H I STO RY O F

S ERB I A

H A R O LD W . V . TE MPE R LEY
F EL LO W A N D AS S I STANT TUTOR, PE TE R H OU S E , C AMB R I DG E

C A PTA I N : F I F E AND F OR F A R YEOMAN RY

S E CON D I MPR E S S I ON

L ON D ON

(l BELL AND S O NS L TD .

I 919
S m AD O L PH U S W ILL I AM WARD
MA STER OF PETE R H O U S E

I D E D I C A TE TH I S BOOK
 PR E F A C E

Tm s lit tle b ook i s th e fruit of som e y e ars of t rave l and

study in the Near East I ts publication was i n t e rrupted
.

by th e War but was fi nish e d duri n g a p e riod of c on

,

v al e sce n c e
. The original i n t e n tio n w as to relat e th e story
of Serbia from th e r e vival of her i n dep e n d e n c e in the
n i n e te e n th ce n tury u n til the period j ust before th e Balka n

War of 1 9 1 2 at which past history e vide n tly melts

,

i n to prese n t politics Th e aim w as to show how th e

.

diplomacy of the Gr e at Pow e rs a ff ected th e d e sti n ies of

Serbi a in the n i n e te e nth c e n tury as a compa n io n study
,

to a similar on e of Bavaria in the eightee n th c e n tury

publish e d pr e vio usly under th e titl e of Kaiser l amp/z and
F rederic t/z e G re a t . I n both the obj ect was to draw
att e n tio n to th e u n published sources of British diplomacy
at th e Record O ffi ce which fur n ish materi al as rich and
,

importa n t as it is n egl e cted .

But as the study progr e ss e d it b e cam e e vid e nt that

, ,

it could n ot be co n fi n e d to th e n inet e enth ce n tury The .

pri n ciples of str at e gy ar e et e r n al an d geography has

'
,

afi e c t e d diplom acy in Serbia in all ages in a striki n gly

simil ar way I t was w ell to show th at the aims of
.

B yz a n tium or Turkey or Hu n gary in the M iddle Ages

afl e c t e d Serbia like th e aims of similar Powers to day
'

-
.

Nor is moder n Serbia n history i n telligible without re f er

e n ce to its sple n did an d tr agic past A study of th e.

Serbi an past though almost u n know n to En glish r e ad e rs

, ,

is complicated by th e abu n da n c e of historians and the

V"
viii PREFAC E

amazi n g variety of their views I n the Balkan s histor y .

i s a sort of p aci fi c warfare in w h ich every n ative

scholar is a ge n eral Kossovo an d Stephe n Dush an
.
,

Czar Simeo n an d K uste n dil aw ake n f ar mor e living

se n time n ts betwee n Serbia ns an d Bulgaria n s th an do
n ames like Sebastopol or W aterloo to u s an d our Allies .

N atio n al policies in the Balkan s are still aff ected by the

wro n gs wrought fi v e ce n turies ago I n such a co n fusio n .

the j udgme n t of the o n looker may be of more valu e

tha n that of the n ative .

Ap art from the i n flue n ces of trav e l an d e xp e ri e n c e at

fi rst h an d the authorities to which or to whom I owe most
,

are J ire ce k C v ij ic M arc z ali an d Ra n ke amo n g historia n s

, , , ,

an d Steed E liot Seto n Watso n an d Miller amo n g

, ,
-
,

co n temporaries To hold the bal an ce betwee n their

.

co n flicti n g opi n io n s has bee n my aim oth e rs will j udge ,

of its succ e ss .

I t can seldom be the lot of an historia n to fi n d that

the n atio n whose story he has writte n n o lo n ger exists
, ,

whe n his book is completed Yet if the history of .

,

Serbia t e ach e s anything it is that h e r spiritual forces

,

have always bee n stro n ger tha n h e r m ateri al ones I f .

it be true th at r are m an uscripts and books h ave b ee n

bur n t an d the dust of K i n g M iliut in scattered to the
winds these acts will have no more e ff ect upon Serbia
,

tha n the sc atteri n g of the ashes of Huss had upo n

Bohemia Disaster has sometimes created an d has
.

alw ays i n t e nsi fi ed n atio n al feeli n g in Serbi a So lo n g .

as th e so n gs of Kossovo are su n g an d a Serbia n exists

in any l and to si n g them so lo n g there will alw ays be ,

a Serbia .

Th r r t t h t o S r b i
e e es e g l ry e a a o ,

A g l ory t h t t g r ow old a c ann o

Th r r m i t h t o S r b i
e e e t ry
a ne e a 3 s o ,

A l
ta e to be c hant e d and t o ld !”
 C O N T E N TS

I N T DU C T I N
RO O

C H AP.

I . THE C MIN G T HE S UT HE N S LAV

O OF O R S

II . T HE RI E ST HE MEDI VAL S E BIAN K IN G D M — Z E TA

OF E R O S

AND R A H KA S

III . T HE N M E DY NA TY AND T HE RI E
ANY I D S MEDI V A L S OP E

S G EA T NE
EREI AN
( I 9 R
3 I SS 1 0— 1 2

IV . S T E P HEN U I I I AND S T E P HEN D U HAN ( 3

ROS H .
55) S 1 21—

T S E BIAN MEDI V A L E M P I E IN
HE R GL Y E R I TS OR

V . A G LAN C E A T S MEDI VA L S C IE TY
EREI AN E O

VI . T HE F AL L T HE S OF E M P I E AND T HE TU KI H
E REI AN R R S

C NQUE T
O S .

VII . T HE TU KI H O CC UP A T I N
R S S E BIA ( 45 9— 739 )
O OF R 1 1

VIII . M N T ENE G
O AND RO S HA E IN S E BIAN NA T I NA L
HER R R O

D E VE L P MEN T O

IX . T HE P E P A ATI N
R I N D E P ENDEN C E ( 7 39— 8 4)
R O FOR 1 1 0

THE Tw o S ER EI AN I ) T FI T
I N SU R RECTI ON s HE RS

I N U E C T I N AND T H E D EED
S RR O KA A G E GE ; ( ) S or R OR 2

M O
I LOS H AND T HE S E C D I N U E C T I N
BREN OV I TC H ON S RR O

XI . THE PA T IA CH A L M NA CH Y M
R R O O R — I L OS H B REN O VI TC H

A LE ANDE K X R ARAG EORG EV I TC H

 C O NT E NTS
C R AP . PA G E

XI I . MI C HA EL AND MILAN — THE J U G o S LAv

-
POL I CY AND
T HE S U ENDE RR R To AU ST RIA -
HU NGA YR

XIII . THE TR EA TY B E L IN AN D T HE
or R A usTRo H U -
N G A IAN
R

I NFL U EN C E IN S E IA RB

XI V . TH E R U SSOP HI LE PE I D— T R O HE B OSN IAN AND J UG o- S L A V

Q U E T ISN —
( 9 3 )
O 1 0 10

XV . THE M AC ED NIANO Q U E S T I O N —
( 9 3 0)
1 0 1

A PP ENDI X— MAC EDO N A— A N l U N P U BLI HED RE P

S ORT or 1 80 7

L IT
S or R UL E RS or S E IA AN D
RB MON T EN E G RO MEDIIEVAL
, AN D
MODE RN

B IBLI G AP H Y
O R

I NDEx
 H I S TO R Y O F SERBI A

I NTR O DU CTI O N
TH E S OU TH E RN S L A VS

S LA V O NI C n ationalities ar e th e d e spair of th e historia n

.

Their story is complex beyond ordi n ary complexity ,

an d bloody beyo n d ordi n ary bloodi n ess . To write t he

history e ven of that part of th e Slavonic races k n ow n
as the South e rn Slavs or J ugo Slavs is lik e threadi n g a
-

labyri n th Th e o n ly m e thod which o ff e rs a real cha n c e

.

of succ e ss is to trac e th e fortu n e s of a speci fi c rac e

amo n g the South e r n Slavs and to relate it clos e ly to
th e other n atio n alities of that ar e a . For this purpose
th e history of the Serbians of M o n te n egro and of
Serbia is th e S implest as w e ll as the most important .

O n e has b e en always fre e u n til t o day the other

,

co n stitut e s a pow e rful u n it rou n d which the aspiratio n s

of the Southern Slavs n ow ce n tre I f th e re e v e r i s a
.

Southern Sl av federatio n it will be b e caus e of the

,

ki n gdom of Serbia which has held up the same ki n d

,

of hop e an d example of u n ity to th e Souther n Slavs

that the ki n gdom of Piedmo n t did to the Southern
I talia n s
. The history of the Serbian race in M ont e
n egro an d Serbia is th e refore the most importa n t ,

bec ause th e s e lands ar e th e core of th at rugged stock

which has pres e rv e d or achi e ved freedom an d thu s ,

becom e a hope an d a b e aco n to th e Slavs e n slav e d und e r

2 I NTR ODUCTI O N
other rul e rs or impriso n ed in other l an ds Why hav e .

the Serbi an s achieved freedom an d the M o n te n egri n s

preserved it ? Still m ore imp ortan t —Wh at is the leg acy '

of Serbi an hist o ry ? Does it OHe r hope for the future

an d pro n ou n ce th at the m o der n Serbia n n atio n is quali fi ed

to he ad a feder atio n ? History should throw flashes of

light on all these problems eve n if it does n ot solve
th e m .

The racial distributio n of th e Souther n Slavs has

remai n ed fairly co n sta n t si n ce the twelfth ce n tury .

Co n querors have overru n all the Souther n Slav la n ds ,

have mi n gled their blood with the n atives an d s e t up ,

their altars or their gover n me n ts in their territori e s .

But though at certai n poi n ts races have absorbed or

overwhelmed the Sl avs the mai n bulk of the populatio n ,

h as rem ai n ed u n iform in r ace though n ot in religio n .

The fi v e great divisio n s of the Jugo Sl av race are the -

Serbo Croats of Croati a the Serbs of Dalmatia the

-
, ,

Bos n i a n s M o n te n egri n s an d the Serbia n s of Serbia

, ,

proper All these races are e n closed within an ar e a

.
1

which ru n s from the Tyrolese Alps on the west to the

Balka n s on the e ast an d from the Adri atic coast on the
,

s out h to the Dr ave an d Da n ube o n the n orth This .

district forms a solid block of Jugo Sl av territory which -

i n cludes fi v e gre at rivers an d fi v e importan t mou n tai n ‘

r an ges These n atural fe atures have profou n dly afl e c te d

.

history M an i s at the mercy of geography u n til he

.

c an take liberties with n ature Therefore u n til he could .

,

tu n n el mou n tai n s dry up marshes an d re n der riv e rs

, ,

n avig able the u n ity O f the Jug o Sl av race was an im

‘

practicable dream A gl an ce at the map will show that

.

the geogr aphic al u n ity of these l an ds has o n ly become

possible withi n rece n t years .

TO day eve n n atural barriers can n ot destroy sympathy

-

1Th r l th S l v
e e w h o i h b it C r iol
are a so e d p r t of
o e ne s, n a a n a an a

St yr i a e ast o f t he Tyr l o e se Al p s .
 TH E S O UTH E RN SLA V S 3

or k ee p o ut ide as an d th e spiritual u n ity of the Jugo

,

Slav race has already bee n achieved But it is worth .

While to study mor e closely the physical c on dit I on s of

the country as they show wh at di fficulties this aspiration
,

for u n ity has overcome .

The most westerly of the J ugo Sl av la n ds as well -

,

as the most civilis e d is Cro atia a lo ng narrow duchy

, ,

stretchi ng from the upp e r reaches of the Drav e down

to Fiume an d the Adriatic in the south A gr e at .

ra ng e of limesto n e m ountai n s begi n s n ear Fiume an d

ru n s all along the Adriatic coast to Mont e n egro U n like .

al l other Jugo Slav la n ds Croatia is n ot cut off b y

,

m ou n tai n s or riv e rs fro m acc e ss to her n eigh b ours The .

fact has bee n most importa n t in h e r history for Latin ,

an d T e uto n ic i n flu e n ces hav e p e n etrated de e p into her

fi bres. Fiume is a fine harbour which has n urtured a

hardy race of Croatian sailors or pir ates si n c e the e arly
M iddle Ages Th e Croats w e r e subdued by th e Magyars
.

from th e n orth an d ar e still subj ects of th e Hu n garia n

,

Crow n But they hav e always cl aimed auto n omy and

.
,

h ave had a pr e carious kind of Home Rule si n ce 1 86 8 .

Th e ir most s e rious di ffi culty however has n ot be e n the, ,

oppressio n of th e M agy ars but the religious divisio n s

,

of their ow n race Two thirds of the Croats Of Croatia

.
-

are C atholics an d on e third O rthodox Greeks an d it is

-

o n ly withi n rec e n t times that M agyar oppr e ssio n has

welded th e two fragme n ts of the race i n to on e The .

result has b ee n a great impulse towards r e alisi n g th e

u nity of the Jugo Slav rac e for Zagreb ( Agram ) I s not,

o n ly the capital of Croati a but the cultural c e ntr e of

Souther n Slavdom This home of literatur e an d art has
.

n urtured th e e ducating influ e nc e s which hav e produced

the thought and e xpr e ssion of u n ity I f S e rbia is the .

ste e l which struck thought i n to flame Croatia is th e ,

fli n t e n closi n g the spiritual fi re .

The C arst r ang e runs like a bar e white wall alo n g

, ,
4 I NTR O DU C TI O N
the Adriatic coast as f ar as M ontenegro Parallel to it .

but i n la n d run the Di n aric Alps th e ir wooded heights ,

co n trasti n g sh arply with the b ald white summits of the

C arst. Betwee n these two gre at mou n t ai n ra n ges lies
the co ast provi n ce O f D almati a stretchi n g from Z ar a to
,

Catt aro an d desti n e d by its lo n g coast li n e an d high

,
-

mou n tai n walls to become a seafari n g provi n ce I t has .

always had a close an d easy co n n ectio n with I taly an d its ,

shores are strew n with the wrecks of Roma n an d

V e n etia n art Diocletia n built his famous palace at
.

Spalato n oble Rom an rui n s are scattered over the coast

, ,

R agus a with her blo od red cli ff s i s still a medi aeval

-

w alled tow n an d Ve n ice has left her in e fl ac e abl e mark

,

on sple n did rui n s at Z ara Tr ail and C attaro The

, , .

pres e n t populatio n of D almatia is predomi n a n tly Sl av ,

but it has bee n deeply i n flu e n ced in the past by Latin

civilisatio n I t s literature an d culture h ave b ee n a ff ected
.

by Lati n models an d its popul atio n is mainly Roma n

,

C atholic As in the case of Croatia its n e ar n ess to the

.

sea has made the task of the Lati n c o n q ueror easy while ,

i n acc e ssible mou n tai n s have severed it from Souther n

Sl av brethre n North of the Di n aric Al ps lie Herze
.

ov in a an d Bos n ia a district of high mou n tai n s cut by

g ,

deep an d r apid stre ams an d of mag n i fi ce n t sce n ery

, .

Nature has n ot o n ly s e ver e d Bos n ia from Croat an d

D al mati an n eighbours b ut has separated the di ffere n t
,

districts an d popul atio n s of Bos n ia from on e an oth e r Th e .

high mou n tai n s pr e ve n t commu n icatio n the swift str e ams ,

forbid n avigation Not u n til the adv e n t of r ailways w as

.

u n ity possible in th e s e districts an d th e Austri an ,

Gover n me n t has tak e n great car e to preve n t the r ailways

bei n g of much v alue to the cou n try These n atur al an d .

arti fi ci al barriers hav e produced surprisi n g religious

diversities The popul atio n is overwhelmi n gly Slavo n ic
.
,

but is divided i n to three religio n s— Roma n Greek an d , ,

Mohammeda n Th e M ohammeda n part of Bos n ia is

.
 TH E S O U TH E RN S L A V S 5

the west an d north the C atholics are in the south an d

, ,

the O rthodox are strongest in the Bos n ian highla n ds .

Here agai n history has combi n ed with n ature to establish

di ff ere n ces North of Croatia an d Bos n i a is the pr ovi n ce
.

of Sl avo n i a e n closed betw e e n the Save an d th e Dr ave

, ,

those great tributaries of the Da n ube The popul atio n .

of Sl avo n ia is p artly Catholic partly O rthodox Placed , .

as i t is Slavo n i a has n e ver bee n in a co n ditio n to defe n d

,

itself or to resist outside i n flue n ces an d its populatio n ,

has the least defi n ed ch aracteristics of an y of the Souther n

Slav districts Th e ki n gdoms O f M o n te n egro and
.

Serbia will b e described in det ail in an other pl ace Here .

it is e n ough to say th at the Carst an d Di n aric ra nges

meet in M o n te n egro and that it is bordered on the e ast
,

by the Alb an i an A lps It thu s lies e n closed in a n atur al

.

fortress secure from outside i n flue n ce u n til moder n

,

e n gi n eeri n g m ade roads for heavy t rafli c an d gun s for

lo n g r an ges Serbi a which stretches from the A lb an i an
.
,

Alps to the B alk an s is also mou n tai n ous I t is traversed

, .

by the river M orav a which falls i n to the D an ube n e ar ,

Belgr ade an d by the river V ard ar which falls i n to the

, ,

n acah by S alo n ica Along this highway alo n e h ave

.

i n v aders from the n orth or the south bee n able to attack

Serbia .

Thus the ge n er al ch aracteristics of the Jugo Sl av -

block are clear Croatia an d the fl ats of Sl av on i a are

.

accessible to i n vaders from the l an d D alm ati a c an o n ly ,

be appro ached from the south an d the C arst an d Di n aric ,

ra n ges pr actic ally preve n t co n quest of Bos n i a an d

M o n te n egro f rom the sea These co n cl u si on s h old .
1

good if tested by history The se a power O f Ve n ice .

n ever pe n etrated i n to Bos n i a though it reached to ,

1 x
An e ce
p t ion t o t h is rl
may be f ound i n t h e p e se nt c on ue st of
u e r q
M gr
ont e ne o but t h is w as on ly r
e n de e d
p ossi e t h r
e e ist e nc e bl b y x
f
o m g ifi
a a n c e nt r r
mode n oad f om r C
at t a o t o C e t t in e ,
j r h ich
passe s w
ig h v r h
l t o e t e mount ains .
6 I N TR O D U C TI O N

Dalm ati a an d the l ake of Scutari Conquests of Bos n i a

.
,

Slavo n i a an d Serbia had to b e made from th e land side

, ,

the Turks advanced to the co n qu e st of S e rbia up the

valley of the Vardar an d dow n the Morava Both Turk s .

an d M agy ars att acked Sl avo n ia an d Bos n ia from the

flats betwee n the Sl av an d the Drave The highl an ds .

of Bos n i a Serbi a an d Mo n t e n egro e n abled the bold

, ,

mou n t ai n eers to prolong an almost indefi n ite r e sistance .

While these districts h ave r e mai n ed free an d O rthodox ,

the Bos n i an lowla n ds became M ohammeda n an d the ,

Croats an d D alm atia n s yielded to Rome Physic al .

distance from the Turk the n eighbourhood of I taly an d

, ,

b e tter eco n omic co n ditions have developed civilisatio n

in Cro ati a to an exte n t quite u napproach e d by other
Jugo Slavs
-
.Dalmatia has bee n less fortu n ate an d is ,

still wretchedly poor in some economic resources .

Bos n ia an d Herzegovi n a hav e su ff ered much from lack

of commu n ic atio n with the co ast an d with Serbia A .

railway from B elgrade li n ki ng Saraj evo with R agusa an d

with Cattaro an d pouri n g Serbia n products i n to n on
,

Austria n ports is esse n ti al for the future u n ity of the

,

Jugo Sl av la n ds Si n ce the Balka n War of 1 9 1 2 1 3

-
.
-

M o n te n egro an d Serbia have for the first tim e j oined

ha n ds I n the S anj ak of N ov ibaz ar an d alo n g the n orther n
fro n tier of Alb an i a Up till th at d ate Turkish or
.

