shock load. The characteristic of any material to resist sudden impact is known as toughness (Mahajan, 2023a).
Toughness is crucial because, as vehicles traverse roads, aggregates are subjected to impact, which can lead to
their breakage into smaller pieces. Therefore, aggregates must possess sufficient toughness to withstand this
impact. The AIV is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which may differ from resistance to gradually
applied compressive load (Ezra, 2023).
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) is the percentage of fines produced from the aggregate sample after subjecting it to
a standard amount of impact. The standard amount of impact is produced by a known weight, i.e. a steel cylinder,
falling a set height, a prescribed number of times, onto an amount of aggregate of standard size and weight retained
in a mould. Aggregate Impact Values, (AIV’s), below 10 are regarded as strong, and AIV’s above 35 would normally
be regarded as too weak for use in road surfaces. Aggregate Impact Values and Aggregate Crushing Values are
often numerically very similar and indicate similar aggregate strength properties (SimpleCivil, 2023a).
M2
AIV = x100
M1
where, M1 = mass of the test sample (g)
M2 = mass of the material passing the 2.36 mm test sieve (g)
(Kingston Univeristy London, n.d.)
Figure 3: A table showing the recommended aggregate impact values (CementConcrete, 2023)

Figure 4: A table showing the maximum allowable aggregate impact values for different types of
pavements (Mahajan, 2023a)
In the construction industry, the Aggregate Impact Value test is a critical tool for assessing the quality and suitability
of aggregates for road construction. It helps ensure that the materials used in building our roads possess the
necessary toughness to withstand the impact of vehicular traffic, ultimately contributing to the safety and longevity
of our roadways. By adhering to the recommended AIV values provided by organizations like the Indian Roads
Congress, construction professionals can make informed decisions and build robust road infrastructure (Ezra,
2023).
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)

The aggregate crushing value is the relative resistance of aggregates to crushing under gradually applied
compressive load (Mahajan, 2023b). Aggregate crushing value is a measure of the strength of the aggregate, and
it is used in construction of roads and pavements (The Constructor, 2017).
A cylindrical test specimen approximately 25 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height is compacted in a standardized

manner into a steel cylinder fitted with a freely moving plunger. The specimen is then subjected to a standard
loading regime applied through the plunger. This action crushes the aggregate to a degree which is dependent on
the crushing resistance of the material. This degree is assessed by a sieving test on the crushed specimen and is
taken as a measure of the aggregate crushing value (ACV) (SimpleCivil, 2023b).
The strength of aggregate parent rock is determined by preparing. This cylinder is subjected to compressive stress.
Depending on the type of parent rock gives the different crushing values of aggregate as a compressive strength
varying from a minimum of about 45 MPa to a maximum of 545 MPa. The parent rock compressive strength does
not exactly indicate the strength of aggregate in concrete. For this reason assessment of the strength of the
aggregate is made by using a sample of bulk aggregate in a standardized manner (Mahajan, 2023b).
The road is subjected to motion pressure continuously. So the aggregates used in roads and pavement construction
must be strong enough to withstand crushing under traffic (LegitCivil, 2023a) and sustain that motion pressure
(CivilPlanets, 2023). Lower crushing value is recommended for roads and pavements as it indicates a lower
crushed fraction under load and would give a longer service life and a more economical performance (The
Constructor, 2017). An aggregate Crushing Value of less than 21 is usually regarded as acceptable.

Greater values than this mean the material is unsuitable for use in pavements or other structures which undergo
gradual loading (LegitCivil, 2023a). If the aggregate crushing value is 30 or higher' the result may be anomalous
and in such cases the ten percent fines value should be determined instead (The Constructor, 2017). The ten
Percent Value Test is another test conducted on aggregates to measure their resistance to gradually applied loads.
The objective is to find the load required to produce ten percent of fine material when subjected to a gradually
applied compressive load, and ca be performed on both strong and weak aggregates (LegitCivil, 2023b).
M2
ACV = x100
M1
where, M1 = mass of the test sample (g)

M2 = mass of the material passing the 2.36 mm test sieve (g)
(Kingston Univeristy London, n.d.)
Figure 5: A table showing the aggregate crushing value limits for different types of roads and pavements
(Testbook, 2023)
The Aggregate Crushing Value test is a valuable measure of the strength and durability of different aggregate
sources/types to select materials best suited for pavement construction based on intended project location and
traffic levels. Regular ACV testing of aggregates during production ensures compliance with specification limits for
crushing strength (SimpleCivil, 2023b). By determining the Aggregate Crushing Strength, engineers and builders
can ensure that the aggregates used in their projects will withstand the stresses and strains that they will be
subjected to. With proper testing and analysis, the weaknesses and potential problems of aggregates can be
identified and addressed, leading to safer and more durable structures (CivilScoops, 2024).

Mechanical Properties of Concrete Aggregates

We have discussed two mechanical properties of aggregates so far, compressive strength which is tested by the
ACV test and toughness which is tested by the AIV test. Other properties include hardness, moisture content and
specific gravity.
Hardness
Hardness is defined as the resistance to wear by abrasion, and the aggregate abrasion value is defined as
the percentage loss in weight on abrasion (Shraddhu, 2017). The hardness of an aggregate can be assessed
through the Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAAV) Test. This test gives the percentage wear of aggregates when they
are revolved in a cylinder and loaded with abrasive charges (Khan, 2020a).
Figure 6: A table showing the results of the LAAV test on various rock types (Shraddhu, 2017)
A higher LAAV indicates a softer aggregate and a lower LAAV indicates a harder aggregate. The LAAV will be
consistent for two samples taken from the same source because an increment in the size of particles is
accompanied by an increase in the number of abrasive charges and the number of revolutions per minute. Knowing
the LAAV, the quality of aggregates can be predicted and likewise, they can be employed in different courses of a
pavement depending on their hardness. The aggregates used in base course are relatively harder than those used
in sub-base course (Khan, 2020a).
Moisture Content
The moisture content of an aggregate is an important factor which affects the porosity of the aggregate. All
aggregates contain some moisture based on the porosity of the particles and the moisture condition of the storage
area (Penn State Engineering, n.d.). Due to porosity of aggregates water can be absorbed into the body of particles
(Absorption), and water can be retained on the surface of the particle as a film of moisture (Surface Moisture).
Absorption and surface moisture both affect the water-cement ratio of the concrete significantly. The absorption
reduces the water-cement ratio whereas surface moisture increases it (Khan, 2020b). The moisture content can
range from less than one percent in gravel to up to 40 percent in very porous sandstone and expanded shale.
Aggregate can be found in four different moisture states that include oven-dry (OD), air-dry (AD), saturated-surface
dry (SSD) and wet, which can be visualised in the image below (Penn State Engineering, n.d.).
Figure 7: Diagrams depicting the composition of aggregates in the four different moisture states (Khan,
2020b)

Of these four states, only OD and SSD correspond to a specific moisture state and can be used as reference states
for calculating moisture content. To calculate the quantity of water the aggregate will add or subtract to the paste,
the absorption capacity, effective absorption, and surface moisture must be calculated (Penn State Engineering,
n.d.).
Specific Gravity
The density of the aggregates is required in mixture proportioning to establish weight-volume relationships. Specific
gravity is easily calculated by determining the densities by the displacement of water. All aggregates contain some
porosity, and the specific gravity value depends on whether these pores are included in the measurement. There
are two terms that are used to distinguish this measurement: absolute specific gravity and bulk specific gravity
(Penn State Engineering, n.d.). Absolute specific gravity (ASG) refers to the solid material excluding the pores and
is defined as the ratio of the weight of the solid relative to the weight of an equal volume of gas free distilled
water (Shraddhu, 2017). Bulk specific gravity (BSG), sometimes called apparent specific gravity, includes the
volume of the pores, and is defined as the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of material, including
both permeable and impermeable voids (Shraddhu, 2017). For mixture proportioning, it is important to know
the space occupied by the aggregate particles, including the pores within the particles (Penn State Engineering,
n.d.).
Figure 8: A table showing the specific gravity of various aggregate types (Shraddhu, 2017)