Austrian policy had always m aintain e d a separating

wedge betwee n the two ki n gdoms I n the s ame way .

Austria n or Hu n gari an r ail w ay policy has sep arated

Croati a from Bos n ia an d Bos n i a from Dalmatia But .

all these attempts have bee n in vain The most aston .

ishin g fact about the whole Serbo Croatia n history is -

th at the di ff ere n ces erected by n ature betwee n the Serbo

Croat races di ff ere n ces i n creased an d made perm an e n t
,

by Austria n an d Turkish diplomacy h ave n ever y e t suc

,

ce e de d i n destroyi n g the feeli n g O f u n ity of n atio n ality

and sympathy between th e s e lo n g dispers e d fragme n ts

 TH E S O UTH ER N SLAVS 7

of the Serbia n r ace Geogr aphy is n ow i n deed in pro

.

cess of bei n g co n quered Turkish diplomacy has ce ased

,

to be an age n t of disu n io n it may be hoped that ,

Austria n will n ow ce ase also R ailro ads an d steamers .

’
an d motor services will the n bri n g the difl e re n t eleme n ts

of the Serbo Croat r ace i n to a cl oser physic al an d

-

eco n omic u n io n tha n has ever bee n possible before .

Why was it th at these n atur al co n ditio n s which are n ow ,

bei n g n eutr alised n ever succeeded in bre aki n g the bo n ds

,

of raci al u n ity an d sympathy ? Why w as the Serbo

Croat race n ever broke n by the barriers of rivers ,

mou n tai n s se as by Turkish fo rce an d A ustri an fr aud

, ,

The a n swer is n ot to be fou n d in geography it is to be ,

fou n d in history .

Though Croati a has bee n the spiritual force behi n d

Jugo Sl av u n ity Serbi a has bee n the materi al arm which
-
,

has achieved it Spiritu al em an cip atio n might be w on

.

withi n the Austri an E mpire pr ac tic al freedom could ,

o n ly be attai n ed outside it Thus M o n te n egro an d .

Serbia were the o n ly districts aro un d which pr actical

hopes could ce n tre I n e ach case the popul atio n was
.

predomi n a n tly Serb an d almost wholly O rthodox so ,

that race an d religio n were on e I n e ach c ase they h ad .

the adva n tage of bei n g gover n ed by n ative dy n asties ,

an d this se n time n t al asset w as of gre at import an ce in the

Balka n s where Germ an pri n celets ruled every other

,

state But M o n te n egro an d Serbi a for a lo n g while

.

seemed too sm all an d i n sig n i fi c an t to aw ake n Sl av hopes ,

an d the A ustri an Jugo Sl avs dre amed o f a liberty u n der

-

’
the Austria n power I t w as n ot till Austri a s an n ex a
.

tio n of Bos n i a I n 1 90 8 th at the se n time n ts o f the Jugo

Slavs de fi n itely tur n ed t ow ard s Serbi a The n i n the
O

amazi n g c amp aig n s O f 1 9 1 2 — 1 3 Serbi a de fi ed A u stri a ,

crushed Turkey an d h u mbled B ulgari a She had draw n

,
.

al l eyes upo n her She had w on b ack from the h ated

.

Turk the s acr e d places of Serb lege n d an d had brought ,

8 I NTR O D U CTI O N
h e r st ee ds to water in the Adriatic
. M o n te n e gro could
no lo nger contest agai n st her for th e headship of the
Jugo Sla v an d S e rbia fr ee armed and victorious be
-
, , , , ,

came the champio n of th e whole Jugo Slav race Her

-
.

victory had kindl e d th e spark which turn e d thought

into action.
IO TH E C O M I NG O F

pe oples as the slow an d u n co n scious adva n ce of a

numberless an d irresistible mass They do n ot seem to .

have bee n formed an d orga n is e d armies with leaders

whose desig n s were ambitious an d whose aims were
de fi n ite We look less on a military i n vasio n tha n
.

on a popular moveme n t pushi n g slowly forward u n der

pressure of hu n ger or greed i n to rich but depopulated

l an ds The Sl avs c ame not lik e an i n vadi n g army which
.

could be defe ated but as a swarm of locusts or cater

,

pillars overwhelmi n g in n umbers weight an d mass

, , , .

I t was e asy to destroy i n dividuals or large bodies amo n g

the Sl avs it w as impossible to arrest the glacial certai n ty
,

of their adva n ce .

By the middl e of th e sixth c e ntury the Slavs were

pressi n g over the Da n ub e an d movi n g slowly i n to
Illyricum the Balka n s an d Gr ee ce The writers who
, , .

describe them are agreed as to the m ain feature s of

Slavo n ic society The Sl avs are tall an d stro n g in body
.
, ,

with brow n ski n s an d reddish or brow n hair They .

di ff er from the Teutonic invaders of R ome because

they be ar he at an d cold more readily an d are a h ardi e r
an d more e n d u ri n g race of me n though their society ,

an d religio n as de scribed by Procopius seem closely

, ,

aki n to that of the Germa n s as d e scribed by Tacitus

,

some four ce n turies earlier They were thus behi n d

.

the Germ an s in civilis atio n an d organ ised governme n t .

Their religio n w as a simple n ature w orship of which -

,

tr aces to day c an still be fou n d in m an y Serbi an

-

customs They worshipped a Supreme God tho ugh

.
,

every wood w as h au n ted with fairies an d every lake

h arboured evil spirits Th e y preferred to pla n t their
.

settleme n ts amo n g w oods an d waters in rem o te an d

i n accessible sp ots The houses in their V ill ages were
.

n ot p acked close to o n e an other but sc attered over vast

areas in a m an n er th at m ay still be see n in M o n te

,

n egro Such V illag e s could not be defe n ded but they

.
,
 TH E S O U T H E RN SLAVS 1 1

could not b e surprised b y an e n emy an d on the fi rst ,

alarm th e inhabitants va n ished to the shelter of the

neighbouring hills or forest Their political structure .

was loose an d w e ak bei n g primitive an d democr atic

, .

They were divided i n to m an y sm all tribes ruled over

by hereditary chiefs an d more r arely i n to larger tribes
,
’
ruled by ki n gs I n each case the ruler s authority
.

was sm all I n clos e n ess of political org an is ati on an d

.

in military discipline they w e r e certai n ly far behi n d

the T e utonic tribes of the fifth an d sixth ce n turies ,

who w e n t to battle u n der stro n g n atio n al ki n gs .

The Slavs were n ot a n atio n but a r ace an d their ,

tribes were sc attered an d n umerous E ve n withi n e ach .

tribe small as it was there were divisi on s

,
Their,
.

ideas were democratic but also lawless an d disorderly , .

Robbery and war were th e ir chi e f occup atio n s an d they ,

fought with one a n other when th e y were n ot attacki n g

the Ro mans Their methods were those of guerill a
.

war fare an d as th e small tribes could n ot be got to

, ,

act together they seldom attempted siege oper atio n s or

,

e xte n ded campaig n s But as irregulars they were extra

'
.

ordi narily e fl e c t ive for they were experts in all the

,

arts of s av age w arfare We ari n g n o body armour b u t

.
,

c arryi n g poiso n ed arrows an d l an ces they moved with ,

gre at speed I t was their delight to lure e n emies i n to

.

the dark recesses of woods or n arrow de file s or to ,

lie in wait hidden b y reeds for foes who trod the

da n gerous paths across the m arshes No e n emies could .

ultimately be more formidable tha n the Slavs f or their ,

n umbers re n dered their extermi natio n impossible an d ,

their tactics preve n ted l arge armies from movi n g ag ai n st

them Secure behi n d ramparts of hill wood o r w ater
.
, , ,

the Sl avs multipli e d exceedi n gly an d developed their

stre n gth u n til they were ready to move forward an d
,

destroy the cities O f the plai n .

The Byza n ti n e E mpire was a powerful state but ,

12 TH E C O M I NG OF

its military policy was sci e n tific and adapted o n ly to

t h e op e rations of regul ar war f ar e M oreover i n the
.
,

half century b e tw e en the death of Justinia n an d the rise

-

of H e raclius its military stre n gth was e xhausted He n ce .

from the e n d of the sixth to th e begi n n i ng of the

sev e nth c e n turies it relied mor e on diplomacy tha n on
arms an d sought to divide the Slavs agai n st themselves
,
.

Ma n y Slavs were e n listed as m e rce n aries in the Byz anti n e

arm i es others w e r e civilised and pla n ted by various
e mperors as colo n ists in the more settled parts of the
E mpire But it was impossible to absorb the whole
.

Sl av people an d the Byza n ti n e emperors sought to tur n

,

the arms of th e fi erce barb aria n Avars agai n st them For a .

time this M achiavellian diplomacy succeeded but e ve n t u ,

ally the Avars subdued or co n trolled the Slavs an d led a ,

vast host of both peoples to th e siege of Byza n tium

Had this e n t e rp rI se b e e n successful the course
of history would have be e n cha n ged But it was .

defe ated by the military skill of the great warrior

E m eror Her aclius an d this disaster marks a decisive
p ,

tur n i n g po i n t in the history of the Slavs They ema n

-
.

c ip ate d themselves from the control of the Avars an d

pressed forward I n their I n vasion of By z a n ti n e territory .

By the m iddle of the seve n th century th e ir migrat i o n s

an d settlements w e r e practically complet e The Slavs .

occupied the old Roma n I llyricum and had also settled

,

in Thessaly an d the M or e a E ve n tually the Byzanti n e

.

E mpire co n verted an d civilised the Slavs in Greece but , ,

with this exceptio n the Slav s retai n ed their hold on the

,

territory occupied which correspo n ds roughly to the

,

moder n Jugo Slav block -

.

Th e Souther n Slavs split up i n to s e ver al disti n ct

groups which are approxim ately those of to day All
,
-
.

these groups eve n tu ally fl un g off their depe n de n ce on

the E aster n E mpire an d developed gover n me n ts of
their own Yet their i n dep e nde n c e of on e a n other
.
 TH E S O UTH ERN SLA V S I 3

always p e rsisted and no Slavo n ic ruler in the Balka n s

,

has ev e r u n it e d the whole Jugo Slav race withi n his

-

bor ders The Slove n e s in Car n iol a an d Styria were

.

the first to assert an d the fi rst to lose their liberties .

They formed an i n d e pe n de n t st ate u n der n ative pri n ces

in the sev e n th ce n tury but in 77 8 they were co n quered
,

an d Christia n ised by the gr e at Frankish ruler Charle

mag n e Si n ce th at date they h ave always bee n eith e r

.

u n der Teuto n ic rul e rs or u n der T e uto n ic i n fluenc e s .

Wh at the great German E mp e ror took from th e

Slavs in on e way he retur n ed in another for he ,

tur n ed his arms agai n st the Avars These ferocious

.

warriors had loose n ed their grip on the Slavs except

in the pl ai n s b e twe e n the Save an d the Drave ( the
moder n Slavo n i a) But they were powerful on the
.

Upper Da n ube an d th e Hu n garia n plai n u n til th e y ,

w e re attack e d and al most ext e rmi n ated by the soldiers

of Charlemag n e This s e rvice was a gr e at one ,

for it destroy e d a powerful e n emy Charlem ag n e s.

’

gener als also occupied I stria an d the m oder n Croatia .

E ric of F riul i the Germa n G over n or of this regio n was

, ,

killed in battl e n e ar Fiume an d the po e t of Ch arle

,

magn e s court prayed that there might be n either dew

’

n or rain on the mou n tai n s an d that light might n ever fall

on that accursed shore where the n oble E ric m e t his

doom All th at we k n ow of the history shows the
.

Teuto n ic co n quest to have bee n difli c ult an d perhaps

,

explai n s why it was n ot p e rmane n t At any rat e

.

the e n d of th e eighth ce n tury witnessed the fall of

the Avars and Slov e n e s and b e held th e ris e of the
Cro ats .

Croatia bega n to e xist as an I ndep e n d e nt unit shortly

after the fall of the Slove n es The fall of the Avars
.

an d the declin e of th e Frankish E mpire gav e the Croats

a real opportu n ity Th e y e xt e n ded their t e rritory far

.

beyo n d th e limits of moder n Croatia and included p arts

I 4 TH E C O M I NG O F

of D almatia an d Bosnia Th e north e rn shor e s of th e .

A dri atic n urtured a hardy race of sailors equally suited ,

f or fi shi n g pir acy or comm e rc e

,
Croati an sea power
,
.

developed r apidly with c e ntres n e ar Zara at Tran , , ,

Cliss a an d the mouth of the Nare n ta But d angers

,
.

were awaiti n g them in the n orth for in th e n i n th ce n tury ,

H u n gary was occupi e d by th e Magyars This people .

had both military an d political capacity of a high order ,

an d their fi erce valour proved too much f or th e Croats .

The Magyars have i n d e ed usually b ee n savage an d

impl acable e n em ies of the Slav Croatia s ee ms to have .

bee n in a state of dep e nd e nce on th e Magyars for some

time before her fi n al s urre n der in 1 1 0 2 whe n Cro atia ,

w as u n ited to Hu n gary an d th e Hungaria n Ki n g

Kol om an was crow n e d Ki n g of Croatia and Dalmati a .

No n e the less Croatia though unit e d to Hungary was

, , ,

n ot absorbed by her Th e Croats had now a for e ig n .

ki n g but th e y r e tain e d th e ir ow n nobility th e ir ow n

, ,

la n guage th e ir ow n laws an d th e su b stance of self

, ,

gover n ment E v e r si n ce that dat e they have pr e served

.

their political s elf consciousn e ss an d a sp e cies of inter n al

-

home rule ; its amo unt has vari e d an d its theory has
bee n disputed but self gover n ment has n ev e r become
,
-

a mere memory or traditio n in Croatia The most .

imp ort an t result of her relations with foreig n ers was ,

however that the o ffi cial religion of Croatia b e came

,

Catholic She was w on over to th e Lati n commu n io n

.

an d was thus s e para t e d by r e ligio n from h e r Serb brethren

of the Greek faith 1

A still more importa n t r e sult was
.

th at the Croats adopt e d th e Lati n characters for their

writt e n la n guag e whil e th e S e rbians retained the Cyrillic
,

1 Th e me diae vl a v l i rg y
nat i e r i d b y h Crtu w as e t a ne t e oat s as a
b f or t he
su st it ut e ass M C ri ly .
gh h fli i l l g g
u ous e nou , t e o c a an ua e of t h e
Cr oat ian D
ie t w as at n L i il 848/ I i i g l r r
unt l 1 t s a s n ua e su t of t he ir
nat iona l l
se f c onsc ousne ss
-
i h h y h ld h v p r i d i r
t at t e s ou a e e s st e n e t ain n
i g
L at in as a po it ic a an ua l l l g g d Sl v i d m i
e an a on c as a o e st c one .
 TH E S O UTH ERN SLA V S 1 5

letters This di ff ere n c e has do n e mor e to s e v e r Croats

.
1

from Serbs tha n all the i n terve n i n g mountai n s an d ,

st ill f orm s an import an t barri e r between the two r aces

'

A di ff ere n ce about the alph abet h as prov e d in the end

more serious th an a di ff erence about religio n s .

The history of Bos n ia which fi rst bec ame of import ,

a n ce in the twelfth c e n tury is less striki n g As in ,

.

Croatia the Magyars sought to gai n co n trol of Bos n ia

, ,

but physical difli c ul t ie s hi n d e r e d their attempt Part of .

Bos n ia was co n trolled by the Croats p art by th e Serbs , ,

part by the Magyars I n th e middl e of the twelfth .

ce n tury Bos n ia was fi n ally e ma n cipated an d formed i n to

a pri n cipality u n der n ative rulers But struggles with .

the M agyars an d with the Bogomile heretics fatally

weak e n ed her an d mad e her a prey to inter n al a n archy .

She attai n ed a mome n tary gr e at n ess in the fourtee n th

ce n tury when her rul e r Ki n g Turt ko ( 1 35 3
, ,

co n qu e red all Dalmatia e xcept Ragusa and created an ,

imposi n g pow e r for himself But he proved u n able to .

u n ite with the oth e r S e rb rulers against I slam an d the ,

we ak an d disorga n ised state fell before th e Turkish army

in 1 46 3 H erzegovi n a which d e tach e d itself from
.
,

Bos n i a at the last mome n t w as subdued twe n ty years ,

later I n all these r e gio n s o n ly on e Slav city

retai n ed power and i n depe n d e n ce amid the ge n eral
wreck Ragus a with its fi n e castle an d harbour had
.
, ,

b e come an import an t ce n tre of s e a power I t was .

origi n ally ruled by the s e a pow e r of t h e By z a n ti n e

E mpire but in th e n i n th century fell u n der the i n flue n ce
,

of V e n ice an d of I talia n art an d civilisatio n 2

I t c on .

1Th diff r e b t w t h S r b d Cr o t l gu g i m i ly
e e nc e e een e e an a an a e s a n a

diff er f di l
e nc e d i i h r dly
o a e c t, p r d x
an
y hth Cr s a a a a o t o sa t at t e oat
g i S r b w i h L i h r r d h S r b g Cr w i h
t on ue s e t at n c a ac t e s an t e e t on ue oat t
Cyrill i h r r
c c a ac t e s.
2 Th e d h i l d pr v i
c oast an f D lm i w r
t e lp i i
n an o nc e o a at a e e s t nt o

sev r l diff r pr i ip l i i
e a e e nt il h nch ir a h ry Z hl mi
t e s unt t e t t e e nt c e nt u as ac u a

( r
no t h f Ro g ) d Tr b i j
a usa
( h
an f R g )e n e sout -
e ast o a usa .
1 6 TH E C O M I NG OF

t inue d to be a pl ace of gre at liter ary and artistic

importa n ce u n til it w as fi n ally a n n exed t o Austri a in
1 81 5 . The poets an d writers were o fte n Slavs though ,

their models were classic al an d I tali an an d the eco n omic

,

life of Ragusa depe n ded e n tirely upo n Ve n ice an d I taly .

There is n o doubt that Dalmatia as a whole as well as ,

Ragusa is e th n ologic ally Slav but the civilisatio n an d

, ,

the Roma n Catholic religio n prove the importan ce of

Lati n i n flue nce in th e ir developme n t .

A survey of the more west e rly of the South e r n Slavs

s e ems to show th at the weak n esses n oted in the primitive
organ isatio n of the Slavs persisted in the medi ae val frame
work . Croatia an d Ragus a alo n e developed their
civilisation an d preserved their auto n omy an d both ,

ow e d much to foreig n i n flue n c e s and support Bos n i a .

an d Herzegovi n a w e r e typically weak an d disunit e d

states . Their rulers seldom showed for e sight or
patriotism an d were u n able to evolv e a stro n g machi n e ry
,

of gover n me n t which might keep in check their powerful

an d turbule n t n obles . E ve n tually whe n Bos n ia was
,

co n qu e red and s e ttled by the Turks the worst oppressors

,

of th e n ativ e s proved to be their ow n M ohammeda n ised

Bos n ia n n obles This fact poi n ts to the fu n dame n tal
.

weak n ess in the Slav politic al organ isatio n I ts .

te n de n cies were at o n c e democratic an d f eudal an d the ,

state sometimes combi n ed the worst evils of both I n .

military cour age an d c apacity the Wester n Jugo Slavs -

were n ot at fault ; the medi ae val Crusaders who e n

cou n tered them all pr aise their courage Th e Croats .

proved th e bravest of warriors in the border warfar e

ag ai n st the Turks the Slovenes more tha n o n ce defeated
them an d ma ny Bos n ia n s prolo nged a desperate an d
,

heroic resista n ce in their mou n tai n s Nor was literary

.

an d artistic tale n t w an ti n g ; the claims of Croatia an d

Ragusa have alre ady b e e n n oted but it seems f air to add
that som e of th e gr e at e st mod e rn scholars and writ e rs in
 TH E R I SE OF TH E ME D I /E VA L S ERBI AN
KI NG D OMS— ZETA A ND R A S H KA

A G R EA T writer has said that to look back from moder n

to medi aeval history is to tur n from the simple to the
i n de fi n ite The co n dition of peoples an d n atio n s in the
.

M iddle Ages was seldom u n iform an d n ever easily

described I t would b e wro n g to assume that the settle
.

me n t of the Souther n Sl avs was made as easily as our

accou n t might suggest Like every other la n d I llyricum
.
,

co n tai n ed ma n y di ff ere n t peoples layer after layer of

,

loam deposited by r egul ar an d successive waves of m igra u

tio n or i n vas i o n exte n di n g from the most pr i m i tive

times till the seve n th ce n tury He n ce though the
.

Slavs eve n tually gai n e d the predomi n a n ce in the I llyri an

la n ds by their n umbers an d power it was only by ,

abs orbi n g or expelli n g other r aces The Slavs who.

,

pe n etr ated i n to Greece were absorbed by the Byza n ti n e

,

E mpire an d tra n sformed n ot i n deed i n to classical Greeks

‘

but i n to somethi n g difl e re n t from Balka n Slavs O n .

A lb an ia the Slavs n ever made any serious impressio n ,

but the N orth Alb an ians have left ma n y traces in

M o n te n egro an d Prisre n d The Pseudo Rom an and
.

I llyri an r aces persisted I n Dalmatia at Ragus a at C attaro

, ,

an d A n tiv ari an d their rel ative triumph 1 5 m arked by the

,

fact that the Rom an Catholic r eligio n was ev e ntually

1 8
 ZETA AND RASHKA 19

adopted b y the Slav conqu e rors in all thes e places .

M acedo n ia was n e v e r wholly occupied by Serbia n Slavs ,

but was partly settled b y Bulgaria n s Through all .

Mac e donia O ld Ser b ia an d modern Mo n te n egro have

, ,

wander e d from time immemori al rovi n g gipsies an d

the unobtrusive Vlach or Roum a n i an shepherds These .

have retai n ed th e ir own religious an d n atio n al customs

an d have formed an eleme n t i n dep e n dent of the Jugo

Slav populatio n Retiri n g vagra n t an d u n orga n ised

.
, ,

som e times without settled homes or obj ects their ,

methods an d habits still r e semble very closely those of

the earliest Slav settlers in the B alkan s I t is how .
,

ever true that the i n fl ue n ce of alie n eleme n ts is least

,

co n spicuo us in Zeta an d Rashka ( the medi e val equiv ale n ts

of Mo n te n egro an d S e rbia proper ) with whose fortu n es ,

we are n ow co n cerned .

The E mperor Co n sta n ti n e V I I Porp hyroge n e t us or .

,

an imperial scrib e alludes to th e s e districts in a te n th

,

ce n tury treatise which touche s on Slavs The work .

,

beari n g the n ame of Co n sta n ti n e was published in 95 3 , .

I t places the Serbia n s well in the i n terior of moder n Serbi a

arou n d the sourc e s of the Lim They exte n ded south .

w e st to the Tara an d the Dri n a an d n orth east to the ,

-

I b ar an d Wester n M orava The evide n ce is sca n ty an d

.

co n flicti n g but there seems to be n o doubt that in the

,

te n th ce n tury th e bulk of the Serbia n race was well

'

est ablished in the n orth west territory of M o n te n egro

-
,

in the S anj ak of N ov ibaz ar an d ext e n ded n orth of O l d

,

Serbi a to i n clude some of the Shu madya M ou n t ai n s .

Ras n e ar N ov ib az ar w as the chief tow n an d the I bar the

, , ,

easter n boundary They did n ot an ywhere re ach to

.

Belgr ade or to the Da n ube or to the great military ,

highway of the Morava an d the Vard ar I n these .

i n l an d regio n s cut off from the se a an d from gre at

rivers an d protected by hills agai n st i n v asio n lies the ,

earli e st Balka n home of th e Serbia n s E ither Bulgaria n s .

20 TH E MED I ZEVAL S ERBI AN KI NGD O M S

or Byz an ti n ists occupied the valley of the M orava an d

M acedo n i a u n til the twelfth ce n tury .
1

The history of how Serbia an d M o n te n egro came to

be what they are c an best be u n derstood from their
geogr aphy M o n te n egro is a mou n tai n fo rtress four
.
,

s u are to every wi n d of b attle I t is watered by the

q
.

t i ny r i ver Zeta an d the l arger M oratc ha which flow i n to ,

the l ake of Scutari Below Scutari lies the most

.

mou n tai n ous part of Alba n ia which m ade a formid able ,

an d e ff ective b arrier to Serbia n exp an sio n in the south .

I n fact the fi erce mou n t ai n eers who i n habit the Alba n ia n

,

Alps h ave n ever lo n g submitted to an y r uler Rou n d .

the shores of the lake of Scutari and the warm M edi

terr an e an coast l an ds of Alba n ia Serbia n i n flue n c e ofte n
-

exte n ded but n ever pe n etrated deep Serbia aimed at .

Durazzo which was n ot o n ly an importan t se aport but

,

the starti n g poi n t of th at great Rom an road an d

-

m e di e val highw ay of comm e rce which ran across th e

Balka n P e n i n sula to S alo n ica The V ia Egn at ia ran .

from Durazzo to the rich Alb an ia n market tow n of -

E l B ass an where medi e val weapo n s are still n ailed to

-
,

the tow n gate way The n ce it ran over mou n tai n s to

.

Struga an d from Struga to the m ag n i fi ce n t castle over

,

looki n g the town of O c hrida Desce n di n g from the .

mou n tai n s it ran to Mo n astir an d th e n ce across the

, ,

moorla n d round V ode n a to S alo n ica I t was alo n g this .

great Roma n road that the life blood of commerce ran

an d that Byza n tium r e ceived the products of th e Adriatic .

Along this road too Byzantin e and Bulgarian Ser b ian

, , ,

and N orma n co n querors march e d .

The Garst ra n ge in M ont e n egro its elf is barre n

1 The na rb
me S e ia w as a e inde nite t e m v ry fi
onst antine a so c a s r . C l ll
t he B osnians S e srb rb
Th e S e s are de sc i e d as d e in in c e tain
. rb w ll g r
rr
c it ie s or f o t e sse s in Z e t a and R ash a k
O f t h e se t h e c h ie f, D ost in ic a,
.

j
w as in t h e S an ak , n e a Prj e polj e r v
F i e oth e s me ntione d are difli c ul t or
. r
bl
impossi e t o ide nt if y .
 Z ETA AND RASHKA 21

and stony on the side which faces Cattaro b ut th e ,

mou n tai n s on th e e ast of th e Z e ta ar e rich an d

w el l wood e d Th e g e n e ra l charact e r of th e mou n tai n s
.

in the Sa nj ak is the same Th e valley of the .

river Lim is wood e d with pictur e squ e rocks an d that ,

of th e I bar is also gr ee n with forests The medi e v al .

roads from the co ast to this i n terior were few an d

di ffi cult an d suit e d o n ly to pack a n im als n ot t o wh e eled
, ,

carri ages Ther e was a road from Ragusa through

.

Herzegovi n a to the Dri n a and a n oth e r from Cattaro to

,

Ni ksich an d the upp e r reaches of the river Tara But .

the easiest route was from Scutari up the white Dri n to

”
Prisre n d and so to Ol d Serbia This ro ad served to .

u n ite M o n te n egro ( th e medi e val ki n gdom of Zet a) with

Nov ib az ar in O ld Serbia ( p art of th e m edi e val kingdom
“ ”

of Rashka) The districts stretchi n g n orth —eastwards from

.

M onte n egro to the val e of th e M orava are the tr u e an d

the oldest home of the Serbia n race The ch aracter of .

the whol e la n d is S imilar mou ntainous but on th e whole

,

fertile givi n g pastur e e ve n at high r an ges to cattl e yet

, ,

O ff eri n g few advantag e s or possibilities to the i n vader .

The clim ate is t e mp e rat e though cold in wint e r ; oaks ,

ch e stnuts an d fi rs abou n d an d in thes e forests w e r e to

, ,

be found wolves ly n xes bears and eve n the formida b le

, , ,

aurochs The S e rbia n s fou n d it more pro fi tabl e to b e

.

tr app e rs tha n hu n ters an d the m arte n the beaver th e

, , ,

ermi n e an d th e fox supplied a valu able fur trade Th e r e

, .

are also mi n es of copper an d silver in these districts ,

which w e re n ot worked u n til the l ater M iddle Ages wh e n ,

Ragusan s an d Germa n s were imported for the purpose .

I n the valleys of the T ara the Lim the I b ar an d , , ,

Wester n Morava were br e d a hardy race of mou n tain

e e rs
,
who n u rsed their stre n gth an d bided their time
u n til ready to u n dertake co n quests Zeta or the .
,

moder n Mo n t e n egro was the fi rst sce n e of their ex

,

p an sion but,
in the e leventh ce n tury they bega n to
22 TH E M ED I JEV AL S ERBIAN KI NGD O M S
extend in other directions A n e w ki n gd om of Rashka .

arose at R as n ear Novib az ar a ce n tral poi n t betwee n

, ,
“ ”
Bosni a Zeta an d O ld Serbia
, ,
An exte n sio n to the .

“
south i n to O ld Serbia was easy I pek was fou n ded .

as a great ecclesiastical c e n tre an d ev e n tually b e c ame the

holy city of S erbia The grou n d h e re is lower an d
.

m ore fertile an d the rich pl ai n s i n vited to co n quest

, .

Thus it was that Prisre n d an d Uskub ( Skopia ) were

occupied an d formed i n to importa n t ce n tres of Serbian
power I t was n ot u n til the thirtee n th ce n tu ry that the
.

Rasc ian s were stro n g e n ough to expa n d toward the

n orth There they seized Nish a strategic ce n tre
.
,

whe n ce the medi e val roads ( like th e moder n railw ays)

led to the four poi n ts of th e compass O f these there .

are two imme n sely importa n t o n es first the ro ad l e adi n g ,

direct n orth to Belgrade an d south to S alo n ica — that

is through the vale of the M orava an d the V ardar ;
seco n d the famous road which bra n ches off east
,

at Nish to So fi a Philippopolis an d Co n sta n ti n ople

, , .

O nc e Nish was captured it was easy to follow the valley

of the M orava n orthw ards to Belgr ade or southwards
al o n g the V ard ar v alley i n to M acedo n ia The attempt .

in the n orth was the mor e perma n e n t an d successful .

Nearly all medi e val Serbi a is i n cluded in the two

ki n gdoms of M o n te n egro an d Serbi a as de fi n e d in 1 9 1 3 , .

E xcept in M acedo n i a th e n atives are almost all of the

,

Greek Church an d of th e Serbian rac e M acedo n ia w as in

1
.

medi e val times a bloody debatable la n d betwee n Serbi an s

an d Bulgars The history of Serbian exp an sio n an d
.

co n quest in the M iddle Ages well illustrates the n atural

l aw that the wealth an d populatio n of the pl ai n s are
ofte n abs orbed an d overwhelmed by rude an d V igorous
mou n tai n eers desce n di n g from their n ative hills I t is .

1 A oth r x pt io m y b f ou d i t h di t ri t of Old S r bi
n e e ce n a e n n e s c e a,

w hi h h b
c rt ifi i lly ol o i d b y Al b i i r l t iv ly r c nt
as e en a c a c n se an ans n e a e e e

t ime s .
 Z ETA AND RASHKA 23

a m on g the r ocks ar ou n d N ov ib az ar th at the Serbi an s

lear n t v alour an d e n dura n ce but it was on the plai n s of
,

M acedo n ia an d the S hores of O c hrida an d Scutari th at

they proved the worth of these qualiti e s .

I t w as well th at the Serbia n s remai n ed u n n otic e d an d

obscure in their rock citadels while two terrible powers
co n fro n ted an d destroyed on e an other Duri n g the e arly
.

M iddle Ages the two great powers in the B alka n s were

the Bulgari an ki n gdom an d the Byza n ti n e E mpire I t .

was to pr o ve e xc e edi n gly fortu n ate for th e risi n g Serbia n

state that they were opposed to on e a n other The .

Bulgaria n s had grow n to be an extremely formidable

power in the n i n th ce n tury They were origi n ally Of
.

Sl avo n ic blood but i n cluded a Roum an i an eleme n t an d ,

were crossed with Asiatic or Mo n goli an tribes Their .

faces an d characteristics are clearly disti n guish able to

day from those of the Serbia n s . They are uglier in
feature S horter an d sturdier I n build more dogged an d
, ,

pr actical in temperame n t I t is certai n ly a coi n cide n ce

.

an d perh aps n ot an accid e n t th at the di ff ere n ce betwee n

them an d the Serbia n s was alre ady m ark e d eve n in the

d ays of Ch arlem ag n e By that time the Bulg ari an s had
.

g row n to be exceedi n gly powerful Leo

. V I ( , 9 )
d . 1 1

in his Ta ctira described the Bulgars as super i or in

gover n me n t an d discipli n e to other Slavs They w e r e .

well armed well discipli n e d an d well gover n ed an d in

, , ,

e very practic al respect in adva n ce of the Serbia n s They .

had mi n es which produced precious metals ; they h ad

devel oped an exte n sive comm e rce ; their soldiers were
cl ad in steel an d their ki n gs wer e dressed in cloth of
gold an d j ewels We alth did n ot produce civilizatio n
.
,

an d the fi rst of Bulgari an atrocities was in 81 1 In .

th at year the able Bulg aria n ki n g Krum destroyed a

, ,

gre at Byz an ti n e army an d slew the E mperor N ic e p horu s .

He set the imperi al S kull in S ilver an d used it as a

dri n ki n g c up at ba n quets wh e n he dra n k to the healt h
-
24 TH E M ED IfEVAL S ERBI AN KI NGD O M S
1
of his n obles A barbarian ki n g who could inflict so
.

great a disaster on the Byz an ti n es w as eve n more to be

fe ared for his power th an for his ferocity The Bulgar .

ia n s n ot o n ly occupi e d all moder n Bulgari a but bega n

to e xpa n d rapidly in e very directio n Bulgaria n armies .

were already on the Da n ube an d in moder n Slavo n ia

by 81 1 but the mou n tai n s of Bos n i a an d the Shumadya
,

prot e cted the Serbs from their attack on the n orth .

I t appears probable that they were thre ate n ed from the

south by the Bulgaria n occupatio n of West e r n M ace
donia At an y rate the da n ger produced a sembla n ce
.

O f u n io n amo n g the Serbia n tribes in the Z et a Rashka -

district an d a certai n V l ast im ir app e ars to hav e bee n t he

,

fi rst head of the u n ited Serbi an r ace The Serbia n s .

wer e still n omi n ally subj ect to the Byz an ti n e E mp e ror ,

an d his diplom acy m a have stirred them up ag ai n st the

y
Bulgars At an y rate about the year 840 the Serbia n s
.

came i n to sh arp co n flict with the Bulg ars I t is quite .

clear that the latt e r su ff ered a serious defeat Some .

years later the Byz an t I n e s i n flicted further defeats on the

Bulgars an d s ee m to h ave forced them to evac u at e
M acedo n ia The struggle was re n ewed by the Serbia n s
.

in 85 2 who agai n had the adva n t age

,
I n the peac e that .

followed we h ave an authe n tic glimpse of old diplomacy .

Th e Bulgaria n ki n g Boris we n t in perso n to the Serbia n

, ,

frontier at Ras the n the n orth east bou n dary of Serbia n

,
-

expa n sio n There the S e rbi an pri n ces sons of Vlast im ir

.
, ,

1 Th is is not isol
d instanc e of at oc it
an at e r y
Pope Nic h o as 1
. l .

( 86 6 ) lg ri
ac c use s t h e B u a ans of c ue p ac t ic e s of r l r w l l
h o e sa e mu de and r r
r r g
t o t u e s, t h ou h h e se e ms t o t h in k r r
t h e i p ac t ic e of i am a st i bg y o se ll w r
r
c ime . ry '
Viae B u , E arte m R oman Emp ire pp 37 4 392 —, 0— 1 . .

A t oc it ie s h a e a a s e e n p e a e nt amon all t h e inh a itant s of t he

r v lw y b rvl g b
lk
B a an s The B z ant ine e mpe o s f e ue nt
y
. r r r q ly w g r
sh o e d r ly
e at c ue t ,
lly l II
e s e c ia
p B asi , w ho i. bl fi
nde d f t e e n t h ousand B u a ian lg r r r
p ison e s Th e .

c ue t ie s of t h e B z ant ine c ode an d t h e d e adf u

r l y r l l
e n a t ie s of am ut at ion
p p
gw
an d maimin h ic h it e n oine d h a e j v b
e e n c on side e d r by
some t o be t h e

rg lk r
o i in of B a an f e oc it V ide G i on ( B u ) , V 5 2 9— 30
y . bb ry . .
26 TH E M ED I JEVAL S ERBIAN K I NGD O M S
obstacle to the c omplete u n i on o f the South Sl av s f or ,

the Croats h ave adopted Lati n char acters Th e i n ve n tors .

o f this Sl avo n ic script probably had as little thought th at

they were dividi n g the Sl avo n ic race as that they were

composi n g an alph abet which was to be used by more
tha n a hu n dred millio n s of m e n .

I t has bee n well s aid th at the adoption of Christi

an it
y by paga n rulers has ge n er ally bee n prompted by

politic al co n sideratio n s an d has i n variably a political

aspect . There can be n o doubt that this was the case
with the Sl avo n ic e va n gelists Cyril an d M ethodius
.

were used as paw n s by the Byza n ti n e e mperors in their

political gam e of e xte n di n g Byz an ti n e i n flue n ce amo n g
heathe n s by conversio n to the Gr e ek O rthodox religio n .

The Balka n la n ds an d the Illyri an provi n ces were already

a battle grou n d b e t w ee n Co n sta n ti n ople an d Rome
-
.

The Catholic Pope had fi rmly pla n ted his i n fl ue n c e o n

the Dalm atia n coast an d in Al b a n ia The Adriatic
.

coast had falle n but the O rthodox P atriarch an d Emperor

,

could mai n tai n the i n terior There se e ms little doubt

.

th at duri n g the year 86 2 —6 3 the Byz an ti n e E mperor

used the thr e at of war to forc e the Bulgari an s i n to the
Greek communio n The i n strume n ts were the Glagolitic
.

writi n g i n ve n ted by Cyril an d the Macedo Sl avo n ic -

to n gu e i n to which he tra n sl ated the Scriptures These .

made an irresistibly popul ar appeal to the Slavs ,

an d eventu ally co n verted the l an ds rou n d moder n

Bulgaria Serbi a an d M o n te n egro i n to Greek O rthodox
, ,

c ommu n 1 t 1 e s
.

Th e struggl e with pagan ism does not seem to have

bee n a severe on e Perhaps the reaso n of this is that
.

the co n versio n of both Serbia an d Bulgaria was political

an d therefore super fi ci al At any r ate the old n ature
.

worship remai n ed i n ma n y forms an d can still be traced

,

in n atio n al customs E ve n in the seve n tee n th ce n tury

.

a M ont e n e rin ballad speaks of their O r tho dox ec c l e si

g
 Z ETA AND RASH KA 2 7

ast c a i l bish o p
pr ayi n g t o a V e e l a ( o r fairy ) on the m ou n tai n
top Serbi an popular fan cy still peoples the woods with
.

fairies the mou n tai n c aves with gia n ts an d the lak e s

, ,

with serp e n ts The Serbia n bear is a h uma n bei n g

.

b e cause he walks upright the M o n te n egri n j ackal a ,

lost huma n soul howli n g in the n ight time All -

.