Literature Review – Aggregate Impact Value

In this laboratory experiment conducted by Coco’s Group at Kingston University London, 3 different types of
Aggregate were tested to find the Aggregate Impact Value, the following aggregates were tested: Natural Coarse
Aggregate, Recycled Coarse Aggregate, and Decorative Granite, with each type being tested three times. The
purpose of the experiment was to compare the AIV of the different aggregate types to determine their suitability
for use in construction. See Figure 9 - Results of the Lab B1 completed by Coco’s Group in 2024 at Kingston
University of the AIV Test ,below too see the results obtained by Coco’s Group.
To ensure comparability between Type of Aggregate Tested Test Results for AVI (%) Averge Results for AVI (%)
results, Coco's Group followed Group
2's testing procedures as per BS 812- Test 1 29.00%
112. This standard specifies a method
Natural Coarse Aggregate Test 2 23.30% 26.9%
for determining the resistance of
aggregates to sudden impact and is
Test 3 28.50%
widely used in the industry.
According to the findings, Natural Test 1 28.10%
Coarse Aggregate had the highest
average AIV compared to the other two Recycled Coarse Aggregate Test 2 24.80% 25.8%
types. Recycled Coarse Aggregate
followed closely, with the lowest value Test 3 24.60%
being 25.7% AIV. The difference
between the middle and bottom value Test 1 27.10%
was only 0.1%, indicating no significant
difference between Recycled Coarse Decorative Granite Test 2 24.10% 25.7%
Aggregate and Decorative Granite.
Test 3 25.80%
Coco's Group undertook this
experiment as part of their Civil and
Infrastructure Degree at Kingston University Figure 9 - Results of the Lab B1 completed by Coco’s Group in 2024
London, under the supervision of a highly at Kingston University of the AIV Test (Group, 2024)
qualified lecturer. The lecturer ensured
adherence to all BS standards and best
practices, ensuring the reliability of the findings.
Therefore, it is correct to believe that all the results here are reliable and can be repeated with close precision
and accuracy. Thus, these results can be used for comparison within the discussion of Lab B1: Aggregate Impact
Value.
The findings conduced that there was no overall significant AIV percentage difference, therefore all the
aggregates tested in 2024 are deemed by this experiment equal in terms of strength. The results obtained by
Coco’s Group are not what would be expected in terms of how close all the Average AIV are together.
The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) Test assesses an aggregate's resistance to sudden shock or impact,
contrasting with its resistance to a gradually applied compressive load. This test is pivotal for determining the
quality and sustainability of aggregates used in road and infrastructure construction. It serves as a measure of
the material's toughness, essential for the durability and service life of construction projects. The significance of
the AIV Test aligns with the United Nations' Sustainability Goals, particularly Goal 9 (Industry, Innovation, and
Infrastructure), emphasizing the need for resilient infrastructure and sustainable industrialisation (Nations, 2015)
A study by Dasa, and Bharali (2021) highlighted that Light Compaction Values (LCV) have a strong correlation
with Aggregate Crushing Values (ACV) and Aggregate Impact Values (AIV). This suggests that LCV could offer a
more efficient means for assessing the sustainability and quality of aggregates in construction projects (Das,
2021). Such advancements support the sustainability goal of ensuring Resilient infrastructure, inclusive and
sustainable innovation promotion are essential for sustainable development as outlined by the United Nations.

Test Equipment and Procedure

Materials
The following materials were used for Lab B1: Aggregate Impact Value (AIV):
• Thames Valley aggregate (natural aggregate) – 10mm limestone.
• Decorative granite chips.
• Recycled concrete aggregate: 10-14mm.
Test equipment
The following test equipment were used for Lab B1: Aggregate Impact Value (AIV):
• Aggregate impact test machine (see Figure 10)
• 16mm diameter x 600mm long tamping rod.
• Scoopers.
• Steel trays.
• Digital scale.
• Brush.
• 2.36mm sieve.
Figure 10: Annotated Impact Test Machine Sketch (School of Engineering and the Environments, n.d)
Procedure
The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) experiment was conducted in accordance with BS 812: Part 112: 1990 –
Testing Aggregate: Methods for determination of aggregate impact value (AIV) (partially replaced by BS EN 1097:
Part 2: 1988). The test procedure is illustrated in Figure 11 below:

Figure 11: Aggregate Impact Test Procedure

9
Results
Table 1. Natural Coarse Aggregate AIV Results
Test Item Weight (g) AIV (%)
1 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1286.3 24%
Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 320.7
Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 76.6
Weight of materials retained on 2.36mm sieve (M3) 244.1
Checking: M2+M3 (if it differs from M1 by more than 1g, repeat the test again) 320.7
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝑰𝑽 (%)𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝑨𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝟐𝟓%
Table 2. Recycled Aggregate AIV Results
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝑰𝑽 (%)𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝟐𝟒%

10
Table 3. Decorative Granite AIV Results
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝑰𝑽 (%)𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 = 𝟑𝟐%
The above results are be visualised in Figure 12:
35.00%
31.89%
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) (%)
30.00%
24.53% 24.05%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
1) Natural Coarse Aggregate 2) Recycled Aggregate 3) Decorative Granite
Figure 12: Aggregate impact values for different materials

11
Discussion & Conclusion

Discussion
The Aggregate Impact Test is covered in BS 812: Part 112: 1990 – Testing Aggregate: Methods of determination
of aggregate impact value (AIV) (University, n.d.). This test is used to determine the resistance to “impact loads”
that is needed for aggregate that is used on roads. Therefore, the higher the impact load that the aggregate can
resist, the more effective it will be in use for example as road aggregate (P. Domone, 2010). Figure 13 below
shows the machine used to do the Aggregate Impact Test. In this experiment, three types of aggregate were
used:
- Natural Coarse Aggregate

- Recycled Aggregate
- Decorative Granite
Figure 13: Aggregate Impact Test Machine
The results that were obtained on Thursday 8th February 2023 for the Aggregate Impact Test showed the
following see (Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3 for further details):
Aggregate Impact Test:
- Table 1. Natural Coarse Aggregate AIV Results shows the AIV for natural coarse aggregate, coming to
an average AIV of 25% with the highest AIV being 26% and the lowest being 23%.

12
Figure 14: Natural Coarse Aggregate Before (Left) Aggregate Impact Test vs After (Right) Aggregate
Impact Test
- Table 2 in Results shows the AIV of recycled aggregate, coming to an average AIV of 24% with the
highest AIV being 26% and the lowest being 22%.
Figure 15: Recycled Aggregate Before (Left) Aggregate Impact Test vs After (Right) Aggregate Impact
Test
- Lastly, Table 3 in Results shows the AIV of decorative granite, coming to an average AIV of 32% with the
highest AIV being 35% and the lowest being 31%.