Serb peasa n ts still beli e ve in huma n vampires in the ,

corpses which feed on huma n blood These sup e rsti .

tio n s could hardly have survived in such abu n da n ce had

the religious co n versio n b e e n more tha n superficial .

There is other evide n c e which se e ms to show that th e

struggle with p aga n ism was n ot s e v e re amo n g the
1
Serbia n s I t is k n ow n for i n stan ce that the new
.
, ,

eccl e siastical orga n isation was weak an d that there were ,

few churches an d fewer bishops amo n g th e early S e rb

Christia n s .

But though th e Serbs acc e pted Christia n ity th e y ,

oscillated throughout the early part of the M iddle Ages

b e twe e n the Latin an d Gr ee k form of it I t is probable .

that Bu lgaria would hav e accepted the Lati n form but

for the fact th at she was weak an d that the politic al
i n flue n ce of Byz an tium was stro n g in the years 86 2 —6 3 .

The Serbia n s co n ti n ued to swi n g b ackwards an d forwards

betw e e n the two faith s as it suit e d their ig n oran ce , ,

prej udice or co n v e n ie n ce E ve n Catholic Croatia

, .

coquetted with O rthodoxy for a mome n t but the ,

2

Dalmatia n co ast li n e remai n e d steadily L ati n an d its -

,

outpost at A n tiv ari was an d still is a Catholic bishopric .

Catholic missio n aries c arried the Lati n rites i n to North

Th b ut if ul u t m of k pi g t h
1 e ea Sl v c m d y of t h
s o ee n e a a or n a e- a e

f mily i t i fi ly d rib d b y P t r ov it h H
a sa n s ne Tl d L g d
e sc e e c , e ro a e: an e en :

f
o t b S bc
4 0 —6 I t i of t
er r, u d r
. g um t i f v our of s en se as an a en n a

th e v i w i t h t x t B ut ordi g t o t h l t t ut horiti thi

e n e e . ac c n e a es a es s

c ust o m is n ot a su rv iv l f r m h p r i d f v r i
a o Chri i i y
t e e o o c on e s on t o st an t ,

sinc e it doe s not a

pp r b f r h
eaf r h ry
e o eV id J i é k
t e ou t e e nt c e nt u . e re e ,

G e se b de f S e rbe n,
. 8 —
1 0 1 .

2 A bout one t -
hir d f m d r Cr o i S l v i i Or h d
o e n oat a- a on a s t o ox .
28 TH E M ED IZEV AL S ERBIAN KI NGD O M S
Alb an ia from Durazzo to Scut ari Bos n ia Zeta an d .
, ,

R ashk a oscill ated u n stea dily betwee n Rom e and

Byza n tium The fact that early Serb ia n rul e rs bor e the
.

n ames o f L ati n sai n ts as Peter Paul Zach ary especi ally

, , , ,

in the n i n th ce n tury shows th e R o ma n i n flue n ce

, In .

Bos n ia an d in the e xtr e me n orth of Dalm atia the

struggle was b al an ced but Zeta an d Rashka yielded
,

to the co n ti n ued an d pow e rful diplomatic pressure o f

Byza n tium I n fact the n e w an d formid able develop
.
,

me n t of power in the Bulgaria n s obliged the Serbi an s to

ad opt the views of the Byza n ti n es the o nly power who ,

could aid them ag ai n st their oppressors The eff ect of .

Serbi an co n versio n to Christia n ity though in th e religious ,

s e n se super fi ci al was in the cultural se n s e profou n d

, .

Lik e all o ther medi ae val eva n g elists Cyril and Methodiu s ,

carried with them civilis atio n lear n i n g an d the arts , , .

The Lati n an d Greek priests and missio n aries who ,

visited the v alleys of the Lim an d the I bar brought ,

educ atio n light an d be auty They e n couraged commu n i

, ,
.

catio n with powerful civilised peopl e s both in the E ast

an d the West an d developed comm e rce an d the arts of
,

buildi n g glass m aki n g p ainti n g j ewellery as well as

,
-
, , ,

those of writi n g The Serbia n s who had hitherto lived

.

in woode n huts an d built only rud e c astles of refuge ,

gradually learned to e rect stat e ly buildi n gs The tr an si .

tio n from barb arism to relative civilisatio n is marked by

the appearan ce of churches an d palaces .

A part from its civilisi n g i n flue n c e s th e co n v e rsio n of

the Serbi an s must be looked on simply as a phase in their
struggle with th e Bulgaria n s The victories of th e .

Serbi an s had a ngered the rulers of Bulgaria who proved ,

as d ogged an d u n forgivi n g as do their p e opl e to day -

.

The seco n d w ar had bee n begu n by Boris to ave n ge the

defe ats o f his u n cle an d its humiliati n g e n d stirred up
,

future rulers to ve n gea n ce The Bulgari an s were far

.

more d angerous to the Serbia n s tha n w e re the Byza n ti n es ,

 '

Z ETA AND RAS H KA 29

for they w e r e not only practised in mountai n fighti n g ,

but w e re e ndowed with a discipli n e that ev e n Byzanti n e

critics admired They were n earer n eigh b ours and
.

were more accustomed to the Serbi an methods of

w arfar e I t only n e e ded a stro n g ki n g and a good
.

general in Bulg aria an d a period of Serbian anarchy an d

Byzanti n e weakness for the S e rbia n s to be in peril .

The Ser b ia n s were no doubt co n scious of this fact ,

for their pri n ces acknowledged themselves as the

vassals of the Eastern E mpire at th e e n d of the
°

ni n th century and remained so in actual fact for nearly

,

three ce n turies .

Cz ar Simeon the powerful Bulgari an ruler bega n

, ,

by attacki n g the Byza n ti n es ( 893 and in the

reig n of Co n stanti n e Porphyroge n e t us ( 9 1 1 to
’
whom we ow e the d e scriptio n of the Slavs Simeo n s ,

attacks became most dang e rous H e pro fi ted by the .

a n archy the n prevale n t in th e various S e rb tribes .

Fi n ally in 92 4 Czar Sim e on i n vaded Ser b ia n territory

, , ,

a n n ihilat e d the armies and devastated the country with

,

unheard—of crue l ty Like S e n n ach e rib he determi n ed

.
,

to transpl an t his e n e mi e s an d forcibly tra n sferred

,

numb e rs of S e rbia n s to the Bulgari an Babylo n Th e .

E mperor Co n sta n ti n e or his scribe pictures the Serbi an

la n ds as absolutely deserted wastes in which there were ,

n o wom e n and childre n an d where a few hu n ters eked

out a pr e c arious livi n g The m isfortu n e fe ll chiefly on

.

th e Serbia n s of Rashk a though the Serbs of Croatia an d

,
’
D almatia also felt the force of Simeo n s arm O n ly the .

death of this savage tyra n t ( 92 7) saved the S e rbia n race

from e xtermi n atio n As it was Bulg aria n gr e at n ess
.
,

really e n ded with him No subs e qu e n t ruler u n der

.

took co n quests ou th e scale on which he pla n n ed

them an d though the Serbia n s w e r e still oppressed
,

by th e Bulgars th e y w e r e no lo n g e r in dang e r of total

,

d e structio n
.
30 THE MED IE VA L S ER BIAN KI NG D O M S
Th e r e is no b e tter proof of th e degradation of the
Serbians than of th e treatment which the Bulgarian ki n gs
accord e d to h e r various rulers Som e w e r e take n i nto .

captivity to w e ar gi l ded chains at th e Bulgarian court ;

,

those who remained on their thro n es were exposed to

e n dless humiliations an d sometim e s to i n vasio n or to
,

murder O ne example may illustrate the age I n 1 0 1 5

. .
,

Joh n Vladislav murdered Ki n g Radomir an d seized the

Bulgari an thro n e As his ow n father had bee n murd e red
.

’
by Radomir s father Ki ng Joh n determi n ed to e n d this
,
’
family blood feud by m assacri n g all the r e st of Radomir s
-

ki n sme n Amo n g th e se was the Serbia n pri n ce Vl adimir

.
,

of Zeta whom Ki n g Joh n i n vit e d to visit him at his

,

reside n c e on an isle in the Presha Lake Pri n ce V ladimir .

hesitated to accept the i n vitatio n an d Ki n g Joh n sought ,

to allay his suspicio n s by se n di ng him a golde n cross The .

Serbia n r e tur n ed it with the sayi n g : The Holy O ne

“

hu n g n ot on a golde n nor yet on a silver cross but on one ,

”
of wood Ki n g Joh n the n se n t his archbishop with
.

a small cross of wood and a promise of s afe co n duct .

The S e rbia n pri n ce took the cross as a pledge of safety and

accepted th e i n vitation He j ourneyed to the isla n d of
.

Pre sb a an d at o n ce e n ter e d the church to pray

,
Ki n g .

Joh n who was sitti n g by the altar had the church sur
, ,

rou n ded with soldiers Pri n ce Vl adimir attempti n g to

.
,

fly was slai n in the porch whil e still claspi n g in his ha n ds

, ,

the little woode n cross He was murd e red b e fore the

.

eyes of his wife Kosara who had reached Pre sba b e fore ,

him in the hop e of givi n g her life for his The body .

was int e rred in th e church u ntil Ki n g John lear n t th at a,

mysterious light hover e d stra n gely over th e tomb at n ight

fal l I n superstitious terror he handed the body over to
.

the widowed pri n cess The corpse was disi n terred an d

.
,

the woode n cross found still grasped in the de ad right

ha n d The faithful Kosar a pl aced the body 1n St M ary s
.
’
.

Church at Kraj i n a took th e v e il liv e d i n an adjoini n g

, ,
 ZETA AND RAS H KA 31

clois te r till her death and was buried at the feet of her
,

husba n d The mysteriou s light an d the still more

.

mysterious cl e m e n cy of Ki n g Joh n were both miracl e s

of a ki n d and i t is n ot surpr i s i n g to lear n t hat Princ e
,

V ladimir became a sai n t with a name day in th e ,

-

calendar an d with Serbia n churches d e dic ated to his

n ame . H is bo n es w e re eve n tu ally tra n sferr e d to E l
Bassan but the famous wood e n cross e n clos e d withi n
, ,

a gilt case n ow li e s in a M o n te n egri n coast villag e

,

betwe e n Dulcig n o an d A n tivari 1

E very Whit Su n d ay .
-

the whole populatio n Lati n an d Greek Christians an d

,

M ohammeda n s as well m arch with the cross in p roc e s

,

sio n to th e summit of a n eighbouri n g mou n tai n There .

th e y watch the sun rise over the m ag n i fi ce n t pa n orama

stretchi n g from the sp arkli n g turquoise of the Adriatic
to the wooded heights arou n d the glassy blu e lak e of
Scutari an d the sto n y crags of Mo n te n egro in the
,

dist an ce .

The c alamities of the Serbs wer e terri fi c b ut perhaps ,

not so great as th e y have bee n represe n ted I t is .

improbable that Simeo n pe n etrated i n to all the wooded

an d rocky f ast n esses of Rashka Zeta was hardly ,

touched an d some other fragme n ts of the Serb race

,

must have rem ai n ed u n co n quered Yet the murder .

of Serbia n pri n ces an d the service of Serbia n soldiers in

the Bulgarian armies prove the complete n ess of t he
disaster E ve n after 1 0 1 8 whe n th e dow n fall of the
.
,

Bulg aria n s was accomplished we hear of Bulgari an ,

bishops in Ras Prisre n d an d O c hrida These were as

, ,
.

yet all on the bou n d ary o f Serbi an territory but if ,

Bulgaria n i n flue n ce could pe n etrate so far Serbi an ,

expa n sio n was impossible I n fact the terrific disaster .

ret arded further adva n c e towards the Morav a vall e y or

Macedo n ia for n early two ce n turies Th e Serbia n s .

1 Th e m of t h v ill g
na eV lj Mikulit h i ; t h h ill i R um j
e a e ls e 1 c e s 1 a

I( 5 9 5 m t high ) V id
e l es . S b
e 0 6 —7 e r e n, 2 .
32 TH E M ED I E V A L S ER BI AN KI NG D O M S

d e v elop e d their stre n gth e l sewh e r e and it was in Z eta , ,

n ot i n Rashka that th e y f ound e d th e ir first r e a l national

,

ki n gdom I n medi ae val as in mor e mod e rn times the

.
,

la n d of M ont e n egro was emancipat e d b e for e th e land of

S e rbia .

The great disaster which b efell th e Ser b ians in 92 4

had proved the da ngerous natur e of th e Bulgarian pow e r .

B ut the B yza n ti n e rulers of the tim e w e r e co n t e mptible ,

’
and it was most fortu n ate for them that C z ar Simeo n s suc
cessor had in no way i n h e rited his gr e atn e ss or his am
bitio n s Th e n e w Bulgaria n king Peter was a pious man
.
, ,

who m ade pe ace with Byza n tium I n the second h alf of .

th e te n th c e ntury wh e n Samu e l a Bulgarian ki n g as gr e at

, ,

as Sim e o n tried to r e viv e Bulgarian gr e atness h e found

, ,

the tim e too late By z a n ti n e military power had now

.

reached its great e st heigh t und e r a series of warlike

emperors all of whom attack e d th e Bulgarians The
, .

last Basil 1 1 ( d
,
.fairly e ar n ed the title of The
.
“

Bulgar Slayer by which he is known in history I n a .

series of systematic c ampaig n s h e fi n ally crushed an d

'

overwhelmed the Bulgaria n pow e r an d in extr e me old ,

age e n tered th e Golde n Gate o f C on sta n ti n opl e in

triumph surround e d with the spoils an d captiv e s of
g

Bulgaria A s e co n d Bulgarian ki n gdom arose in

the lat e r M iddle Ages but it was n e v e r stro n g e n ough
,

agai n to thr e ate n the v e ry e xist e n c e of the Serbia n s In .

fact when a struggl e did arise b e twe e n Rashka an d the

,

second Bulgaria it was th e latt e r which was crushed

, .

I t has be e n n ec e ssary to a n ticipat e e v e nts in order to

“

show that the Bulgaria n da n ger had b ee n r e mov e d during

the years 95 0 — 1 0 1 9 For th e fi rs t tim e f or several
.

ce n turies the Da n ube was cleared of barbarian s an d agai n

in Byz an ti n e ha n ds N o n e the less Serbia n power did n ot
.
,

as yet arise in this n eighbourhoo d The S e rbia n district of .

Rashka fell i n to a n archy an d a n umbe r of petty Chi e ftai n s

, ,

or Z upans comp e ted for pow e r A gr e at d e al of quarr e l

,
.
34 TH E M E D I ZEV AL S ERBIAN KI NGD O M S

E mperor at that period must have been fatal to th e

Serbi an s.

Rashk a w asted an d depopul ated by Simeo n pressed

, ,

by exter n al d an gers from Byz an tium an d tor n by in ,

ter nal disorders was u n able to adv an ce as quickly

,

as Zet a . The l atter ki n gdom roughly covered the

territory occupied by M o n te n egro in the years 1 878— 81 ,

but i n cluded also the l ake an d tow n of Scutari I t w as .

secure in a mou n tai n fortress an d pr actic ally i n accessible

,

from all sid e s except from the l ake of Scutari an d the v ale
of the Zeta E ve n an adva n ce fr om this side was a costly
.

an d difli c ul t oper atio n an d co n seque n tly Zeta for a time

,

developed its power in comp ar at i ve immu n ity Little 1 3 .

k n ow n of the ki n gdom of Zeta but its importa n ce,

appears from the fact that we hear of a ki n g i n Zeta whe n

there is o n ly a Gr an d Zup an in Rashka Ki n gship .

usually implies a lo n ger an d more complete u n io n of

tribes an d peoples th an is i n dicated by i n ferior titles I n .

spit e of our sc an ty evide n ce there seems to be n o re aso n

to doubt this fact For the rest the amou n t of territory
.
,

ruled ofte n exte n ded beyo n d the limits alre ady described .

Sometimes the ki n gs of Zet a ruled parts of Dalmatia

an d of R ashk a sometimes they ack n owledged themselves
vassals of the Ki n g of Croati a sometimes of the E mperor
, .

The successio n w as ofte n disputed an d the crow n sat ,

’
u n easily on ev e ry ruler s head Ye t if the rulers of
.

Zeta seldom died in their beds it was eve n rarer for

,

them to esc ape disaster or c aptivity Still there can be .

,

n o doubt that by about the middle of the eleve n th

ce n tury the Ki n g of Zeta had org an ised a state an d ruled
a cou n try which had achieved a de a ct o i n dep e n de n ce
f ,

an d was n ot like R ashka depe n de n t on the diplomacy or

, ,

arms of Byz an tium .

Th e most authe n tic i n cide n t of the mid el e venth -

ce n tury in Zeta is the reig n of Ki n g Stephe n V oislav .

After the death of the great co n queri n g E mperor Basil 1 1 .

 Z ETA AND RAS HKA 35

the Byza n ti n e hold 0 11 Zeta had r e lax e d St e ph e n

(1 02 5 ) .

V oislav 3 Serbia n pri n ce imprisoned in Co n st an ti n ople

,
.
,

e scap e d to Z e ta an d had hims elf crowned ki n g He .

ruled not only Z e ta strictly so called but much of th e

-

D almatian coast as w e ll Whe n an Imperial ship laden

.

with a thousa n d pou n ds w e ight of gold was wrecked on

'

th e Dalmatian coast Ki n g Stephe n pocketed the treasure

,

an d op e n ly defied th e E m p e ror , A pu n itiv e exp e ditio n

.

was se n t but defe at e d with heavy losses A gr e at army .

was the n orga n is e d by the I mperial Gover n or of Dura zz o ,

who pressed up the val l ey of the Zeta with fifty thousand

me n . D iokle a ( n e ar th e moder n Podgoritsa) was r e ach e d
an d th e n eighbouri n g valley plu n der e d But as th e .

gr e at army retreated lade n with booty it was e n ta ngled

, ,

in de fil e s Ki n g Stephe n an d his m e n rolled down

.

heavy stones an d poured showers of poiso n ed arrows on

th e troops struggli n g in the n arrow way The By z anti n e .

leader escaped with a mer e ha n dful of his men Ki n g .

St e ph e n had b e en th e fi rst to pl ay th e gam e which the

Mo n t e n e gri n s play e d so ofte n on the Turks in days to
com e A prete n ded r e treat before sup e rior forc e s u n til
.
,

thes e were well trapped in the ambush the n a surpris e ,

attack a sudde n show e r of sto n es an d deadly missiles a

, ,

wild charg e of the mou n t aineers dow n the hillside and a ,

bloody heap of corpses in the pass below These are th e .

co n stant fe atures of w arfare in the district wheth e r th e ,

n am e is Zeta or M ont e negro an d th e oppon e nts ,

Byza n ti n e s or Turks .