13
Figure 16: Decorative Granite Before (Left) Aggregate Impact Test vs After (Right) Aggregate Impact Test
- Thus, as seen in Figure 3, the strongest aggregate would be natural coarse aggregate, as it had the
lowest AIV, with the weakest being decorative granite as it had the highest AIV.
Figure 3 illustrates recommended AIV values for road surfacing. In this experiment all aggregate types are within
the “satisfactory” for road surfacing.
Granite has the highest compressive strength and was expected to have the lowest AIV which correlates to
Coco’s groups results (Figure 9), however the results do not reflect this. Factors that could have affected the
results of the test:
- Different users of the Aggregate Impact Test Machine

- Condition of the Aggregate Impact Test Machine
- If sieving process was done correctly
- If scales were set to zero correctly
- Anomalies
Decorative granite was the aggregate with the highest AIV. Granite is a material which is very tough and durable
(Ltd, 2022), and in comparison, the natural coarse aggregate and the recycled aggregate do not have as much
durability and it is not as tough, therefore, decorative granite would have a larger AIV. Additionally, in comparison
to another group’s AIV, the values for natural coarse aggregate and recycled aggregate were very similar,
however, there was a substantial difference between the AIV of decorative granite for both groups with this
group’s AIV for decorative granite being 32% whilst the other group’s AIV for decorative granite being 25.7% as
shown in Figure 9.
Conclusion
In civil engineering, impact strength of aggregate is important. Different slump test values are needed for various
construction situations to find out the workability of the concrete needed for the job at hand. in BS 812: Part 112:
1990 – Testing Aggregate: Methods of determination of aggregate impact value (AIV) (University, n.d.). Moreover,
the Aggregate Impact Test is a good test in identifying the resistance qualities of aggregate which in turn would
be useful in creating strong beams.
The results that were obtained on the Thursday 8th February 2024 for the Aggregate Impact Test showed three
different values for AIV for the three different types of aggregate used for the test, being natural coarse
aggregate, recycled aggregate and decorated granite. Between the three aggregates used for the experiment,
natural coarse aggregate and recycled aggregate had similar values in AIV however, the results were not as

14
expected due to granite having the highest AIV which indicates the weakest aggregate instead of the lowest. This
would suggest that there were some errors whilst conducting the experiment.
This test is pivotal for determining the quality and sustainability of aggregates used in road and infrastructure
construction. The significance of the AIV Test aligns with the United Nations' Sustainability Goals, particularly
Goal 9 (Nations, 2015).
To conclude by conducting the Lab B1: Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) experiment data was collected for three
types of aggregate, however results were not as expected for granite.
References
Atur P. N. Siregar, E. L. P. I. W. S., 2019. The effect of coarse aggregate hardness on the fracture toughness and
compressive strength of concrete. s.l.:s.n.
Bala, 2023. Aggregate Crushing Value Test - Significance & Test Procedure. [Online]
Available at: https://civilplanets.com/aggregate-crushing-value-test/
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
Balogh, A., 2023. UNDERSTANDING CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (WHAT IS PSI?). [Online]
Available at: https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/compressive-strength-psi.html
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
BSI, 1990. BS 812-112:1990. s.l.:BSI.
CementConcrete, 2023. Aggregate Impact Value Test Apparatus, Procedure and Uses. [Online]
Available at: https://cementconcrete.org/material-testing-guide/pavement-materials/aggregate-impact-value-
test/1511/
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Civil Scoops, 2024. Aggregate Crushing Value Test Determine Aggregate Crushing Strength. [Online]
Available at: https://civilscoops.com/aggregate-crushing-value-test-determine-aggregate-crushing-strength/
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
CivilBlog.Org, 2014. Wether the Angular Aggregate or Rounded Aggregate Will Make Better Concrete?. [Online]
Available at: https://civilblog.org/2014/08/19/whether-the-angular-aggregate-or-rounded-aggregate-will-make-
better-concrete/
[Accessed February 2024].
CivilPlanets, 2023. Aggregate Crushing Value – Significance & Test Procedure. [Online]
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
CivilScoops, 2024. Aggregate Crushing Value Test Determine Aggregate Crushing Strength. [Online]
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Concrete, T. & Society, T. C., n.d.. Aggregates – Tests for properties. [Online]
Available at: https://www.concrete.org.uk/fingertips-nuggets.asp?cmd=display&id=610
[Accessed 10 March 2024].
Das, J. D. S. &. B. B., 2021. Prediction of Aggregate Impact Crushing Values Using Light Compaction Test. Issue
11, pp. 93-100.
Education, E., n.d.. The Effect of Aggregate Properties on Concrete. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/materials/aggregate/aggregatesmain.htm
Engineering, P. S., n.d. The Effect of Aggregate Properties on Concrete. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/materials/aggregate/aggregatesmain.htm#:~:text=Th
e%20shape%20and%20texture%20of,rough%20angular%20or%20elongated%20aggregate.
Ezra, 2023. Aggregate Impact Value and its Significance in Construction. [Online]
Available at: https://build-construct.com/building/building-material/aggregate-impact-value/
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Group, C., 2024. Lab B1: Aggregate Impact Value (AVI), s.l.: s.n.

15
Highways England, 2020. CD 225 - Design for new pavement foundations. 1st ed. s.l.:Highways England.
Highways, L., n.d.. M20 MAJOR CONCRETE REPAIRS. [Online]
Available at: https://lmshighways.co.uk/2020/04/01/m20-major-concrete-repairs/
Iffat, S., 2015. Relation Between Density and Compressive Strength of Hardened Concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234103467.pdf
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
Illston, P. D. &. J., 2010. Construction Materials Thier Nature and Behaviour. 4th ed. s.l.:Spon Press.
Jayawardena, U. S., 2008. A Study on The Relationship between Aggregate Impact Values (AIV) and Los
Angeles Abrasion Values (LAAV) of Charnockites/Charnockitic Gneisses in Sri Lanka. 1st ed. s.l.:The institution
of engineers.
Khan, F., 2020a. Mechanical Properties of Aggregate. [Online]
Available at: https://constructionhow.com/mechanical-properties-of-aggregate/
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Khan, F., 2020b. Physical and Thermal Properties of Aggregate and its Effect on Concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://constructionhow.com/properties-of-aggregate/
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Kingston Univeristy London, n.d. Laboratory - Construction Materials and Concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://canvas.kingston.ac.uk/courses/26173/pages/laboratory-materials-and-concrete
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Labs, V., n.d. Aggregate Impact Testing Machine. [Art] (MoE Govt of India).
LegitCivil, 2023a. Why is aggregate crushing value test (ACV) done. [Online]
Available at: https://legitcivil.com/aggregate-crushing-value-test-acv/
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
LegitCivil, 2023b. What is ten percent fines value test (TFV): Test Procedures. [Online]
Available at: https://legitcivil.com/ten-percent-fines-value-test-tfv-test-procedures/
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Ltd, M. A., 2022. FIVE REASONS WHY GRANITE IS THE BEST AGGREGATE. [Online]
Available at: https://www.mainlandaggregates.co.uk/blog/five-reasons-why-granite-is-the-best-aggregate.html
Mahajan, B., 2023a. Aggregate Impact Value Test: Impact Test of Aggregate: Impact value: AIV Test. [Online]
Available at: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/aggregate-impact-value-test
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Mahajan, B., 2023b. Aggregate Crushing Value Test - Procedure, Result & Calculation. [Online]
Available at: https://civiconcepts.com/blog/aggregate-crushing-value-test
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
MDPI, 2023. Strength, Porosity and Permeability Properties of Porous Concrete Made from Recycled Concrete
Aggregates. [Online]
Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2673-
7108/3/1/6#:~:text=Overall%2C%20recycled%20concrete%20aggregate%20has,strength%20of%20the%20final
%20concrete.
Mudavath, K., n.d. Aggregate Impact Value. [Online]
Available at: https://wecivilengineers.wordpress.com/2018/01/23/aggregate-impact-value-
test/#:~:text=PURPOSE%20OF%20TEST%3A,impact%20is%20termed%20as%20toughness.
[Accessed 28 February 2024].
Nations, U., 2015. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster
innovation. [Online]
Available at: https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal9
[Accessed 9th March 2024].
Neville, Adam, 2011. Properties of Concrete. 5th ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Nithurshan, M. & Elakneswaran, . Y., 2023. A systematic review and assessment of concrete strength prediction
models. [Online]
Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214509523000098
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
Orhan Karpu, M. V. A. M. M. A., n.d. Effects of fine aggregate abrasion resistance and its fineness module on
wear resistance of Portland cement concrete pavements. s.l.:s.n.
P Domone, J. I., 2010. Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour. 4th ed. s.l.:Spon Press.
P. Domone, J. I., 2010. Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour. 4th ed. s.l.:Spon Press.