That Ki n g Steph e n achi e v e d a de f a eto ind e p e nd e n c e

is proved not o n ly by this great triumph but by a story
told of him at a later date Th e By z a n tine E mpir e had
.

lost ma n y me n in the invasio n of 1 0 42 an d was too ,

hamp e r e d by a Bulgaria n r e b ellion an d i n ternal a n archy

to organise a n oth e r e laborat e expeditio n against th e
de fi ant Ki n g Stephe n W here f orc e had fail e d craft
.

might succeed an d Katak alo n I mperi al Gover n or of

, ,
36 TH E M ED I ZEVAL S E RBIAN K I NGD O M S

R agusa asked p e rmi ss1on to be godfather to th e son of

,

Ste phe n Kat ak alo n we n t to the b aptism with a fleet of

.

armed vessels with which he i ntended to ov e rawe the

,

Zetan ruler But Stephe n was as cr afty as he w as fe ar

.

less The h aughty I mperi alist l an ded with an imp osi n g

.

trai n Hardly had the fi rst gre e ti ngs bee n excha n ged
.
,

whe n Stephe n gave a sig n an d his followers seized the

I mperialists an d fettered them The armed ships in .

th e bay were take n by str atagem an d the would be god ,

-

father n ow thoroughly awake n ed from his fool s paradis e

,
’
,

was co n veyed in chai n s to Stag n o on board his own

fl agship These i n cide n ts are typic al of the age By a
. .

mixture of skill fraud an d good fortu n e Stephe n of

, ,

Zeta had de fi ed Byza n tium I n stead of payi n g tribute .

he robbed the Byza n ti n e tre asury i n st e ad of submitti n g

to authority he plu n der e d on e Imperi al gover n or im ,

priso n ed a seco n d an d routed a third with the loss of

,

m ore tha n half his army I n the same way his son an d .

successor Ki n g M ichael who acc e pted the title of

, ,

Byza n ti n e o ffi cial an d was form ally termed the E x arch

of Dalmatia actu ally sent his son to aid the Bulgaria n s in
,

on e of their rebellio n s ag ai n st the E mperor I mperi al .

gov e r n ors som e times i n vaded Zet an territory an d one of ,

them defe ated an d took priso n er Ki n g Bodi n the seco n d ,

in desce n t from M ich ael Bodi n appears to h ave

exte n ded his authority over Bos n i a an d co n trolled at le ast
two of the Zupa n s of Rashka His importa n ce is m arked .

by th e fact that Pope Cleme n t 1 1 1 had w ritte n him a .

letter in which he d e scribed him as rex Selerv orum

’
g l oriosszmus
”
'

From the. dat e of B odin s captivity

( 9 )
1 0 1 Zeta begi n s to lose its importa n ce I n 1 0 99 .

the Crus aders p assed through the v ale of the Zeta to

1
Scutari where they were received by Bodi n
,
This is .

almost the last appearance of a stro n g ki n g in Zeta .

1 C uriou ly ug h hi m i o ly g iv by E g l i h h ro i l r
s e no , s na e s n en an n s c n c e .

O d i u V it l i H t E l IX 5 ; Mig P t l 88 ol 6 5 9
'

r er c s a s, zr . co . . ne , a ro . , 1 , c . .
 Z ETA A ND RASH KA 37

Duri n g the twelfth century its history is that of a divided

state with horrors of disputed successions m assacres at
, ,

ba n quets blood an d a narchy such as would have

,

delighted an Elizab e tha n dramatist The o n ly clear

.

deductio n i s that the house of Zeta was w axi n g weaker

an d weaker . No n e th e less the mor al i n flue n ce of Zeta
,

h ad bee n of importa n ce like Mo n te n egro in l ater times it

re alised the ide a of a wild i n depe n de n ce to the S e rb race
at a time whe n Rashka could o n ly dream of it .

Th e exter n al history of R ashk a in the elev e nth

c e ntury is that of a lo n g seri e s of border raids on the
part of the Ser b ia n s of frie n dly c o operatio n on the
,
-

p art of the M agy ars to resist the l arger an d more

,

system atic Byz an ti n e operatio n s ag ai n st both peoples .

The Rashk an s an d M agyars were more accessible to

the Byz an ti n es tha n wer e the Z e tan s Gre at Byza n ti n e
.

armies marched up the M orava v alley an d stro n g ,

Byza n ti n e garriso n s watch e d the fro n tiers of Rashk a

from M o nastir O c hrida an d Nish As lo n g as these
, , .

fortresses gav e th e Byza n ti n e s acc e ss to the M orav a

v alley n either Rashka n or Hu n gary was s afe I n al l .

the co n fusio n of the period it is evide n t th at the

Serbi an s of R ashka re alised the growi n g we ak n ess of the
Byza n ti n e E mpire an d w e r e determ i n ed to achieve their
i n depe n d e n ce at its expense I t is cle ar th at by the
.

e n d of the reig n of the E m peror M an uel Comne n us

( d
. I 1 80 ) they h ad achieved this p u rpose .

The w ars of the E mperor M an uel are the l ast

gre at military effort of the Byz an ti n e power before it
w as fat ally we ake n ed by the Lati n Crus aders M an uel.

he aded m an y c ampaig n s agai n st M agy ars an d Serbia n s ,

an d his expl o its border on the fabul ous The most .

skilful k n ights could n ot meet h im in b attle ; the

stro n gest c ould n ot wield his la n ce or bear the weigh t
of his shield He is s aid to h ave cut his w ay through
.

fi v e hu n dred Turks with o n ly two att e n da n ts ; in on e

38 TH E M ED I ZEV AL S ERB I AN KIN GD O M S

Hu n garian battle he s n atched a sta n dard from his van

guard an d occupied a bridge single ha n ded in anoth e r
-
,

in which he defeated both Serbians and M agyars he ,

l e d the pursuit in his gilded armour The Hu n g aria n .

l e ader a frightful Goli ath tur n ed on him M an uel s

,
“
,
’

’
la n ce gla n ced from the shield an d the Hu n garia n s sword
broke the li n ks of the E mp e ror s vizor The herculea n
'
.

Ma n uel seized the Hu n garia n by the arm unhorsed him , ,

and made him a priso n er But Ma n uel was more of an

.

Amadis th an of a Ch arlemag n e a k n ight err an t rather

,
-

tha n a str ategist I n his t e n camp aig n s agai n st the

.

Magy ars an d Serbi an s he gai n ed much glory an d little

real ad va n t age Poets told of how the golden wi n gs
.

of the K aiser ov e rsh adowed Rashka an d how the spirits ,

of th e Tara an d the Save complai n e d to Ma n uel th at

he had choked the m with blood an d corpses History .

tells that more th an on e S e rbian Gra n d Z upan k n elt at

his feet in humble submissio n an d th at more tha n on e
,

Magyar ki n g owed his crow n to the E mperor B ut .

th e e n d of these chivalrous exploits was not the

triumph of Ma n u e l but of Stephe n N e manya the
Ser b ia n
.

I t is from Stephen N e manya the Gra n d Z upan of

,

Rashk a that moder n Serbia has always dated the rise

,

of Serbi an n atio n al great n ess in the M iddle Ages The .

j udgme n t is a j ust on e for his dy n asty reig n ed till the

,

fourt e e n th ce n tury an d his arms u n ited Zeta to Rashka

,

an d produced a new era of prosp e rity an d cohesio n .

But the i n cide n ts of his e arly care e r are doubtful an d

lege n d ary in ch ar acter He s ee ms to have bee n bor n
.

in Zeta whither his father had fled after bei n g expelled

,

from his z up an sh ip in Rashk a O n th e restoratio n

.

of his father Stephe n appe ars to have acquired a

,

pri n cipality on the easter n bou n dary of Rashk a The .

district seems to have stretched from Ras to Nish an d ,

includ e d the valleys of the Top litsa of the Lower I b ar , ,

 Z E TA AND RASH KA 39

an d the l and rou n d Krushe vatz Thus he was a Warde n

.

of the M arches holdi n g an easter n outpost agai n st

,

th e E mpire I n 1 1 7 1 M an uel qu arrelled with Ve n ice

.
,

an d Stephe n N e m an a seems to have c o operated with

y
-

th e V e n etia n fleet in an att ack on Byza n ti n e Dalm atia .

I n the n ext ye ar a Byz an ti n e army based on Nish , ,

tried to adva n ce to the capture of Ras Stephe n .

N e man ya met this army at Pa n ti n o south of ,

Z ve t c han an d tot ally defe ated it

,
His victory was .

compl e te but it was followed by th e defectio n of his

,

allies The Ve n etia n fleet stricke n with plague sailed

.
, ,

back to V e n ice an d the n e w ki n g of H u n gary c ame

,

to terms with Co n sta n ti n ople He n ce the E mperor .

M a n uel tur n ed his u n divided atte n tio n to N e man ya .

The accou n ts of his submissio n vary but there is n o ,

doubt of the fact The t all bro ad shouldered man

.
,
-

as he is described by co n temporaries was see n in the ,

trai n of M an uel as he e n tered Co n sta n ti n ople in triumph

for the last time The subs eq ue n t defeat of M a n uel
.

in Asia M i n or we ake n ed the Byza n ti n e army an d his ,

death in I 1 80 produced a disputed successio n Stephe n .

N e man ya seized the opportu n ity to ally himself with

the H u n g ari an ki n g Bel a ,
an d to em an cip ate his

cou n try Betwee n them they laid in ashes the stro n g

.

fortresses of Belgr ade N ish an d Serdica Stephe n

, , .

tur n ed to w ards Zet a an d co n quered the whole territory ,

i n cludi n g both Scut ari an d C attaro By 1 1 86 a charter .

of the commu n e of C attaro is dated in the time of

“
v

our Lord N e m an ya Gra n d Zupa n of R ashk a

,
Thus .

Stephen N e manya h ad by this time alre ady u n ited

R ashka to Zeta the true home of the Serbi an r ace
,
.

Willi am of Tyre a co n temp or ary chr on icler describes

, ,
“
the Serbi an s of the time as an u n educ ated an d u n dis
c i l in e d r ace o ul us iue ul t us ués ue an d
p ( pp ”
g
as
“
bold an d w arlike m e n (audaces e t bell icosi
For the first time a re al centre of u n ity and a real
40 TH E M ED IZEVAL S E RBIAN KI NGD O M S

n atio n al ruler existed to e ducate to gov e r n an d to , ,

discipli n e the S e rbi an s .

The Easter n emperors w e re still furth e r we ake n ed

by a revolt of the Bulgaria n s This was assisted by .

Stephe n N e man ya an d led to the fou n datio n of a seco n d

,
’
Bulg aria n ki n gdom Stephe n s policy thus i n terposed
.

a stro n g bu ff er state betwee n Co n stan ti n ople an d

-

Rashk a which impeded further Byza n ti n e attacks on

,

the Serbians I t was in the course of this revolt ( 1 1 87)

.

that Stephe n N e man ya c aptured Nish an d some of the

surrou n di n g district Thu s he had at last extended .

Serbi an i n flue n ce to the M or ava v alley and by holdi n g ,

N ish he co n trolled n ot o n ly the v alley of the M orav a

an d Vardar but the route to Philippopolis an d C 0 11
s t an t in o l e
p H is culmi n ati n g
. triumph ca m e i n July

1 1 89 whe n he received the Holy Roma n E mperor at

,

Nish 1
.F rederic B arb arossa th e most sple n did of ,

Germa n medi e val rulers was on his w ay to a crusade , .

Perhaps his ow n p assio n s misled him i n to a qu arrel

with the E aster n E mperor ; at an y r ate N e man ya
pro fi ted by their hostility to co n q uer a lo n g row of
Byza n ti n e fortresses stretchi n g from Prisre n d to Serdica .

The E aster n E mperor attacked N e man ya in the follow

in g ye ar an d forced him to sue for peace
But though N e man ya w as forced to surre n der some of
his co n quests he had recover e d much territory which had
,

lo n g bee n co n sidered Byz an tine Th e territory de fi n itely .

ceded to N e man ya i n cluded part of Norther n Albani a

as well as Scutari The Byza n ti n e bou n dary was de fi n ed
.

as r un n i n g from Alessio to Prisre n d an d to Uskub the n

up the M orava to Nish an d Belgrade Thus the gre at .

fortresses of the bord e r w e re still Imperial but the ,

1 Bu l g ri
a lg wr l r
de e at e s e e a so p e se nt at t h is me e t in
an Th e ne t g . x
e mpe rr
o of G e man r bl
ood w h o a r
ppe a e d at Nish w as W i iam in ll
J an ua ry 1 91 6, h e n K in F e dinand of B u a ia e c e i e d h im it h t he
w g r lg r r v w
w rdo s, Miler e r e t g loriaras ”
.
TH E NE MA NY ID D Y NA S TY A ND TH E RI S E OF
MED I ZEVA L SERBI A N G R E ATNESS ( 1 1 90—1 321
)

TH E N e man yid dy n asty was th e most stabl e as well

as the greatest of the S e rbia n roy al r aces I t was the
.

desti n y of this ro yal family to piece together the scattered

eleme n ts of the Serb rac e an d to form out of them that
,

imposi n g fabric of n atio n al great n e ss displ ayed in the

reig n of Stephe n Dusha n But it was Stephe n N ema n ya
.

r ather tha n Stephe n Dusha n who made great n ess p o ssible .

Stephe n N e man ya based the S e r b ia n state on what was

a rough n atio n al u n ity I n so f ar as his successors
'

sought to co n trol other r aces tha n the Serb an d th us

exch an ged the n atio n al ide al for the I mperi al on e they ,

were prob ably u n dermi n i n g the s e curity of the State .

The N e manyid dy n asty had three aims : th at of

securi n g i n ter n al stability an d u n ity ; that of civilisi n g
the State by me an s of the Church ; an d that of exte n ding
Serbi an power by a spirited for e ig n policy U n til the .

fi rst two objects had bee n achieved th at of dipl om atic

,

or military exp an sio n in the l arge se n se was impossible .

The p olitic al an d ecclesi astic al aims of the N e m an yid

dy n asty were simil ar but by n o mea n s ide n tical I n .

A n gl o—S ax on E n gla n d it has bee n cl aimed with some ,

appe ar an ce o f tr uth that ecclesiastical u n ity preceded

,

an d occ asio n ed politic al u n io n th at the ecclesi astic al

,

p arish w as the germ of the civil tow n ship an d th at the

,

Primacy of Ca n terbury proved a model for the u n ity

 TH E NE MANYID D Y NA STY 43

first of Wessex an d then of all E n gl an d I n this se n se .

it may be claimed though with some exaggeratio n th at

, ,

the Church produced the State Such claims could .

n ever h ave bee n made i n m e dia v al Serbia Here the .

State clearly existed before the Church for the org an is a ,

tio n in dem ocratic commu n es an d u n der Zup an s pre

ceded the co n versio n to Christi an ity an d the Sl avo n ic
'
,

ideas of feudalism difl e re d greatly from the ecclesi astic al

model Th e Church could n ot an d did n ot cre ate in
.

st it ut ion s in Rashk a or Zeta it could be an d w as used

to h armo n ise to civilis e an d to perfect them N othi n g
, ,
.

is clea rer th an that the Church w as a politic al i n strume n t

in the h an ds of the N e man yid ki n gs This stateme n t .

does n ot reflect upo n the perso n al piety of the r ulers .

Most of them revere n ced the Church Stephe n N e m an ya

took the cowl and di e d in a mo n astery an d his ex ample ,

was follow e d by s e v e ral of his successors But the truth .

remai n s an d su b sequ e n t history o n ly illustr ates an d

,

emphasises it that th e Serbia n Church w as the serva n t

,

of the S e rbia n State .

Stephe n Ne manya himself e xercised a most import an t

i n flue n ce on the future of Serbi a by his attitude tow ards
the Bogomile heretics This Bogomile h eresy was aki n
.

to the much older Paulicia n heresy I t s origi n is doubt .

ful an d as is i n v aria b ly the case in the M iddle Ages its

, ,

doctri n es hav e b e e n greatly misreprese n ted by orth od ox

oppo n e n ts I ts mai n principle does n ot appe ar t o h ave
.

bee n the dualism or e qu ality of good an d evil as is ofte n ,

asserted I t was r ather the Adoptio n ist the o ry— th at is

1
.
,

that Christ was a mere m an u n til the Holy Spirit e n tered

i n to him in his thirtieth ye ar This d octri n e appe ars to.

have led to si n gul ar co n clusio n s : the Bogomiles assert e d

1 ry
V ide B u , G i on bb vi A
pp 6 , pp 5 4 0
.
—
3 , and J i c k ,
. .
'
re e

Ge re b de r B uégrare n , pp 1 76 e gg
. ih , Ge re b de r S e rbe n , pp 2 2 2 1 99
. . . . . .

Th e o de l r v w
ie is asse t e d in L az a - H rb e lianovit c h, Se rv ian Pe op le ,
r r
i PP 35 0 m
44 TH E N E M ANY I D D YNAST Y

tha t the sacrame n ts were the symbols of S atan d e c l ar e d ,

w ar o n the M ass th e Cross and on all im ages rej ect e d

, ,

the Ol d Testame n t an d the Fath e rs and stood by the

,

New Testament the Psalter an d certai n Apocryphal

,

works I t is n ot certai n that these are n ot the e x agge ra

.

tio n s of e n emies but there c an be n o doubt of the

,

furious i n toler an ce of the Bogomiles The accus atio n s

.

of u n n atural wicked n ess in practice an d of i n fern al

doctri n es i n theory prove the d an ger an d the horror fel t
by O rthodox Christia n s agai n st the Bogomiles Thei r .

doctri n es seem to have produced a ki n d of spiritu al

exhil aratio n or mad n ess on their adhere n ts similar to the
physical e ff ects of Mung or other Easter n compounds .

This spiritu al exciteme n t appears to have bee n at its

height in the twelfth ce n tury whe n all the Slavonic
,

la n ds of the B alka n s were fi ll e d with its missio n aries .

I n Serbia the doctri n es evide n tly had a special hold on

the mo n ks an d the clergy and it was at this critic al
,

j u n cture th at Stephe n N e man ya decl ared himself reso

l ut e l y agai n st the Bogomiles He summoned his Sabor
.

or Re prese n tative Assembly and the stre n gth of the

,

Bogomiles is shown by the fact that o n ly his prolo n ged

e ff ort could i n duce it to cond e m n th e m Armed .

with this authority he proc e eded against them deprived ,

the le aders of their to n gues or their lives and the ,

followers of their houses or their money This brutal .

persecutio n was e ff ectual an d th e Bogomiles spe e dily

,

dis appe ared from the Serbi an land The fact that they
.

co n ti n ued to divide an d distract the State in Bos n ia

an d Bu l g aria at critical mom e n ts prov e s the greatness of
’
N e man ya s practic al service .At this period toleratio n
w as n ot a politic al possibility in an y st ate except in on e
ruled by Turks or Tartars Stephe n N e man ya did n ot
.

live to attai n the n ext gr e at religious obj ect of his

d yn asty His son Stephe n the First Crow n ed ( 1 1 96
.
,
-

was the fi rst to stre n gthe n his authority over th e

 TH E N E MANYI D D YNAST Y 45

whol e Ser b ian race by acquiring the title and st atus of

Ki n g I t was agre e d by all in theory that this title
.

could only be gra n ted by an emperor or a pope .

I nnoc e nt 1 1 1 th at most powerful of medi ae val popes

.
,

delighted l n putti n g dow n th e reig n i n g mo n archs of th e

West an d m issui n g n e w crow n s to aspiri n g Chieftai n s
of the East Duri n g his reig n rulers of Cyprus
.
,

Arme n ia an d Bulgaria all possessed them selves of this

,

n e w priz e But Steph e n negotiated in vai n for I n n oc e n t

.
,

listened to a r e mo n strance from th e Ki n g of Hu n gary ,

and it was n ot u n til 1 2 1 7 that I n noce n t s successor ,

Honori us 1 1 1 actually se n t a legate who crow n ed Stephe n

.
,

as Ki n g E ven as late as 1 2 2 0 Stephe n was declari n g

.

himself the true son of the Pope but his allegia n ce ,

was alr e ady strayi n g back to the Gre e k Church I t has .

alr e ady be e n me n tio n e d that Roma n Pope an d Byza n ti n e

Patriarch or E mp e ror had b idd e n hard agai n st on e
a n other for supremacy in th e B alka n la n ds At this .

tim e Rome se e med to hav e gr e atly the advan tage I n .