16
Penn State Engineering, n.d. The Effect of Aggregate Properties on Concrete. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/materials/aggregate/aggregatesmain.htm
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Prasad, S., 2011. CIVIL QUALITY CONTROL LAB. [Online]
Available at: https://civilqclab.blogspot.com/2011/02/aggregate-impact-value-test.html
School of Engineering and the Environments, Faculty of Science, Engineering & Computing, 2024. Laboratory -
Construction Materials and Concrete. [Online]
School of Engineering and the Environments, n.d. Work Station B: Mechanical Properties of AggregatesORK
STATION B: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES, London: Kingston University.
Shraddhu, S., 2017. Aggregate: Mechanical Properties of Aggregate | Concrete Technology. [Online]
Available at: https://www.engineeringenotes.com/concrete-technology/aggregates/aggregate-mechanical-
properties-of-aggregate-concrete-technology/31234#
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
SimpleCivil, 2023a. Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) Test - Procedure, Calculations and Conclusions - Lab Report.
[Online]
Available at: https://www.simplecivil.com/aggregate-impact-value-aiv-test-procedure/
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
SimpleCivil, 2023b. Aggregate crushing value (ACV) test - procedure, calculations and lab report. [Online]
Available at: https://www.simplecivil.com/determination-of-aggregate-crushing-value-acv/
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
Testbook, 2023. Aggregate Crushing Value Test - Definition, Objective, Apparatus, and Procedure. [Online]
Available at: https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/aggregate-crushing-value-test
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
The Constructor, 2017. Aggregate crushing value test -determine aggregate crushing strength. [Online]
Available at: https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/aggregate-crushing-value/2245/#goog_rewarded
[Accessed 29 02 2024].
University, K., n.d. Laboratory - Construction Materials and Concrete. [Online]

17
Appendix A Individual Questions

A.1 Q1 – George Worsfold
Why this AIV test is useful? How does this modified lab experiment differ from the current BS of the same test? Describe
significance of the AIV results. (hint: you are not required to list down all the test procedures. It is about identify the differences,
interpretation of the results and make comparison supported with evidence)
Introduction
The quality of construction works in Civil Engineering largely depends on the
properties of materials. The properties of rock aggregates depend upon the natural
conditions of different rock types. It has been understood that the changes of
engineering properties in different rock types may be related in their rock texture
(Jayawardena, 2008). A standard procedure used for determining the strength of
aggregates in construction is the Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) test. It is used in a
variety of construction disciplines, however the most common uses of it occur within
structural and highway design. The intention of the test is to determine how resilient
aggregates are to sudden physical impacts.
BS 812 and you

BS 812-112:1990 describes methods for the determination of the aggregate impact Figure 17. AIV
value (AIV) which gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to apparatus (Labs, n.d.)
sudden shock or impact. Two procedures are described, one in which the aggregate
is tested in a dry condition, and the other in a soaked condition. The methods are applicable to aggregates
passing at 14.0 mm test sieve and retained on a 10.0 mm test sieve (BSI, 1990). A comprehensive comparison of
the disparities between BS 812 and the aforementioned lab B1 is described in Table 4.
Table 4. Disparities between BS812 and lab B1
Element BS 812-112:1990 KUL CE5013 Lab B1
Apparatus The machine shall be of the general The mass of the AIV machine was
form shown in BS812, have a total mass unknown due to lack of
of between 45 kg and 60 kg and shall specification/literature, however when
comprise the parts: handling the apparatus it could be
confidently estimated that its weight lay
• A circular metal base, with a mass within the required range.
of 22-30kg, not less than 300 mm
diameter and shall be supported The thickness of the floor which the AIV
on a floor at least 450 mm thick. machine was located on was unknown.
Ther is therefore a possibility that it was
The machine shall be prevented
<450mm thick and therefore not in
from rocking by fixing it to the floor compliance with BS812.
or by casting to the floor.
The measuring/impact cups had a
• A cylindrical steel cup, having an specified diameter of 75mm (Kingston
internal diameter of 102 ± 0.5 mm Univeristy London, n.d.), which was
and an internal depth of 50 ± 0.25 smaller than the required 102mm
specified by BS812. This could likely
mm.
lead to increase crushing forces due to
the reduction in area. However, as the
• Means for raising the hammer,
same cup was used consistently
and allowing it to fall freely throughout the experiment, the data
between the vertical guides from a obtained will be consistent.
height of 380 ± 5 mm.
Again, based on student’s experience
and approximations, it is believed that
the height of free-fall for the hammer
exceeded the 380mm recommended
height and was more like 1m. Similar to
the dimensions of the impact cups, this
will lead to and increased force on the
aggregate samples from the hammer.
A rationale for the two previously

mentioned points could be to obtain a
more even m2:m3 ratio, leading so
more simplified handling of the

18
Element BS 812-112:1990 KUL CE5013 Lab B1

aggregates as well as a faster
preparation time.
Preparation Dry the test specimens by heating at a The test specimens weren’t heated in
temperature of 105 ± 5 °C for a period order to dry and were instead soured
of not more than 4 h. pre-dried. This would mean that any
possible moisture content in the
aggregate would be unknown, which
would weaken the particles, leading to
inaccurate results.
Procedure Adjust the height of the hammer so that See apparatus for Lab B1 above. The
its lower face is 380 ± 5 mm above the believed larger free-fall height will lead
upper surface of the aggregate in the to an increased crushing force on each
cup and then allow it to fall freely on to aggregate sample.
the aggregate. Subject the test
specimen to a total of 15 such blows, The time interval between individual
each being delivered at an interval of
blows was not measured nor was it
not less than 1s. regulated. Therefore, it is likely that
intervals between blows were irregular
Remove the crushed aggregate by and possibly less than 1s. This can
holding the cup over a clean tray and cause non uniform deformations within
hammering on the outside with the the sample; misrepresenting is
rubber mallet until the particles are aggregate behaviour.
sufficiently disturbed to enable the mass
of the specimen to fall freely on to the A rubber mallet was not used to
tray. hammer on the outside of any cups,
leading to a possibility of retained mass
within said cups for each test, leading to
inaccurate results. However, the amount
(and mass) of fine dust-like particles
that would have been retained due to
this can be considered negligible.
Calculations No disparities in the calculations between both sources.
Source: (BSI, 1990), (School of Engineering and the Environments, Faculty of Science, Engineering & Computing, 2024)
Significance
The aggregate impact value of a material is used within engineering in order to enable well-informed material
selection procedures. For example, aggregates with an AIV<50% are poorly-suited for construction purposes as
they will have a low resistance to leavy loads or impacts. In road construction, the AIV of the aggregate used in
the design can be used in calculations in order to determine the load capacity of a road. Furthermore, aggregates
with an AIV>35% are considered unideal for road construction (Mudavath, n.d.). Therefore the road stones
should therefore be tough enough to resist fracture under impact due to traffic loads (Prasad, 2011).
Conclusion
Conclusively, aggregate impact value (AIV) tests help civil engineers to assess the strength and durability of
aggregates used in construction, aiding in the design robust and long-lasting structures. Results influence
decisions regarding material selection, construction techniques, and quality control measures. Understanding the
implications of these test results is crucial for ensuring the structural integrity and safety of constructed
infrastructure.
References
Jayawardena, U. S., 2008. A Study on The Relationship between Aggregate Impact Values (AIV) and Los
Angeles Abrasion Values (LAAV) of Charnockites/Charnockitic Gneisses in Sri Lanka. 1st ed. s.l.:The institution
of engineers.
BSI, 1990. BS 812-112:1990. s.l.:BSI.
CementConcrete, 2023. Aggregate Impact Value Test Apparatus, Procedure and Uses. [Online]
Available at: https://cementconcrete.org/material-testing-guide/pavement-materials/aggregate-impact-value-
test/1511/
Mudavath, K., n.d. Aggregate Impact Value. [Online]
Available at: https://wecivilengineers.wordpress.com/2018/01/23/aggregate-impact-value-
test/#:~:text=PURPOSE%20OF%20TEST%3A,impact%20is%20termed%20as%20toughness.
Prasad, S., 2011. CIVIL QUALITY CONTROL LAB. [Online]
Available at: https://civilqclab.blogspot.com/2011/02/aggregate-impact-value-test.html

19
A.2 Q2 – Alpha Diallo

Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) test and Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) test are both to est strength properties of aggregate.
Describe and discuss briefly these two tests in accordance to the latest BS, their differences and significant of these results.
(hint: you are not required tolist down all the test procedure. It is about identifying the differences and its significant and
interpretation of the results)
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) Test
The AIV test gauges the resistance of an aggregate to sudden and sharp impacts, simulating conditions that
aggregates may face during their service life. According to the latest BS standards, the procedure involves
subjecting a sample of aggregate particles to a series of impacts using a standardised apparatus and measuring
the percentage of fines produced. The result, expressed as a percentage, is the aggregate impact value. A lower
AIV denotes a more robust aggregate, less likely to disintegrate under sudden impacts (812-112:1990).
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) Test
Conversely, the ACV test measures the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load. Consistent with the latest BS standards, it involves compressing a standardised quantity of
aggregate in a testing apparatus and then determining the percentage of the material crushed to fine particles
relative to the total mass of the sample. The result, expressed as a percentage, is the aggregate crushing value.
A lower ACV indicates a stronger aggregate capable of withstanding higher loads without failure (BS 812-
110:1990).
Differences and Significance
The primary difference between the two tests lies in the type of load applied: the AIV test concerns impact loads,
whilst the ACV test pertains to crushing or compressive loads. This distinction is vital as it reflects the different
conditions aggregates may endure - for instance, impact loads from vehicles or compressive loads from overlying
structures.
The significance of these tests lies in their capacity to predict aggregates’ performance in real life situations.
Aggregates with lower AIV and ACV values are considered superior as they are likely to be more durable under
the stresses of actual use. Conversely, high values might suggest that the aggregate is weaker and more prone
to breaking down under loads, potentially leading to premature pavement failure, increased maintenance costs,
and reduced safety.
Interpreting the results from these tests aids in selecting appropriate aggregates for different construction needs.
For example, aggregates used in road surfaces should exhibit low AIV and ACV values to endure the dynamic
impacts and compressive stresses from traffic. Meanwhile, aggregates with higher AIV and ACV values might still
be adequate for less critical applications, such as base layers in road construction or non-structural concrete.

20
A.3 Q3 – Josh Pelham

According to BS EN 12620:2002+A1: 2008, which types of aggregate could potentially be used in which floor type and discuss
why? (hint: you are required to read this BS in conjunction with Properties of Concrete book with reference to the Chapter on
aggregate)
The BS EN 12620:2002+A1 specifies the physical and mechanical properties of aggregates used for concrete.
This section will focus on the mechanical properties such as strength, porosity, absorption, and moisture content.
When choosing the appropriate aggregate, it is important to understand the purpose of the floor and whole
structure because all types of aggregates have different advantages and disadvantages.
In this section the floor types discussed are slabs in a building or car park i.e. ground floor slabs and above
ground floor slabs. It is important to note that ground floor slabs will require an increased evaluation on what type
of concrete to use including aggregates.
Ground floor slabs are occasionally used as foundations and will require higher strength as they are taking more
loads. Additionally, as ground floor slabs may be in contact with soil, porosity and absorption of aggregates
requires consideration.
Today, there is focus on producing sustainable buildings and engineers are evaluating methods of how embodied
carbon can be reduced. A reduction can be made by designing and building a lean and light structure where a
lighter aggregate would be preferred which can reduce weight from 5kN/m3 to 16-18kN/m3.
Strength
Table 5 shows different compressive strength values for different types of rocks. Compressive strength is tested
by conducting a crushing test. According to Neville & Adam a value of 200MPa is a decent average, however
aggregate with “moderate or low strength” can be worthy when preserving reliability of concrete. This is due to
the thermal reaction with the cement paste reducing
Table 5: Compressive Strength of American Rocks
impact in concrete for moderate or low compressibility
Commonly Used as Concrete Aggregates (Neville, Adam,
of aggregate, whereas a stronger aggregate may result
2011)
in cracking around the cement paste (Neville, Adam,
2011).
Moreover, this suggests that the strongest aggregate

is not necessarily the best choice for floors. Based on
the information above and using Table 5 a sandstone,
limestone or granite would be suitable for ground floor
slabs which also considering the load requirements of
the slab. For above ground floors marble can be
used, however this would be expensive so a limestone
would be a more sensible choice.
Porosity and Absorption of Concrete

Porosity and absorption influence the bond between concrete and cement paste, resistance to freezing and
thawing, chemical stability, and resistance to abrasion. Aggregate makes up three quarters of the volume of
concrete, so it impacts the overall porosity of the concrete the most. Table 6 illustrates porosity of some common
rocks which shows granite has the lowest percentage
Table 6: Porosity of some rock types (Neville, of porosity so would be a good choice for a ground
Adam, 2011) floor slab or open-air car park where conditions are
more porous.

21
According to BS EN 1260, 2008, if the water absorption of the aggregate remains below 1%, it can be deemed
resistant to freeze-thaw damage. However, numerous satisfactory aggregates exhibit absorption values higher
than this threshold (BS EN 1260, 2008). Table 7 shows absorption percentages for British aggregates. As
aforementioned, absorption can impact the bond with the cement paste, thus the strength of the concrete,
therefore an aggregate with lower absorption would be preferred. Limestone has a low absorption percentage
and could be used for all floor types. Leighton buzzard has the lowest absorption percentage, however, is a fine
aggregate and should be used in conjunction with limestone, especially for car park floors where floors are more
prone to freeze thaw attacks.
Table 7:Typical Values of Absorption of Different British Aggregates (Neville, Adam, 2011)
Toughness
Aggregate impact test values are used to determine aggregates toughness. Details of this test have been
described in this report. BS 882: 1992 outlines heavy duty floors should have a maximum value of 25%, 30% for
concrete wearing surfaces and 45% for everything else. Using the data from tables 1 - 3 a natural coarse
aggregate would be preferred for car park and ground floor slabs. A recycled aggregate could be used for floors
above ground level to achieve a more sustainable design.
Corrosion
Chloride induced corrosion can damage steel reinforcement within concrete. Aggregates contain chloride ion and
BS 882: 1992 recommends the limits of the following values:
• Prestressed concrete – 0.01%
• Reinforced concrete made with sulphate-resisting cement – 0.03%.
• Other reinforced concrete – 0.05% (Neville, Adam, 2011)
BS EN 1260, 2008 recommends limiting the total amount of chloride ion contributed by all essential materials to
minimise risk of corrosion and most inland aggregates will be acceptable. Therefore, any natural aggregate will
be satisfactory for use in floors.
Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of aggregate can influence the thermal expansion and heat capacity which is important
when in installing concrete floors as cracks can be created if not evaluated. Because of this, aggregates with low
thermal expansion coefficients are often used in mass concreting. From Table 8 marble has the lowest and will be
preferred for floors, however again this is expensive, and limestone or sandstone would be preferred due to these
types being more accessible.
Table 8: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Different Rock Types (Neville, Adam,
2011)

22
Conclusion
To conclude, multiple mechanical properties require consideration when determine what type to be used on
floors, however these should not be reviewed in isolation. There are additional factors that contribute to
aggregate choice such as cost and accessibility. Commonly, a natural aggregate is used for floors such as
limestone and this is backed up by the consistent and balance mechanical property performance as mentioned
above.
References
BS EN 1260, 2008. BS EN 1260:2002+A1:2008 - Aggregates for concrete. s.l.:BSI.