1 2 0 4 th e Crusaders had co n qu e red Co n st an ti n ople an d

founded a Lati n E mpire and the Greek E mpire had ,

be e n tra n sferred to Ni e ma in Asia M i n or Co n sta n ti .

n o l e for the first

p time b e h eld with horror a shave n

Patriarch an d a communio n served with unleave n ed

bread by clergy who believ e d in the Dou ble Processio n .

Roma n ritu al had alr e ady co n qu e red in Hu n gary ,

Croatia an d D a mati a Latin pri n ces ruled in Gr e ece

,
l
. .

Bulgaria an d Bos n ia were w averi n g I f Serbia n ow .

accepted the Lati n ritual the pap al i n flue n ce mi ght

be triumph an t I t was a supreme religious cr i s i s
.

in the history of S e rbia as w e ll as in that of the

B alk an s .

The situatio n was naturally complicat e d by politic al

i n flue n c e s outside the Serbian ki n gdom Wh at s ee m s .

to have weigh e d most with Ki n g Steph e n w as the c on

sideration that Serbia still had no archbishopric within its
46 TH E NE MANYI D D Y NASTY
b ord e rs . Eve n
their on e bishopric that of Ras was at this
, ,

time ( 1 2 1 9) u n der the j urisdiction of the Archbishop of

O c h rida The archbishops were autocephalous — that is
.
,

subj ect to no other ecclesiastical authority ; they were

le ar n ed Greeks who e n courag e d civilisatio n but were ,

domi n ated by the rulers of Bulgaria Stephe n who was .

,

clear sighted an d sharp witted d e cid e d that he could get

- -
,

an ecclesiastical i n dep e n de n c e from th e Gr e ek Patri arch

an d E mperor in Asi a such as he would b e u n able to

,

obtai n from the Bulgarophil Archbishop of Oc hrida or

from the Holy F ather at Rome I n spir e d with this vi e w
.
,

he extricated his broth e r S ava from his mo n astic seclusio n

in Mou n t Athos an d se n t him on a m issio n to Asia
,
’
( 121 Sava s attempt was crown e d with success The .

Byza n ti n e E mperor Theodor e an d the Patriarch

G e rman u s were flattered at the missio n an d alive to its ,

politic al importa n ce in exte n di n g th e ir i n flue n c e Sava .

promised to bri n g back all Serbia to th e O rthodox faith ,

if the Greek Patriarch would mak e th e S e rbia n Church

auto n omous an d autocephalous and e r e ct a Serbi an
,

archbishopric i n depe n de n t of all e xc e pt himself The .

t e rms were mutually adva n tageous an d a settleme n t ,

was easily reached Th e Greek P atriarch co n ceded th e

.

archbishopric appoi n ted Sava hims e lf as the fi rst in

,

cumbe n t an d promised to th e Serbia n Church in de p e n d

,

e n ce of the Lati n Patriarch an d ecclesiastical auto n omy .

Sava r e tur n ed an d fi xed his archbishopric at U shitz e a ,

n ot very co n ve n ie n t ce n tre from which to control Rashka

an d Z eta He sp e edily showed his authority an d

.

deposed th e Bishop of Prisre n d in spit e of a threat of

,

excommu n icatio n from the Archbishop of O ch rida ( M ay

But Sava an d Stephe n disregarded these pro
tests an d c arried their co n versio n through with rel e n tl e ss
,

complete n ess The p apal c oro natio n was n ow illegal an d

.
,

Sava is rumoured to have crow n ed his brother Stephe n

accordi n g to Greek rites with a n e w crow n se n t from
 TH E N E MANYID DYNASTY 47

Nic ae a I n any cas e h e had form ally restored the

n ot very relucta n t Serbi an s to the bosom of the O rthodox
’
Church Stephe n s coro n atio n took pl ace at U shitz e an d
.
,

his portr ait is stil l to be see n there in the frescoes of the

mo n astery H e is represe n ted as a fi n e black bearded
.
-

man weari n g a cap or n ame n ted with pe arls an d clad in

, ,

a carmin e coloured rob e on which yellow two headed

-
,
-

Imperial eagles ar e e mbroid e red The picture shows .

clearly enough the ambitious claims of the N e m an yas .

Sava was canonised an d is r egarded as the most holy of

,

Serbian sai n ts The Serbia n Holy City is n ot however

.
, ,

U z itz e but Ipek ( Pe e) to which the seat of the arch

, ,

bishopric was soo n to b e tra n sferred St Sava deserves . .

his fame for he c e rtai n ly incr e ased the i n depe n de n t

,

character of th e S e rbia n Church H is actio n was really .

decisive ; for though diss e nsio n s with the O rthodox

,

Patriarch aros e in later tim e s there was n e ver the s ame ,

d an ger of retur n to Latin rites as at the time whe n

Stephe n was crowned by the Pope A di ff ere n t religious .

faith has cut off Serbia for e v e r from Hu n gary Cro ati a , ,

Ve n ice an d Rome By thu s separati n g herself Serbi a

,
.

secur e d an i n dep e n d e n t positio n but at the risk of ,

is olatio n whe n she n eeded help from the West He n ce .

forth her ide as an d ambitio n s tur n ed Eastw ard .

The i n dividual actio n of Stephe n N e man ya an d his

ki n gly and sai n tly so n s had thus perma n e n tly tr an s
form e d the r e ligious policy of th e Serbia n realm Their .

e n ergy had suppress e d the Bogomile an d the Lati n

heresies an d h e n ceforward religious disse n sio n s were
,

rar e r in Serbia tha n in other Balkan l an ds Full scope .

was thus allowed to th e ki n gs to d e v e lop the civilisi n g

age n ci e s of the Church But thes e may be described
.

1 Th e ac c ount s of B z ant ine c o onat ion c e e mon are du

t he y r r y ly
r rd d b y
eco e vl r
me diae a c h onic e s lr
B ut t h e se are e a de d
. rgr man by y
m d r wr r
o e n it e s as an in e nt ion t o sa e t h e se f e spe c t of t h e B z ant ine
v v l r
-
y
Ch r h w
u c , l ll w r l
h ic h c ou d not a o a e c onc i iat ion w
it hout a re c o onat ion -
r .
48 TH E N E M ANY ID DYNASTY
later here it is e n ough to n ote th at the work of civilisa
tio n we n t ha n d in ha n d with religious and n atio n al
u ni t
Lik e so ma n y sovereig n s of the M iddle Ages Stephe n ,

N e man ya an d Steph e n the First Crow n ed adopted the -

da ng e rous policy of portio n i n g out p arts of their realm

as appa nages to their so n s or relatives The practice .

was co n ti n ued to the e n d of the Serbi an ki n gdoms and ,

o n ly i n creas e d the disturba n c e s fome n t e d by rebelliou s

baro n s who suppo rted a son or a brother of th e reign
,

in g sov e reig n . St e ph e n the First Crow n ed was himself-

in flight an d exile for a time ( 1 2 0 2 More serious

’

dissensio n s broke out u n der his tame successor Stephe n 1

,

Radoslav ( 1 2 2 8 who was eve n weak e n ough to wish

to bri n g eccl e siastical S e rbia o n ce more under th e arch
bishopric of O c hrida St Sava in a rage we n t on a
. .

pilgrimag e to Jerusalem an d th e i n dign a n t nobles

,

d e throned Ki n g Radoslav an d s e t up his brother St e phe n ,

Vladislav in his place ( 1 2 34

,
Now that the
Byza n ti n e peril was of the past Bulgaria n an d Hu n g aria n
,

n eighbours threaten e d the Serbia n s The li n e of fortress e s

.

dow n the Morava from Belgrade to Nish were always in

the hands of Bulgari an s or Hu ngaria n s O ch rida an d .

Prisre n d were also in Bulg ari an ha n ds I t was therefore .

a mai n obj ect of Serbia n n atio n al policy to break through

th e e n circli n g chai n of Bulgari an fortresses an d it s e em s ,

to hav e bee n the defere n ce of Radoslav an d V ladislav to

th e Bulgaria n s which stirr e d up th e n obles to r e volt .

I n 1 2 41 a t e rrib l e i n vasio n of Tartars swept over nearly

all E aster n E urope . The Mo n gols of the Golden
H orde were u n doubt e dly the most scie n ti fi c military
natio n in the world an d th e ir i n vasion of Hu n gary in
,

1 2 41 was a masterpiece of medi e v al strategy I n 1 2 42 .

th ey swept through Bos n ia an d burnt Cattaro an d oth e r

,

tow n s of Zeta an d fi n ally r e tired to the Lower Da n ube

,

1 Al l t h S r b i
e e an k i g w r all d S t ph f r om gb
n s e e c e e rown
e n, o re
’
a vos, a c .
 TH E NEMAN YID D YNAST Y

sort of u n der Ki n g in the district n orth of Ras an d

-

south of the Save This district was gr an ted him by

.

the Hu n garia n Ki n g an d was actu ally outside the the n

,

ack n owledged Serbi an bou n dary His residenc e was fi xed .

at Belgrade the white city whose medi e val n ame Alba

,
'

B ulg orzco shows that it was esse n tially a n on Serbi an city -

.

O n on e occasio n D ragut in revolted agai n st U rosh

put him in great da n ger an d ext e nded th e bou n d aries
,

of his territory to the Rud n ik Mou n tai n s But

with this exception he gave little trouble .

Stephe n U rosh 1 1 ( M il iut in) outlived D ragut in b y

.

fiv e y e ars reig n i n g from 1 2 82 to 1 32 1 This period of

, .

forty y e ars is of th e fi rst importa n c e in Serbia n n ation al

history I t wit n esses a steady upward rise in her
.

power but this r e sult was produc e d by th e developm e n t

,

o f the cou n try rather than by the p e rsonal policy of

U rosh 1 1 Th e mai n cause of the adva n ce was an
.

eco n omic on e At this time the whole Balka n pe n i n sula

.

was fi lled with adve n turous soldiers disba n ded Greek , ,

Lati n Tart ar an d Spa n ish merce n ari e s all ready to sell

, , ,

th e ir swords to the high e st bidder U n less the Serbia n .

rul e r had bee n able to buy professio n al military support

it is doubtful if he could have e xte n d e d his power As .

it was the eco n omic an d comm e rci al resources of Serbia

,

b ega n to b e exploited Agricultur e d e velop e d and

.

S e rbi an flour b e came famous an d the fur trad e was also ,

profitable Th e s e two i n dustries wer e worked by n ative

.

Ser b ians More fri e n dly rel ations w e r e e stablished with

.

Ragusa and the comm e rce of the Adriatic flowed agai n

,

alo n g the lo n g road from Ragusa through Bos n ia i n to

Serbia I n ter n al resourc e s wer e also developed an d the

.
,

mi n erals of Serbia bega n to be worked The mi n es of .

silver gold t in and copp e r which were well know n in

, , , ,

Roma n times bega n agai n to be exploited Th e frie n dly

, .

relatio n s with the M agy ars e n abled the Serbia n s to imp ort
G e rma n colo n ists from Hu n gary Th e se as w e ll as .
 TH E N E MANYI D D Y NA ST Y 5 1

Ragusa n and I talia n immigr ants worked the mines pro ,

duc e d th e w e alth an d p e opl e d the tow n s of S e r b ia

,
A .

sig n i fi ca n t i n dex of we alth is th e fact that gold an d

copper Serbi an coins wer e for the first time mi n t e d
u n d e r U rosh 1 1 Silver Serbia n coi n s had already
.

existed for over half a c e ntury All this i n flux of .

wealth e n abled th e S e rbia n kings to purch ase the aid of

skill e d professio n al merce n aries who formed an element
,

i n dispe n sable to m ilit ary success agai n st the highly

trai n ed L ati n or Greek armies Thus armed with
.

rich e s the Serbia n ki n gs could make more ambitious

sch e mes of conquest than an y they had hith e rto
attempted .

U rosh the Seco n d was a bold ha n dsome soldier full

, ,

of energy if sometimes da n gerously rash in his pro

n E mpir e at Co n sta n ti n ople had bee n
j e cts
. The Lati
destroyed in 1 2 6 1 by the Greek E mperor M ich ael
Pal e ologus who had e xte n ded his power i n to M acedo n ia
,

and seized ma n y fortress e s which form e rly belo n ged to

th e Bulgari an s Maki n g an allia n ce with th e Lati n
.

Pri n ce of Thessaly U rosh 1 1 d e clared war on the Greek

, .

E mperor advanced on Uskub ( Skoplj e) which he c ap

, ,

t ored an d ext e nd e d his arms to the river

B re gal n it sa This was a gr e at triumph for Skoplj e
.
,

he n ceforth b e cam e the political capital of S e rbia No .

eve n t aroused gr e ater e n thusiasm among all S e rbs than

the capture of Uskub from the Turks in 1 9 1 2 The .

re n ami n g of it as Skoplj e marked clearly th at the Ser b ians

aimed at revivi n g their old medi e val glories I t was .

the stro n g h an d of U rosh 1 1 th at fi rst w on that city for

.

his c apital The Greek E mperor felt ke e n ly the dis

.

grace but his great preparations w e re i n terrupted by his

,

death His son Andronicus

.
,
se n t an army of Tartars ,

Fr an ks an d Turks who s av agely dev astated some p arts

, ,

of Serbi an territory U ro sh 1 1 defe ated them an d m ade

. .

a cou n ter attack on Byza n ti n e territory He e xte n d e d

-
.
5 2 TH E NE MANYI D D YNASTY

his bou n dary to the mou n t ai n fortress of Dibr a but ,

m ade n o impressio n on O c h rida or Prilep He sub

.

seque n tly pushed the Serbi an territory to the coast

n ear Durazzo The tre aties the Byz an ti n e E mperor
.

was forced to m ake with him show the exte n t of his

pow e r But the l ast ye ars of his reig n were d arke n ed
.

by defeat Civil w ar broke out and the Hu n gari an s

.
,

occupied the M atc hva an d stormed Belgr ade But.

failure in the n orth was n ot so importan t as success

in the south an d east in which directio n s U rosh 1 1 w on
, .

gre at triumphs Before his de ath he described him

.

self as Ki n g of Alb an ia as well as Serbi a an d thus ,

u n doubtedly tr aced the li n es of future Serbia n ambitio n .

That his diplomacy was not alw ays successful 13 certai n ,

but the eter n al complexity of B alk an politics re ached its

extreme of co n fusio n duri n g his reig n I t n eeded a
.

very gre at diplomatist to foresee the perm an e n t eleme n ts

in the shifti n g kaleidoscope of i n terests an d powers .

His stro n g ha n d crushed civil war an d kept his me rc e n

aries in order his wise measures i n creased the resources
,

of his cou n try and his ge n erosi ty to the Church saved

,

him in his utmost n eed Duri n g the civil w ar U rosh 1 1

. .

would h ave bee n crushed but f or the support of the

mo n ks an d clergy who le n t him mo n ey which e n abled
him to hire merce n aries an d to regai n his power The .

witness of the Church to hi s merits is perhaps i n terested ,

but there c an be n o doubt that the other evide n ce

supports it The best testimo n y to the i n ternal admi n
.

ist rat i on of U rosh 1 1 is the confusio n which his death

.

produced
The religious i n flue n c e s which a ff ected the history
of Serbi a u n der the N e man yid dy n asty depe n ded greatly
u po n the sovereig n s The ide as of the relatio n of
.

Church an d State were th or oughly of the E ast ; the

temporal sovereig n w as a religi ous perso n an d co n trolled
the chief reli gi ous o ffi ci al There seems little se n se of
.
 TH E N E M ANYI D DYNASTY 53

that sep aratio n betwee n Church an d State which e n abled

popes to overthrow emperors an d bishops to defy
ki n gs 1n the W e st As i n Co n sta n ti n opl e the Patriarch
.

was the cr e atio n of th e Em p e ror so in Serbia the Bishop

,

was the cr e ation of the Ki n g The astute diplomacy of

.

St Sava e ma n cipated the Serbia n Church from the Greek

.

archbishopric of C ob rida created a Serbia n archbishopric

, ,

an d m ade the Serbi an Church autocephalous an d free .

But the n e t result was to h an d over the co n trol of the

Church to Stephe n the First Crow n ed The o n ly i n de
-
.

e n de n t m oveme n t of th e Church seem s to have bee n

p
i n the dir e ctio n of B o omil isrn an d that was S p e edily
g ,

crushed by Stephen N e man ya The n umerou s occasions

.

upon which th e S e rbia n sovereig n s coquetted with R ome

do n ot appe ar to have aroused gre at op positio n amo n g
the Serbi an clergy U n der some sovere i g n s especially
.
,

Steph e n Dush an ther e seems to hav e bee n some deliber

,

ate persecutio n of thos e followi n g the L ati n rites I t s .

’
worship is forbidde n in D ushan s code an d in n e gotia ,

tio n s with the Pope h e promised to restore to Lati n

worshippers th e abbeys an d churches of which he had
deprived them But there does n ot appear to hav e b e en
.

e n ough pers e cutio n seriously to divide or alie n ate parts

of the n atio n an d Lati n i n flue n ces in so f ar as they
, ,

survived added a n e w and rich eleme n t to the civilisa

,

tio n of medi e val Serbi a Tr aces of them may still be

.

see n in the I talia n architecture of some of the buildi n gs

on th e wester n borders of Serbia The Lio n of Ve n ice
.

is deeply grave n in m arble at Cattaro an d the churches

,

of the co ast of Zeta are almost wholly L ati n in feeli n g .

A n tivari as has alr e ady bee n remarked remai n ed

, ,

c on stan t to the Lati n traditio n an d R ome stretched

,

an d still stretches a lo n g arm i n to Sc u tari an d Norther n

Alba n ia
.

Arts an d lett e rs were promoted both u n der G r e ek

an d Lati n auspices sometim e s by the ki n gs
,
sometimes
,
54 TH E N E M ANYID DYNASTY

by promi n e n t ecclesi astics like St S ava someti m es .

,

by the private ge n erosity of i n dividual n obles The .

archbishops of O c h rida were lear n ed an d o fte n u n

worldly m e n Greeks n ot Bulgaria n s an d the churches
, ,

as well as th e buildi n gs of O ch rida show the Byza n ti n e

1
in flue n ce .This ce n tre of culture from which ro ads ,

lead to both Skoplj e an d Prisre n d must h ave bee n the ,

chief civilisi n g age n cy u n til St Sava assumed his archi .

episcop al mitre in U shit z e Afterwards in co n seque n ce .

,

of Tartar r aids the religiou s capit al was pl aced at I pek

, ,

a true ce n tre for the Serbia n la n ds Though the .

Byz an ti n e Patriarch was n ot alw ays recog n ised as their

ecclesi astical superior by the Serbia n s the ge n eral ,

i n flue n ce of the Byza n tin e Church was always assur e d .

I ts customs regulated the cut of vestm e n ts th e marriag e ,

of priests the pe n alties for sin and the theories of the

, ,

sacrame n t I n the same way it supplied n ot o n ly the

.

models for ecclesiastic al thought but also the Greek ,

an d L ati n cl assics The i n flue n c e of Lati n civilisi n g

.

agencies came sometimes from the north whe n Belgrad e ,

an d the districts alo n g the Danube w e r e occupied by

Hu ng ary An important Lati n i n fluence was exercised

.

by Hele n a the Fre n ch pri n cess ( d

,
the quee n .

of U rosh who sp e n t sixty four years in Serbia -

ho n oured alike by Lati n s an d Greeks Almost all her .

m u n ifi c e n c e seems to have bee n devoted to fou n di n g

or e n dowi n g churches an d schools of the Latin form ,

an d she fou n ded at least on e Lati n mo n astery on the

I b ar . I t is impossible to say how far her i n flue n c e

ext e n ded but there is n o doubt th at it w as great
,
.