Neville, Adam, 2011. Properties of Concrete. 5th ed. Harlow: Pearson.

23
A.4 Q4 – Anmol Gill

Determining the strength properties which is one of the mechanical properties of aggregate is important. Describe
its influence on the performance of hardened concrete?
Concrete is a primary contributor to the durability and structural integrity of engineering and construction projects,
however, apart from durability, the strength of the concrete is one of the most important mechanical properties.
Compressive strength is used as a measure of resistance to an applied force, and is conventionally determined
by applying the increasing axial compression of a uniformly distributed load on a hardened specimen (Nithurshan
& Elakneswaran, 2023). When strength is measured in the context of concrete, it is done so by using an index
called compressive strength (Nithurshan & Elakneswaran, 2023). When evaluating the compressive strength of
aggregates, the Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) test is used to determine which aggregate type is best suited
for the concrete mix/es within a given construction project.
In preparation for the test, the aggregate sample is sieved through a stack of sieves where only the sample left in
the 10mm sieve is used. The procedure requires filling the aggregate sample within a cylindrical measure and
tamped 25 times to allow the sample to settle as evenly as possible. The weight of this sample is then measured
and recorded (generally as W1) and placed into the mold, which is locked in place with the plunger positioned
above it. During the test increasing pressure is gradually applied to the sample up to 400 kN, which takes
approximately 10 minutes to accomplish. The crushed sample is then removed and sieved through a 2.36mm
sieve, as well as being re-weighed. The ACV is calculated as a ratio between the weight of the sample passing
through the 2.36, sieve and the original sample (Bala, 2023).
Figure 1: A schematic diagram showing the cylindrical measure, the mold and the plunger used in an
ACV test (Bala, 2023)
Figure 2: A schematic diagram showing the plunger crushing the aggregate sample in an ACV test (Bala,
2023)

24
The results of the ACV test can be classified as follows:

1. Over 35% – Weak aggregates
2. 35% to 70% – Average quality aggregates
3. 70% to 90% – Strong aggregates
4. Above 90% – Exceptionally strong aggregates
(Civil Scoops, 2024)
The Aggregate Crushing Value test is a valuable measure of the strength and durability of aggregates. It provides
valuable information that can be used to make informed decisions about the quality of construction materials. By
determining the Aggregate Crushing Strength, engineers and builders can ensure that the aggregates used in
their projects will withstand the stresses and strains that they will be subjected to. With proper testing and
analysis, the weaknesses and potential problems of aggregates can be identified and addressed, leading to safer
and more durable structures. Overall, the Aggregate Crushing Value test is an essential tool in the construction
industry and should be performed regularly to ensure the safety and quality of construction materials (Civil
Scoops, 2024).
Concrete is the second-most consumed construction material behind water and accounts for approximately 30
billion tons per year because it’s cheap and easy to prepare. In preparation, when cement reacts with water, a
chemical reaction known as ‘hydration’ occurs at a gradual rate producing new crystalline, e.g. calcium silicate
hydrates (C-S-H). These bind the aggregate particles together and harden. Hydration begins immediately after
the addition of water into the concrete mix and continues for many years, making the concrete stronger over time
changing it from being plastic to solid in nature (Nithurshan & Elakneswaran, 2023).
Curing is the procedure which endorses the hydration of cement and consists of controlling temperature and
moisture movement into and out of the concrete. A competent curing application has a significant impact on the
density and compressive strength of concrete (Iffat, 2015). Inadequate curing may possibly lead to issues such
as an increased void’s ratio due to moisture movement into the concrete above required levels. More porous
concrete aggregate will be less dense, and as a result have lower compressive strength, as can be seen in the
graphs below which compares a relatively higher density aggregate in crushed stone (SC) to a relatively lower
density aggregate in crushed brick (BC).
Figure 3: A graph showing the difference in water absorption capacity between crushed stone (SC) and
crushed brick (BC) aggregate (Iffat, 2015)

25
Figure 4: A graph showing the difference in voids between crushed stone (SC) and crushed brick (BC)
aggregate (Iffat, 2015)
Figure 5: A graph showing the difference in compressive strength between crushed stone (SC) and
crushed brick (BC) aggregate (Iffat, 2015)
Testing is the only way to determine whether a concrete mix has enough compressive strength, or load-bearing
capacity, for its intended use. The higher the psi rating, or the weight under which a square inch of concrete
surface area will fail, the stronger and more durable the concrete will be. Concrete is usually tested 28 days after
casting as a quality-control check to determine if compressive strength levels are acceptable. Although concrete
will continue to gain strength after 28 days, enough hydration has taken place during this time frame to provide a
good estimate of the final strength (Balogh, 2023).
The minimum compressive strength requirements for residential concrete are often set by local building codes.
For concrete slabs that will bear lighter loads, such as sidewalks, patios, steps, and interior flatwork, a minimum
of 2500 psi may be sufficient. For a standard residential concrete driveway or garage floor slab, a range of
between 3000 and 4000 psi is often required to provide the necessary load-bearing capacity to support vehicle
traffic (Balogh, 2023).
There is little benefit to using concrete with a higher psi rating than required for the necessary application. Higher
psi concrete generally has a lower water-cement ratio, which makes it stronger but also more difficult to work
with, which can impose drawbacks to time efficiency within a construction project. Furthermore, a concrete mix
with a higher psi is more expensive and will therefore impose drawbacks to cost efficiency as well, especially for
applications which are not likely to be exposed to heavy traffic or harsh weather (Balogh, 2023).

26
Figure 6: A table showing various applications of concrete within construction and the required
compressive strength for each type of application (Balogh, 2023)
References
Bala, 2023. Aggregate Crushing Value Test - Significance & Test Procedure. [Online]
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
Balogh, A., 2023. UNDERSTANDING CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (WHAT IS PSI?). [Online]
Available at: https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/compressive-strength-psi.html
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
Civil Scoops, 2024. Aggregate Crushing Value Test Determine Aggregate Crushing Strength. [Online]
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
Iffat, S., 2015. Relation Between Density and Compressive Strength of Hardened Concrete. [Online]
Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234103467.pdf
[Accessed 11 03 2024].
Nithurshan, M. & Elakneswaran, . Y., 2023. A systematic review and assessment of concrete strength prediction
models. [Online]
Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214509523000098
[Accessed 11 03 2024].

27
A.5 Q5 – Kwaku Boakye, Oliver Jeffery

Describe in detail what the other mechanical properties of aggregate are and what their effects are upon the performance of
hardened concrete.
Kwaku Boakye
Introduction
Aggregate is a very useful material within construction. A very strong material that is used in the production of
concrete to allow it to be stronger. Due to its various mechanical properties, it has a variety of effects on the
performance of hardened concrete which is used in general construction.
Hardness
The hardness of concrete does influence the performance of hardened concrete. If the aggregate is harder, there
is an increase in the compressive strength, stress intensity factor and the dissipated fracture energy of the
hardened concrete. For example, if the hardness of the concrete was increased by 6.5%, it would lead to a 14%
in compressive strength, 22% stress intensity factor and 59% dissipated fracture energy of the hardened
concrete (Atur P. N. Siregar, 2019). This leads to a stronger and more durable concrete.
Elasticity
Elasticity also influences concrete. If the elasticity of the aggregate is high, this means that the elasticity of the
hardened concrete is high as well, due to part of the mix of the concrete being aggregate. If the elasticity of the
concrete is high, it means that the concrete would have a much higher compressive strength and thus make the
hardened concrete perform much better (P Domone, 2010).
Porosity
Porosity of aggregate has effects on the performance of the concrete. If the porosity of the concrete is high, it
means that the “water permeability rate” of the concrete and this will lead to the hardened concrete having a loss
in its strength and the “porous concrete” will have a decrease in its overall compressive strength. However, the
opposite can be true as well, in that if the aggregate does not have a high moisture content, it will mean that there
is a decrease in the “water permeability rate” and so the compressive strength of the concrete will be higher
(MDPI, 2023).
Density
The density of the aggregate is also a contributing factor into the strength of the hardened concrete. Typically,
lightweight aggregates (aggregate which contain air voids) are weaker than normal-density aggregate and this
leads to the compressive strength of the hardened concrete produced by each type of aggregate to be different,
in that the lightweight aggregate (lower density) produces concrete which has a lower compressive strength than
the concrete that the normal-density aggregate produces (P Domone, 2010).
Figure 18: Strength/density ranges for normal and lightweight aggregate concrete
Abrasion Resistance
Additionally, if the abrasion resistance of the aggregate is also higher, it means that the wear resistance of the
hardened concrete increases as well. If the hardened concrete has a higher wear resistance, it means that the

28
concrete is now much more durable and thus increases its overall performance as a structure (Orhan Karpu,
n.d.).
Thermal Expansion
The thermal expansion coefficient of the aggregate also influences hardened concrete. Due to aggregate having
a reduction of the effects of humidity onto the aggregate, it reduces the thermal expansion which the handed
concrete can go through. As if the hardened concrete goes through thermal expansion, it causes microcracks in
the concrete itself which then leads to the concrete weakening and thus losing compressive strength (P Domone,
2010).
Figure 19: The effect of dryness on the thermal expansion coefficient of hardened cement paste and
concrete (P Domone, 2010)
Shape and Texture

The shape and texture of the aggregate also influences the performance of hardened concrete. Aggregate can
come in many forms and shapes; this includes the roundness of the concrete but also its roughness. Aggregate
which is smooth and rounded helps make hardened concrete “more workable”, compared to its other counterpart
of aggregate which is much rougher and not rounded. However, the more “angular and elongated” the aggregate
is, the higher the “surface-to-volume ratio” for bonding is, which allows for better bond characteristics for the
concrete (Engineering, n.d.).
Figure 20: Round and Smooth Aggregate vs Angular and Elongated Aggregate (CivilBlog.Org, 2014)
Conclusion
There are a variety of mechanical properties of aggregate that would affect the performance of concrete. As
stated, examples of shape and texture, thermal expansion, abrasion resistance, density, porosity, elasticity and
hardness all have an effect on the quality of concrete produced and thus the quality of the concrete beam
produced from the concrete. Thus, it is imperative that aggregates are studied and researched as to see the best
aggregate in producing concrete.

29
References
Atur P. N. Siregar, E. L. P. I. W. S., 2019. The effect of coarse aggregate hardness on the fracture toughness and
compressive strength of concrete. s.l.:s.n.
CivilBlog.Org, 2014. Wether the Angular Aggregate or Rounded Aggregate Will Make Better Concrete?. [Online]
Available at: https://civilblog.org/2014/08/19/whether-the-angular-aggregate-or-rounded-aggregate-will-make-
better-concrete/ [Accessed February 2024].
Engineering, P. S., n.d. The Effect of Aggregate Properties on Concrete. [Online]
Available at:
https://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/materials/aggregate/aggregatesmain.htm#:~:text=Th
e%20shape%20and%20texture%20of,rough%20angular%20or%20elongated%20aggregate. [Accessed
February 2024].
MDPI, 2023. Strength, Porosity and Permeability Properties of Porous Concrete Made from Recycled Concrete
Aggregates. [Online]
Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2673-
7108/3/1/6#:~:text=Overall%2C%20recycled%20concrete%20aggregate%20has,strength%20of%20the%20final
%20concrete. [Accessed February 2024].
Orhan Karpu, M. V. A. M. M. A., n.d. Effects of fine aggregate abrasion resistance and its fineness module on
wear resistance of Portland cement concrete pavements. s.l.:s.n.
P Domone, J. I., 2010. Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour. 4th ed. s.l.:Spon Press.

30
Oliver Jeffery
Q5: Describe in detail what the other mechanical properties of aggregate are and what their effects are
upon the performance of hardened concrete.
The mechanical properties of aggregates significantly impact the performance of hardened concrete. These
properties are responsible for the concrete's strength, durability, workability, and resistance to various
environmental factors. Moreover, Choosing the correct aggregate to optimise both costs for the client,
sustainability for carbon footprint for the whole life cycle of the project and quality of the aggrandisement to
perform its mechanical properties is a tricky balance for Civil and Structural Engineers within the industry.
The BS EN 1097 series is a set of standards that evaluate aggregates' mechanical and physical properties.
These standards are pivotal in ensuring the quality and durability of construction materials by systematically
testing their strength, resilience, and overall performance under various conditions and, therefore, their
effectiveness upon the performance of hardened concrete. Through a comprehensive suite of tests, the BS EN
1097 series provides a rigorous framework for measuring attributes such as resistance to wear, particle density,
and water absorption. This meticulous approach to testing helps select materials that meet the critical
requirements of construction projects, thereby underpinning the structural integrity and longevity of constructed
facilities when aggregate is used.
Figure 21 – List of the tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregate within BS EN 1097
(Concrete & Society, n.d.)
Mechanical properties specifically refer to those characteristics that describe the behaviour of the aggregate
material under different forces or loads. From Figure 17 above, the following can be classified as mechanical
properties:
I. Resistance to wear (micro-Deval): This is a measure of how well an aggregate resists wearing and
grinding down when subjected to abrasion and mechanical actions. (Concrete & Society, n.d.)
II. Resistance to fragmentation: This indicates the aggregate's ability to resist breaking, fracturing, or
disintegrating under applied forces. (Concrete & Society, n.d.)
III. Resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres (Nordic test): This test measures the aggregate's
ability to withstand abrasion, specifically from studded tires, which is a form of mechanical wear.
IV. Determination of compressibility and confined compressive strength of lightweight aggregates: This
assesses how much an aggregate can be compressed under a given load, as well as its ability to
withstand compressive forces within a confined space, both of which are mechanical properties.
The other items listed, such as loose bulk density and voids, voids of dry compacted filler, water content, particle
density and water absorption, particle density of filler (Pyknometer method), polished stone value, and water
suction height, are more indicative of the physical properties of aggregates. These characteristics relate to the
aggregate's physical state or response to physical processes rather than its behaviour under mechanical forces.