All the ki n gs of the N e man yid dy n asty made ample

gifts to the Church U rosh 1 1 an d Stephe n Dush an , .

excelli n g them all The results are s e e n in the direct

.

e n cour ageme n t of architecture an d lear n i n g Church .

1 Th P t r i r h of O h id w r u u lly u d r B ul g r i
e a a c s c r a i flu e e s a n e a an n e nc e

but r
w e e t he mse lv es a lw y
a s G r k
ee s and of B yz ant ine t e nde nc ie s .
 TH E N E M AN Y I D DY N ASTY 55

buildi n g had already m ade great strides eve n u n der

Stephe n N e man ya Two m ag n i fi ce n t mo n asteries had
.

bee n erected on M ou n t Athos by Stephe n N e man ya

an d St Sav a an d these were but a type of the rich
.
,

cloisters an d churches that beg an to spri n g up every

where O f these on e of the most famous is the sm all
.
,

white marble church of th e Mother of God erected by ,

N e man ya n orth of Ras ; a n other is the cloister of

M oratc ha in Mo n te n egro f ou n ded by a pri n ce of th e ,

blood U rosh 1 1 was th e great e st of all S e rbia n e c cle si

. .

ast ical architects an d th e great cloisters of G rat c han it sa

,

an d B anj ska are his The Conve n t of D e tc han i was

.

ded ic ated by the third U rosh an d Dush an was dis ,

t in gu ish e d for his rich gifts to the churches Activity .

in church buildi n g w as accompa n ied by an outburst of

furious e n ergy i n the directio n of mo nastic lear n i n g .

Here ag ai n the great S e rbia n mo n astery on M ou n t

Athos was sp e cially disti n guish e d St Sava an d Ki n g . .

Stephe n published u n der their ow n n ames the life of

the gre at Stephe n N e manya These were but the fi rst .

examples of oth e r biographies of Serbi an rulers an d

statesmen These aga i n were succeeded by the lives
.

of th e sai n ts treatises on heresies esp e ci ally Bogomilism

, , ,

an d whole libraries of theologic al dissertatio n I n .

additio n appeared tr an sl atio n s of Greek an d Lati n

authors of the codes an d tre atises of Byza n ti n e lawyers
, ,

and of popular poetry an d rom an ce Th e literary .

medium was Pal e o Slove n e the s acred la n gu age of the

-
,

O rth o dox Church The i n spiratio n w as almost wholly

.

B yza n ti n e an d th ous an ds of works were tr an slated or

,

ad apted from the Greek But the i n dustry is beyo n d

.

all pr aise and i n dicates to the full the civilisi n g age n cy

,

at work an d the desire of Serbia n mo n ks to pro fi t from

it M oreover there is a Serbia n medi e val liter ature
.
,

of a sort which though origi n ally based on Byz an ti n e

,

models w as begi n n i n g to acquire char acteristics of its

,
5 6 TH E N E M ANYI D DYNAST Y
own I t is the s ame feeli n g of n atio n al u n ity which
.

afterw ards h ad so wo n derful a floweri n g in the cycle

of epic b all ads an d folk so n gs of Koss o vo an d M ark o
K ralj e v it c h which surpass the Border b allads of our
,

o w n story an d ch alle n ge compariso n with the V olsu n g

S aga an d the I liad But whether we j udge by the test

.

of acquired or n ative i n spiratio n s there c an be n o doubt

that the Serbi an civilisatio n was re al Th e evide n ce
.

s urvivi n g is o verwhelmi n g in its m ass . The n umerous

m an uscripts which still rem ai n are i n ferior in n umber to
th ose which are k n ow n to h ave bee n destroyed by Greek
or other h an ds Th at the mo n asteries of Serbi a c on
.

t ain e d very ma n y lear n ed m e n who h ad acquired a

high sta n d ard of culture is u n doubted O f u n iversities
.

we hear n othi n g but m an y of t h e Serbi an writers an d

,

mo n ks had st udied in Byza n tium itself There is .

every reaso n to suppose that the Turkish co n quest

destroyed a risi n g an d r apid civilis atio n an d importa n t
artistic an d cultur al developme n ts which the wealth an d

p olicy of the Serbi an ki n gs h ad fostered i n to vigorous

life I t is a s ayi n g of old about the Turk th at n o grass
.

’
grows agai n where his horse s feet have p assed , the
flowers of Serbia n art an d lear n i n g certai n ly did n ot
.
5 8 TH E S E RB I AN M ED Il EVAL E M PI R E

he had c on tr olled This pr o vi n ce w as of imp o rta n ce

.
,

because access to the Adri atic lay through the vale of

the Nare n t a which was val uable for commercial an d
,

politic al reaso n s As a result of a great de al of c on

.

fused fi ghti n g the rul e rs of Bos n ia remai n ed mast e rs

of the vale of N are n ta The struggle had i n volved the .

Serbia n s agai n in a w ar with R agus a This was alw ays .

a misfortu n e for R agus a was impreg n able to attack

,

o n the la n dside an d was supported by Ve n ice from the

sea . He n ce n o milit ary g ai n and much comm e rcial
1

loss might come from this hostility E ve n tually a peace .

w as patched up an d in after years Stephe n Dusha n

,

showed that h e appr e ciated to the full the advan

t ages of a good u n dersta n di n g with the Ragusan s E ve n .

in these days however fate seemed to have d e cided

, ,

ag ainst a developme n t of Serbi an sea power The .

ce n tres of S e rbi an stre n gth an d we alth lay ma n y miles

from the sea over lo n g and di ffi cult roads Salo n ica .

barred their way to the l Ege an ; Durazzo and V alo n a

were always coveted an d usually occupied by other
powers Th e tow n of C attaro was often in Serbia n
.

ha n ds but they n ever held the whole circle of hills

,

surrou n di n g it The n arrow e n tra n ce to that most mag

.

n ifi c e n t of harbour s would have e n abled a power which ,

possess e d the circumfere n ce of the Bocche di Cattaro to ,

build up a military n avy u n disturbed by the hostility of

n eighbouri n g powers B u t as both sides of the Bocche .
,

were n ever in the possessio n of the Serbi an s such an e n t e r ,

prise was impossible I t is rea so n ably certai n that our .

period is th e o n ly on e in Serbia n history in which such

an e n terpris e could have bee n attempt e d U rosh 1 1 had . .

w lh f Rg
1 Th e v ry g r i h f r
ea t o a usa w as e e at n t e ou t e e nt h c e nt u ry .

Th imp r e f h i w i h S r bi i h w b y
o t anc e o e r c on ne c t on t e a s s o n the f ac t t hat
sh l ed hr g l d mi f r m S r b i f
e ase t ee y rly r
o ne s o e a or a ea e nt of

d w hi h S i A r h r Ev h r k d h l f h
uc at s, c r t u ans as ec one as a t e t ot a lrv e e nue

of Q El i b h f E gl d
ue e n za et o n an .
 TH E S E RB I AN M ED I l EV AL E M PI R E 59

a dvan ced t o the Adri atic an d held som e of the Alb an ia n

coast an d the we alth an d the commerce of Serbia were
,

n ow su ffi ci e n t to mai n tai n an d create a n avy There c an

.

also be n o doubt that the Serbi an pow e r would have

bee n e q ual to the co n quest of both sides of the Bocche ,
“
an d it is a fair quest i o n whether a wi n dow in the
”
Adriatic an d the gro w th of naval power would h ave
i n volved less difli c ul ty th an the expa n s i o n of Serbi a 1 n
‘

M aced on i a an d towards the East I t is reaso n ably

.

certai n th at co n flict with R agusa and V e n ice would have

e n sued but a struggle with these states while dis astrous
, ,

whe n S e r b ia was purely a la n d power might hav e h ad

,

other results whe n she comma n ded an impreg n able base

at Cattaro an d domi n at e d th e Al ban i an co ast There is .

certai nly n o reaso n to suppos e th at th e n atio n al spirit of

th e Sl avs was ill adapted to the s e a The seam an ship
-
.

an d ent e rprise of the sailors pirates an d fi shermen

, ,

of Croatia an d Dalmatia prove cl e arly that the Jugo

Slavs have n o n atural prej u dice agai n st the s e a But .

there can also be n o doubt that Stephe n Dush an the ,

wisest head and stro n gest ha n d amo n g the Serbians ,

decided defi n itely agai n st any such policy His co n siste n t

.

aim was th at of military expa n sio n to the south an d east ,

whilst on the w e st his power was co n fi n ed to a fe w coastal

tow n s an d his policy was frie n dship with V e n ice an d
,

R agus a I f he ever sought a base of se a power it was at

.
,

Consta n ti n opl e not at Cattaro ; in the l Ege an n ot in

, ,

the Adriatic .

The reig n of U rosh which bega n with the loss of

a maritime provi n ce an d the de fi n ite ab an do n me n t of a
policy of sea power w as to e n d in great military glory
,
.

Yet eve n here the begi n n i n gs w e re i n auspicious The .

Bos n ia n s who had more th an o n ce bee n u n der S e rbia n

,

co n trol n ot o n ly e n tirely ema n cip ated themselves but

, ,

r avaged R ashka alo n g the bou n dary of the Dri n a an d ,

destroyed Serbian church e s I n diplom acy U rosh 1 1 1

. .
60 TH E S E RBIAN M ED I ZEV AL E M PIR E

proved fairly s uccessful though moderately u n scrupulous

, .

A civil w ar had broke n out in the Gr e ek Empire betwee n

the two An dron ic i gra n dfath e r an d gra n dso n By
, .

espousi n g fi rst on e side an d the n the oth e r U rosh 1 1 1 , .

co n trived to seize Prilep from both This fortress after .

,

w ards famous as the reside n ce of Marko Kralj ev itc h ,

m ade an importan t adv an ce 1 n Mac e do n ia possible .

Situ ated as it is on a t ablela n d an d formi n g the ce n tr e of

a n etwork of sm all roads it guards the B abu n a Pass and
,

o pe n s the g ate to M o n astir an d Wester n Macedo n ia .

But tho ugh Prilep was n ever agai n in Byza n ti n e h ands

, ,

i t w as o n ly a break in th e iro n chain of fortresses .

A n dro n icu s who had at l e n gth forc e d his gra n d father

i n to a mo n astery still held Proshe n ik Strumitsa an d
, , ,

Mel n ik He defe ated an attempt on the great fortress

.

of O c h rida an d with the view of further embarrassi n g

,

the Serbia n s m ade an allia n ce with the Bulg aria n Czar

M ich ael The l atter had rej ected his Serbia n bride
.
,

impriso n ed her an d married a Byza n ti n e pri n c e ss so th at

, ,

perso n al as well as popular reaso n s i n creased the e n mity

betwee n the two rac e s Th e s e co n d ki ngdom of Bulgaria
.

h ad n ever bee n as str o n g as the older on e ; it was dis

tracted by the L ati n an d Bogomile heresies an d had ,

bee n we ake n ed in co n flict with its neighbours No n e .

t h e less it is matter for consid e rable surpris e that

,

U rosh who had hitherto failed agai n st the Bos n ia n s

an d prevailed agai n st Byz an tium o n ly by craft was to ,

overcome both Bulgaria an d Byza n tium by arm s .

U rosh 1 1 1 showed n o eager n ess for th e fray and

.
,

sought to avert the war by negotiatio n I n the Middl e .

Ages c amp aig n s are seldom i n telligibl e and battles

r arely decisive but the prese n t w ar was an e xceptio n to
,

both rules The Bulgaro Byza n ti n es wer e certai n ly to

.
-

be feared n ot o n ly bec ause of their ow n forces b ut

, ,

b ec ause of assist an ce derived fr o m various Wallachi an

an d T artar auxiliaries Their pla n seems to have b e e n for
.
62 TH E S ERBIAN M ED I ZEVAL E M P I R E
’
U rosh, before whom the f oe m horses were led lade n
en s

with armour an d spoils Sudde n ly a w ail b urst from the

.

’
lips of the Bulgari an boyars The Czar s corpse was
.

carried p ast them in the processio n At their request .

the dead Cz ar was i n terred in the ch apel of St George .

at N a o rit c h in n e ar Kuma n ovo U rosh g ave ho n our

g , .

able burial to the Bulgari an de ad but refused it to their

,

allies the Tartars whos e he athe n corps e s were left to rot

,

in the su n The victor ascribed the glory of his victory

.

to God an d the gre at mo n astery of D e tc han i n e ar I pek

,

was on e memori al of the b attle A n other is still to be

.

see n in the rui n s of a sm all church which crow n s a

solitary vi n e cl ad hill n e ar K uste n dil I t was the Battle
.

A bbey of Ki n g U rosh built on the spot wh e re he pitch e d

,

his te n t the n ight b efore t he gre at victory .

The co n queri n g U rosh 1 1 1 adv an ced i n to Bulgaria

.

without fi n di n g an y s e rious oppositio n The c aptured .

Bulgaria n n obles were a n xious for freedom an d we alth

those who remai n e d free were u n able to resist him .

A n n a the Serb pri n c e ss rej ected by the de ad Czar was

, ,

called from a priso n to the thro n e of Bulg aria which she ,

was to rule until h e r son c am e of age This complete .

subj ectio n to Serbia was o n ly temporary : withi n a year

from this d ate the Serbia n Czari na was deposed by an
i n ter n al revolutio n an d a n ephew of the de ad Czar
crow n ed as Ki n g Bulgaria n i n dependence was
restored but Bulgari an great n ess was destroyed The
, .

seco n d ki ngdom of Bulgari a n ever recov ered from the

disaster of K uste n dil an d proved ofte n submissive an d
,

n ever da n gerous to its neighbours in Serbi a U rosh .

n ow tur n ed ag ai n st the Greek E mperor in M acedo n ia ,

drove him b ack withi n his ow n borders an d c aptured ,

Veles Prosh e n ik an d l sh t ip Andro n icus h astily m ade

, , .

’
pe ace an d w e n t ofl to attack his former ally Bulg ari a .

Thus m a si ngle b attle U rosh had w o n e n duri n g re n ow n ,

whil e 1 n th e space of a si ngle camp aig n he had va n quished

 TH E S ERBIA N M ED UEVAL E MP I R E 63

a Czar an d an Emperor I t would se e m that U rosh .

had do n e e n ough to e n dear him to his su bj ects But .

,

as w as commo n in Serbi an history disputes betwee n ,

father an d son u n fortunately broke out I t appears .

th at he e n vied the fame w on by the dashi n g Dusha n at

Kuste n dil an d co n templ ated setti n g him aside in favour
,

of a you n ger son There are two uttera n ces on these

.

i n cide n ts r e corded at a lat e r date by Dush an himself

,

in public docum e n ts Wick e d p e ople accordi n g to on e

.

docume n t demo n s accordi n g to a n other i n spired hi s

, ,

father to cherish desig n s agai n st his life an d Dushan ,

ascribes his rescue to G od alo n e The evide n ce is .

parti al but there seem s little doubt th at Dusha n was

,

at fi rst a n xious for peace an d was ultim ately drive n

i n to rebellio n to sav e his life He adv an ced with .

gre at rapidity from Scutari an d U rosh u n able to , ,

oppose him w as captured an d impriso n ed in a stro n g

,

castle U rosh 1 1 1 w as deposed by the Sabor an d St e phen

. .
,

Dusha n was sole mn ly crow n ed a seco n d time by the

Archbishop in the prese n ce of his assembled n obles
( 8 t h September Withi n five weeks from this
date the c aptiv e mo n arch was dead He w as sixty ye ars .

old but there is n o doubt that his death was u n expected

,

an d very little that it was a violent on e The most .

plausible expla n atio n of the whole a ff air an d that

adva n ced by on e very well i n formed chro n icler is th at
Dush an who was still u n der twe n ty was an i n strume n t
, ,

in the ha n ds of the n obles There c an be n o doubt .

1

that the mild an d pe ace lovi n g U rosh was despised by

-

the n obles as much as the hot—blooded you n g Dush an

w as admired The warlike n obles supported Dush an
.
,

whom they k n ew to be a w arrior agai n st the child pri n ce ,

1
'
gv
J ire ce k ( G ore /J rle r S e rbe n, pp 36 5—6 ) i e s an e a o ate disc ussion
. . lbr
r
of t h e diff e e nt t he 0 1 ie s Th e nic name
. k D
ush an is a ious int e p e te d v r ly r r
as
“
t h e S t an er gl r or t h e V ic t o ious
”
r
Th e st de i at ion e f e s t o
. fir r v r r
t h e st 01
y t hat h e is su
pp ose d t o h a e st an v r gl
e d h is f at h e r .
64 TH E S E R BIAN M E D UEVAL E M P IR E

whom U rosh wished to impose on them At any rate .

the feeble n ess of resista n ce c an o n ly be expl ai n ed on the

grou n d th at he had wholly lost their support There is .

s ome evide n ce th at Dush an felt remorse for the deed ,

there is n o n e th at an y of his n obles did Later .

chro n iclers rememberi n g the glories of his reig n an d

,

the cruelty of his e n d pro n ou n ce U rosh 1 1 1 to be a

,
.

m artyr an d reg ard him as a s ai n t I t is doubtful if he is

.

well q u ali fi ed to sustai n either p art u n less the chro n iclers

,

reg ard his recovery from semi bli n d n ess as a proof of

-

Divi n e favour He had rebelled agai n st his ow n father

.
,

h ad murdered his ow n brother had sought to disi n herit

,

an d possibly to murder his ow n son His previous .

char acter does n ot suggest that he would have bee n

merciful to Dush an if he had co n quered an d timidity ,

n ot piety produced those peace lovi n g te n de n cies for

-

which he su ff ered But his c areer was chequered eve n

.

for a mo n arch of medi e v al Serbia an d few have p assed

,

so quickly from such triumph to such dis aster Perh aps .

this co n tr ast struck the im agi n atio n of the people who ,

revered the m e mory of so si n gul ar a sai n t Dusha n at .

least gave full ho n our to the dead an d laid the old man
,

to rest in th at great cloister which had rise n to com

memor ate their j oi n t v ictory The peasa n ts of S e rbia
.

still remember him by th e n ame of the Ki n g of

D e tc han i .

All the B alkan states had gr e at rulers and w arriors to

show duri n g the M iddle Ages Bulgari a had its Simeo n
.

an d its S amuel Hu n g ary its Louis the Gre at W allachi a

, ,

its Vl ad Stephe n Dush an is the o n ly ruler of Serbia

.

who n eed fe ar comp ariso n with n o n e of these Yet .

there seems to be n o vit al di ff ere n ce in policy betwee n

the ideas o f Dush an an d those of his predec e ssors The .

'
developme n t of i n ter n al resources to m ake possible the
expe n ses of a brilli an t foreig n policy the hire of foreig n
,

merce n aries the exte n sio n of the S e rbia n Empir e over

,
 TH E S E RBIAN M ED I ZEV AL E M P I R E 65

me n of alie n r ac e s an d natio n alities the pursuit of ai m s ,

which were imperi al r ather th an n ati on al all these ,

te n de n cies are alre ady evide n t The o n ly re al di ff ere n ce

.

is th at Stephe n D ush an was a ge n ius an d carried out

all these ide as with a d ari n g an d e n ergy such as n o
predecessor could S how He w as at o n ce a legislat o r
.
,

a diplom atist an d a ge n eral an d m all these dep artme n ts

,

he excelled his pred e cessors Dusha n w as formed by .

n ature to impress his subj ects His body w as cast m .

a gi an t mould but his limbs were well p rop ort 1on e d

,

an d graceful His ha n dsom e face lo n g full beard an d

.
, ,

lofty stature made his appe ara n ce impr e ssive an d

sple n did on all public occas i o n s while his fiery cour age ,

an d e n ergy e n deared him to a n ation of warriors Yet .

this exter n al sple n dour served but to co n ceal the i n n er

qu alities There was n othi n g r ash or impetuous in his
.

policy or temper He seems si n cerely to have wished

.

the good of his subj ects an d to have ruled by relatively

mild an d c on e iliatory methods I n diplomacy he was .

si n g ul arly p at i e n t an d his impetuosity in w ar was the

,

calculated result of well thought —out m ilitary pl an s

-
.