31
Concrete is a composite material comprising cementitious material, aggregates, and water. Aggregates, making
up 60-80% of concrete's volume and 70-85% of its weight, are essential not just as filler but for defining the
concrete's thermal and elastic characteristics and dimensional stability. These are divided into coarse (larger than
4.75 mm) and fine (smaller than 4.75 mm) types, with their compressive strength being a crucial factor in
selection, particularly for normal concrete where aggregates greatly exceed the strength of other components,
and for lightweight concrete, which is more dependent on aggregate strength. (Education, n.d.).
Resistance to wear and abrasion: Aggregates with high resistance to wear and abrasion contribute to the
durability of concrete, making it less prone to surface wear and deterioration under mechanical actions and
abrasive forces. Such aggregates enhance concrete's ability to withstand traffic and environmental stresses,
leading to longer service life. For instance, the use of coarse aggregates like crushed river gravel, trap rock, and
limestones in high-performance concrete (HPC) production has been shown to affect the mechanical properties
of the concrete, such as compressive strength, elastic modulus, and flexural strength, due to their mineralogical
characteristics and physical attributes like shape, surface texture, and hardness (Cetin & Carrasquillo, 1998).
Resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres: Aggregates capable of withstanding this specific form of wear
contribute to the surface durability of concrete exposed to vehicular traffic, especially in regions where studded
tires are common. This resistance minimizes the surface degradation and maintains the texture and skid
resistance of concrete pavements, enhancing safety and longevity. (Cetin & Carrasquillo, 1998).
For example, LMS Highways crews are playing a

vital role in maintaining the integrity of our highway
network, ensuring essential workers can travel
safely and deliveries reach those in need. Recently,
they collaborated with A-one+ Area-4 to undertake
major motorway repairs on the M20 Junction 8 – 9.
(Highways, n.d.)
Utilizing advanced technology, such as vacuum

plates for concrete removal and rapid-curing
concrete, the team efficiently removed damaged
sections and replaced them with new concrete
bays. This rapid curing process allowed for
completion within tight time constraints, minimizing
road closure times and ensuring uninterrupted
traffic flow. (Highways, n.d.).
For example, the concrete that would be specified

on the M20 Motorway would have aggregate that
would have high abrasion properties due to the
high stress exserted by the wheels of cars and
HGVs. As well as high Resistance to
fragmentation, and Resistance to wear.
Choosing aggregates with high abrasion

resistance, fragmentation resistance, and wear
resistance for motorway construction, such as
those utilized on the M20 Motorway, is crucial for
ensuring the longevity and sustainability of the
infrastructure.
Figure 22 – M20 Concrete Repairs (Highways, n.d.)

These aggregates are subjected to significant stress from the constant passage of vehicles, including cars and
heavy goods vehicles (HGVs). By selecting durable aggregates, road surfaces can withstand this stress,
reducing the frequency of repairs and replacements. This not only minimizes disruption to traffic flow but also
contributes to environmental sustainability by reducing the need for resource-intensive maintenance activities.
Additionally, longer-lasting road surfaces decrease the consumption of raw materials, energy, and emissions
associated with construction and maintenance processes, aligning with sustainable development goals and
promoting responsible resource management in infrastructure projects.

32
Resistance to fragmentation: Aggregates that resist breaking, fracturing, or disintegrating under applied forces
improve concrete's structural integrity and mechanical strength. High-strength aggregates contribute to the
compressive, flexural, and tensile strength of concrete, making it more robust and capable of bearing greater
loads without failure. The strength and stiffness of concrete, for instance, depend significantly on the type of
aggregate used, especially for high-strength concrete, where the choice of high-strength, low-brittleness
aggregate is crucial (Wu, Chen, Yao, & Zhang, 2001).
Compressibility and confined compressive strength: Lightweight aggregates with optimal compressibility and
confined compressive strength can influence concrete density, strength, and thermal insulation. These properties
are particularly important in the production of lightweight concrete, where the balance between weight reduction
and mechanical strength is critical. The study of lightweight aggregates' effects on concrete's mechanical
performances through their volume fractions and qualities shows the importance of the aggregate's physical
properties, such as particle density and shell thickness, on the concrete's mechanical properties (Ke, Beaucour,
Ortola, Dumontet, & Cabrillac, 2009).
In summary, the mechanical properties of aggregates directly influence the hardness, durability, and overall
performance of hardened concrete. High-quality aggregates enhance concrete's ability to withstand mechanical
actions, environmental stresses, and load-bearing demands, contributing to its longevity and functionality.
Therefore, making sustainable concrete structure, which align with the United National Goal 9 - Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation (Nations, 2015). As the
concrete structures will last longer due to the aggregate being able to withstand greater mechanical actions.
References
Cetin, A. & Carrasquillo, R. (1998) 'HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE: INFLUENCE OF COARSE

AGGREGATES ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES', Aci Materials Journal, 95, pp. 252-261. Available at:
https://consensus.app/papers/highperformance-concrete-influence-coarse-aggregates-
cetin/65acc8ea81145a48bf5e270ceab8f627/
Wu, K., Chen, B., Yao, W. & Zhang, D. (2001) 'Effect of coarse aggregate type on mechanical properties of high-
performance concrete', Cement and Concrete Research, 31, pp. 1421-1425. Available at:
https://consensus.app/papers/coarse-aggregate-properties-highperformance-concrete-
wu/ff16858db13f566daf612c1037160cf9/
Ke, Y., Beaucour, A., Ortola, S., Dumontet, H. & Cabrillac, R. (2009) 'Influence of volume fraction and
characteristics of lightweight aggregates on the mechanical properties of concrete', Construction and Building
Materials, 23, pp. 2821-2828. Available at: https://consensus.app/papers/influence-volume-fraction-
characteristics-aggregates-ke/9288fa7f4d5c5ea7ab4f020b5fb5846c/
Nations, U., 2015. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster
innovation. [Online] Available at: https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal9 [Accessed 9th March 2024].
Concrete, T. & Society, T. C., n.d.. Aggregates – Tests for properties. [Online]
Available at: https://www.concrete.org.uk/fingertips-nuggets.asp?cmd=display&id=610

33

34

Group 2 Lab B1 Report

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Group 2 Lab B1 Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechanical Characteristics of

Kingston University London

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Figure 1: Aggregates used for drainage (A. Diallo, 2024)

Figure 2: Foundation Layers and Pavement Layers (Highways England, 2020)

Prepared for: Kingston University London

Theory and Literature Review

Prepared for: Kingston University London

Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)

A cylindrical test specimen approximately 25 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height is compacted in a standardized

Prepared for: Kingston University London

where, M1 = mass of the test sample (g)

Prepared for: Kingston University London

Mechanical Properties of Concrete Aggregates

Prepared for: Kingston University London

Prepared for: Kingston University London

Literature Review – Aggregate Impact Value

Prepared for: Kingston University London

Test Equipment and Procedure

Prepared for: Kingston University London

Figure 11: Aggregate Impact Test Procedure

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Test Item Weight (g) AIV (%)

1 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1286.3 24%

Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 320.7

Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 76.6

Weight of materials retained on 2.36mm sieve (M3) 244.1

2 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1290.0 23%

Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 325.3

Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 76.2

Weight of materials retained on 2.36mm sieve (M3) 248.7

3 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1287.7 26%

Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 322.5

Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 84.8

Weight of materials retained on 2.36mm sieve (M3) 237.2

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝑰𝑽 (%)𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝑨𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝟐𝟓%

Table 2. Recycled Aggregate AIV Results

Test Item Weight (g) AIV (%)

1 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1274.1 24%

Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 309.0

Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 72.9

Weight of materials retained on 2.36mm sieve (M3) 236.0

2 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1283.0 22%

Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 318.6

Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 71.4

Weight of materials retained on 2.36mm sieve (M3) 247.1

3 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1262.2 26%

Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 297.3

Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 77.7

Weight of materials retained on 2.36mm sieve (M3) 219.3

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝑰𝑽 (%)𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝟐𝟒%

Prepared for: Kingston University London K2165553

Table 3. Decorative Granite AIV Results

Test Item Weight (g) AIV (%)

1 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1303.7 31%

Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 338.5

Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 105.2

Weight of materials retained on 2.36mm sieve (M3) 233.0

2 Weight of the cup and sample (M0) 1295.2 30%

Weight of the sample after subjected to impact (M1) 329.8

Weight of materials passing 2.36mm sieve (M2) 99.4