O f his i n ter n al policy more will be said in a n other

place Here it is e n ough to say th at he n ever forgot
.

the domestic n eeds of his subj ects amid the clash of arms .

E very e ff ort w as made to e n cour age commerce an d

stimulate i n dustry by the importatio n of foreig n ers as
well as by diplomacy an d tre aties Saxo n s Ragusan s .
, ,

Ve n eti an s Greeks Alb an i an s all j ostled on e a n other in

, , ,

his an terooms fought side by side in his armies peopled

, ,

his cities worked his mi n es or garriso n ed his fortresses

, , .

He took p ai n s to gover n the districts he co n q uered

accordi n g to their own laws an d customs H e was .

obliged to delegate his authority eve n over the Serbi an

la n ds to semi i n depe n de n t g o ver n ors I n the seco n d
-
.

ye ar of his reig n he had to suppress a rebellio n o f

Alb an i an s an d Serbi an s in Zeta Duri n g the r e st of his .
66 TH E S ERBIAN M ED I ZEV AL E MPI R E

reig n the n obl e s were quiet e r an d seem to h av e be e n

,

kept in awe by his achieveme n ts an d prestige All .

accou n ts agree as to the we alth of the cou n try and

its i n ter n al peace during his rule an d after ages spoke
,

regretfully of th e golde n girdles an d fi ne r aime n t of th e

re i g n of D usha n Yet this tra n quillity w as somethi n g of
.

an illusio n an d his d e ath was the sig n al for the u n ity to

,
’
dissolve i n to fragme n ts D ush an s n oblest mo n um e n t
.

is his Z a kouik or Code which he published in 1 349 .

This collectio n of l aws arid customs testi fi es cle arly to his

, ,

ideals I t shows that he de fi n itely sought to pierce the

.

Slavo n ic dark n ess with Byza n ti n e light The e ff orts to

.

improve th e conditio n of the lowest cl ass of h is subj ects

and to impos e the rule of law on his turbule n t b aro n s are
equally obvious an d praiseworthy an d give him a n obler
,

renown tha n all th e sple n dours of his coro n ation or the

triumphs of his sword .

Th e diplomatic an d military aspects of his reig n ar e

i n s e parable from on e a n other Here his good fortu n e
.

correspo n ded with his ability to make use of it A s a .

diplomatist he saw both deep an d f ar and was on e of ,

the very few statesme n to p e rceive the gre at n ess of the

Turkish da n ger an d to make pl an s to avert it Both in .

diplomacy an d in war his obj ective was Co n stan ti n ople ,

an d to this purpose all other aims were subsidi ary .

Dusha n is on e of the very fe w medi e val rulers who

gives the impr e ssio n that he was ready to s acri fi ce trifli n g
co n siderations to substa n tial e n ds an d that he was usi n g
,

other stat e s an d rulers as i n strum e nts in his hands At .

the begi n n i n g of his reig n the diplomatic situatio n was

a complex on e Beyo n d the Da n ube Hu n gary u n d e r
.
, ,

its powerful Ki n g Louis the Great ( 1 342 was

soo n to threate n the n orther n border of Serbia O n the .

west an d m the south the rulers of Bos n i a were i n cre asi n g

in power an d had n ot o n ly attacked from the Dri n a 1 n
,

the pr e vious reig n but had wrested the val e of the

,
 TH E S E RBIAN M E D IZEV AL E M PI RE 67

Nare n ta from S e rbia Dusha n seems to h ave be e n

.

quite clear that a co n quest of either Bos n i an or Hu n gari an

territory was n ot worth the mo n ey or the me n His .

policy towards b oth was therefore in the military sense

defe n sive in the diplomatic se n se aggressive He left
, .

as few troops as possible to mai n t ai n his n orth an d west

borders an d sought by diplomatic mea n s to embarrass
,

his enemi e s Ragusa was threat e n ed by the co ast al

.

adva n c e of the Bos n ia n s an d V e n ice her suzerai n w as

,

al armed by the n aval ambitio n s of Louis the Gre at wh o ,

sought to co n quer the ki n gdom of Naples an d thus to

become a great power on both sides of the Adriatic .

Steph e n used his advan tage with much skill an d showed ,

n o n e of that mea n j e alousy by which his predecessors

had formerly provoked Rag usa Stag n o the on e S e rbia n

.
,

port remai n i n g n orth of Ragusa was ceded to th at ,

republic in the w e ll j ust ifi e d assura n ce that it would

-

stre n gthe n her frie n dship to himself an d i n crease her

opposit i on to the Bos n ia n s He reaped his
reward for in the war which broke out with Hu n g ary
,

an d Bosnia t w o years later the Ra usan s supported

g
Dusha n an d did much to bri n g the w ar to a close .

Some y e ars afterwards Dusha n dext e rously detached

Bos n ia from Hu ng ary an d supported Ve n ice in her
,

oppositio n to the N e apolita n desig n s of L ouis the Gre at .

He played off on e e n emy agai n st the other with gre at

skill an d fi n ally m e diated b e tw ee n V e n ic e and Hu n gary
,

in 1 348 .

The o n ly occasio n on which Dusha n led a larg e army

in perso n agai n st Bos n ia was in 1 35 0 whe n it seemed ,

that Ragusa depopulated by the pl ague m ight l ose h e r

, ,

hold on the coast Stephe n captured the mouth of the

.

Nar e nta and was pr e par i ng furth e r operations whe n h e

,

was recall e d to Macedo n ia by a Byzanti n e i n v asi on The .

demo n stratio n was successful and was aided by the ,

ben e volent neutrality of V e n ic e O n this as on sev e ral

.
,
68 TH E S E RBIAN M ED Il EV AL E MP IR E

other occ asio n s D usha n tried to i n duce the Ve n etia n s

,

to throw in their lot with him Though seldom se c ur

.

in g them as an active ally Dusha n alw ays relied on them

,

for tr an sport an d protectio n of his tr ade in the A dri atic .

His rel ati on s with Ve n ice rem ai n ed excelle n t an d she ,

e n rolled him his q uee n an d his son in the golde n book

, ,

of her citize n s I n the last w ar with Hu n gary ( 1 35 4— 5 5 )

.

Dush an had the adva n t age in the n orth an d for the ,

seco n d time expelled Louis from Belgrade Ve n ice .

supported him in th e south where th ough other , ,

D almati an tow n s were protected Clissa fell i n to the

,

h an ds of the Hu n gari an Ki ng after the de ath of Dusha n

Thus on the whole D usha n had attai n ed his
e n ds by diplom acy V e n ice an d R agusa did n ot exh aust
.

the list of his alli e s ; the petty rulers of the Adriatic

coast an d the Archduke of Au stria were a l so his frie n ds .

E ve n the E mperor Ch arles W se n t a letter to Dush an

.

“ ”
addressi n g him as dearest brother an d welcomi n g ,

him n ot o n ly as a brother ruler but as on e who shared

,
’
in the s am e n oble Slavo n ic to n gue e i usoe m uobzl zs
’ '

(
sloo i e z idioma t is
'

Ch arles W was a patriotic .

Bohemi an who believed in the sublimity of th at s ame

,
’
n oble speech ( e iuroe m generosoe linguae
an d set an early ex ample followed by other medi e val
,

Slavo n ic rulers of cl aimi n g commu n ity of thought an d

,

sympathy with on e an other on the grou n d of blood or

l an gu age.

The w ars with Bos n ia an d Hu n gary were but so

’
m an y distractio n s from the m ai n obj ects of D u shan s
ambiti on — the adva n ce in Alb an i a an d Thess aly which ,

w as to prove the base for oper atio n s agai n st Byz an tium .

I t m arks the wise diplomacy of Dusha n th at he m ade n o

attempt to restore direct Serbi an rule in Bulg ari a whe n
the Serbi an Cz ari n a w as deposed by a rev olutio n in
favour o f a n ative Bulg ari an pri n ce Joh n A lex an der
,

So f ar from i n terferi n g he m arrie d the n e w

,
70 TH E S E RB I AN M ED UEVAL E MPI RE

Byz an ti n e ge n er al in his first c amp aign agai n st the Greek

E mpire He eve n tu ally m ade peace with Andro n icus
.

restored some of his conquests but apparently retai n ed

,

Prilep an d Strumits a D uri n g the n ext few ye ars

.

D ush an was occupied by aff airs in the west while the ,

E mper o r A n dr on icus by a desperate e ff o rt co n quered

Thess aly Alb an ia an d E pirus O n his de ath in 1 341 a
, ,
.

bro ad b an d of Byz an ti n e territory stretched from

Thess alo n ic a t o the Alb an i an co ast an d Dush an at o n ce ,

prep ared t o t ake adv an tage of the c on fusio n occ asio n ed

by th at eve n t Th e t w o cl aim an ts to the thro n e were
.

Joh n P al e ologus the i n fan t son of A n dro n icus an d Joh n

, ,

C an t ac uz e n u s who had bee n Prime M i n ister w as n ow

, ,

Rege n t an d aimed at bei n g E mperor H is policy was .

purely perso n al an d his tre ache ry was to be disastrous

,

to Byz an tium C an tac uz e n u s could n ot restr ai n his

.

ambitio n was compelled to fly from Co n sta n ti n ople an d

, ,

r aised his rebellious sta n d ard at D imot ic a The dis .

t urb an c e s an d disputes occ asio n ed by this revolt distracted

the E mpire f or fourtee n years and ope n ed the door to
Turkish an d Serbia n aggress i o n .

The n ews of the civil w ar in the E mpire aroused

e n emies on all sides Stephe n D ush an adva n ced
.

ag ai n st Vode n a the key to S alo n ic a ; the Bulgari an s

,

adv an ced on the n orth ; the Alba n i an s arose in their

ow n land an d in Thessaly the Turks plu n dered the
coasts . C an t ac uz e n us with o n ly 2 00 0 m e n sought
, ,

refuge with Dusha n an d w as well received by him A .

p art i t i on tre aty w as ai range d betwee n them The .

terms are u n certai n all we k n ow is that C an tac uz e n us

lies ab out them in his memoirs I n 1 342 the allies .

adv an ced i n to Greek territory Dush an seized V ode n a

,

an d M el n ik ,
C an t ac uz e n u s failed before Serres where ,

a pl ague swept aw ay his Serbia n auxili aries an d reduced

his ow n foll owers to 5 0 0 me n I n the n ext ye ar a .

s e co n d failure before Serres i n duced Dush an to cast off

 TH E S E R BIAN M E D I ZEV AL EM P I R E 7 1

C an tac uz e n us an d m ake peace with the Dow ager

E mpress .The rebel C an tac uz e n us fl d to Thrace an d e
to the Turkish E mir of Smyr n a , an d n ext ye ar gave
Dush an a very u n ple as an t i n tr oductio n to his n e w allies .

Three thousa n d Turkish s ailors worsted at sea by the ,

Ve n eti an s were pursued by the Serbia n heavy cav alry

, .

At S t e f an ian a betwee n Salo n ica an d Se rres the seame n

, ,

t ur n ed at b ay on a hill caught the mailed horseme n in

,

fla n k an d i n flicted heavy losses on them But in spite .

,

of these checks the ge n eral advan ce of Serbia was un

,

mist ak able M acedo n i a was e n tirely co n quered an d the

.
,

gre at fortress of O c h rida whose mag n i fi ce n t rui n s still

,

overlook the blue waters of the great lake bec ame ,

Serbi an V alo n a an d Berat were c aptured an d fi nally

.
,

the importan t city of Serres at last surre n dered its keys

to the Serbi an co n queror Thus in four years
D usha n had exte n ded his power from west to east an d
co n quer e d a co n ti n uous b an d of territory i n cludi n g ,

Alba n ia an d M acedo n i a an d stretchi n g beyo n d Serres .

The organ isatio n of the n e w l an ds was made on states

ma nlike li n es Serbi an gover n ors w e re placed i n
.

supreme authority but the privileges an d cu stoms of the

,

newly ac q uired territories were el abor ately co n fi rmed by

red se aled ch arters
-
There is evide n ce that Dus han
.

was somewh at hostile to the Greeks who w e re at this ,

time more active as admi n istr ators tha n at an y period

of Byz an ti n e history I t is certai n that in m ost of the
.

n ewly w on l an ds there w as a pro Greek or pro -

Byz an ti n e p arty an d it w as re aso n able to exclude

,

Greeks from the imp ortan t posts But if Greek ofli c ial s .

were n ot usu ally e n c ouraged Gr e ek subj ects were ,

seldom oppressed The Byz an ti n es of this age were

.

we ak an d r ap acious the Serbi an ruler w as rich an d

,
’
stro n g There c an be n o doubt that D ushan s rule
.

t axed the territories less an d prot e cted them more th an

the Byza n tines had do n e As a pr e cautio n ary m e asure
.
72 TH E S E RB IAN M ED I EEVAL E M P I R E

Dusha n rep aired an d improved the w alls of all stro n g

places an d used Serbi an garriso n s to defe n d them
,
.

The aim of Dush an w as alre ady cle ar — h e w as tryi n g

to fou n d a cosmopolita n e m pire of the Byza n ti n e type ,

based on a ce n tral power c on trolli n g an d admi n isteri n g

a medley of races an d n atio n alities All b arb aric rulers .

from Charlem ag n e d ow n w ards had aspired to the

I mperial title an d it h ad bee n assumed in the E ast more
,

readily th an in the West The rulers of B ulg aria had .

lo n g c alled themsel ves Cz ars an d Dush an who was as , ,

powerful as an y Bulgari an ruler had ever bee n w as ,

j usti fi ed in assumi n g the s ame prou d title But the .

crisis of the Byza n ti n e E mpire an d the ambiti on s of

Dusha n himself m ade his cl aim to the I mperial title of
gre at sig n i fi c an ce at this mome n t There c an be no .

doubt th at D ush an reg arded himself as n ot o n ly a

cl aima n t to the I mperi al title but as a successor to the ,

Byza n ti n e thro n e He had already publicly described .

himself as ruler of Serbs an d R om an s ( Le Greeks ) an d .

,

ki n g an d autocr at of Serbia an d Roum an ia O n E aster .

Su n d ay ( 1 6 th April 1 346 ) the Serbo Rom an E mpire was -

form ally i n augurated by the Serbia n S abor or Assembly .

1
I n the prese n ce of his S abor two Patri archs on e of , ,

Serbi a an d the other of Bulg ari a set the crow n of E mpire ,

o n the brows of the gre at Serbi an co n queror To .

gether with the E mperor his co n sort Hele n a w as

crow n ed as Empress an d his son U rosh as Ki n g of
Serbia The sce n e was mag n i fi ce n t an d the ambass ad ors
.
,

from R agusa the Serbia n Greek an d Alba n ia n n obles

, , , ,

the Greek Bulgari an an d Serbia n abbots an d bishops

, , ,

S r bi
1 e ut h or it i
an a lp th of t h i
es or o
ac eti t t h S r bi
e sc e ne s c na on a e e an

m di v l
e e
piat l f caS k p lj e
a
( U k u
ob ) F i l y
o d G ibb h v g iv
s . n a an on s a e en

so m r e f
e asonu
pp i g it t h v b
or s t S rr
os n Th l tt r
o a e een a e es . e a e , as a

w h lly G r k it y mig ht b d m d m r uit bl t t h I mp r i l

o ee c , e ee e o e s a e o e e a

i ug r t i
na u a It i p
on . ibl th t th r si oss fu i
e b tw a tw e e s a c on s on e een o

r m i d t h t D u h w pro l im d E mp r r t S rr i 345
ce e on e s an a s an as c a e e o a e es n 1

and c o rw ne d at S k plj e i
o n 1
346 .
 TH E S E RB IAN MED I ZEVAL E M P I R E 73

formed a medley of di ff ere n t races testifyi n g to the

exte n t of his rule an d power Th at Easter Su n d ay .

which procl aimed Dush an the E mperor of Serbs an d of

Roman s is the pr oudest mome n t in Serbi an history .

The organ is atio n of his co n q uests had alre ady bee n

made by Dush an but his n e w title required ch an ges in
,

the titles an d r an k of h is offi ci als A n E mperor w as .

i n complete without a spiritu al equ al an d accordi n gly the ,

Archbishop of I pek w as tr an sformed i n to a P atri arch a ,

title which implied autoceph alous rights I n imit atio n .

of t he Greek E mpire he distributed empty titles amo n g

his Z up an s with a lavish h an d The highest ra n k th at .
,

of ki n g w as bestowed on his son the n ext th at of desp ot

, , , ,

on three rulers that of C e sar on two rulers of the

,

Souther n M arches while the pompous Byza n ti n e title of

,

S e b ast oc rat w as freely dispe n sed The I mperi al purpose .

an d title was fou n de d o n a fi rmer b asis by the Z ak on ik

or Code of Laws which was issued three ye ars l ater an d ,

which aimed at combi n i n g the best eleme n ts of

Byza n ti n e law with those of Serb n atio n al custom .

’
The we alth an d power show n at D ushan s coro n atio n
may be co n trasted in an i n ter e sti n g fashio n with that
with which the despicable Joh n C an tac uz e n us sought to
imit ate him a ye ar later at Co n stan ti n ople The .
1

Byz an ti n e histori an spe aks co n te m ptuously of a crow n

of gilded le ather an d j ewels of coloured gl ass an d of ,

a b an quet where his admirers dr an k to the pi n chbeck

E mperor in be akers of t in an d le ad The sple n dour of .

’
D ushan s coro n ati o n w as u n ivers ally ack n owledged the
fair raime n t the cloth of gold the purple an d the j ewels
, , ,

the sple n dour an d pr ofusi on of his gifts to his sup

porters — all these bec ame a tr aditio n eve n in his ow n age .

The co n tr ast was a re al on e Dusha n with his well paid

.
-

1 C ant ac uz e nus w as t wi ce c orw ne d ( 2 1 3t May at A drianopl e,

p r b b ly
o a in imit at ion of Du h
s an, an d F e b . 1
347, af te r his t r i mph
u ant

e nt ry C
int o onstant inop e l .
74 TH E S ER B I AN M ED I ZEV AL E M P I RE

merce n aries an d his well gover n ed territory w as f ar-

superior in stre n gth to the ba n krupt Greek E mpire ,

distr acted by civil w ar withi n an d by e n emies without .

There w as the same di ff ere n ce in perso nal ch ar acter

bet w ee n the two rulers — C an tac uz e n u s i n trigui n g , ,

cr afty but i n compete n t ; Dusha n f ar seei n g wise an d

, ,
-
, ,

cour ageous .

Though C an tac uz e n us was perso n ally despic able the ,

Turkish allies on whom he relied were n ot as b oth he ,

an d Dush an speedily discovered After v ai n ly tryi n g

.

to c o n cili ate Dush an C an t ac uz e n us i n duced a Turkish

,

host to att ack the Serbi an fr on tier The Turks got out .

of h an d plu n dered an d r obbed the Greek popul atio n

, ,

whom C an tac uz e n us wished to co n cili ate i n s ulted the ,

B yz an ti n e le aders an d the n retur n ed to Asia he avy with

,

their spoils Dush an w as busy elsewhere on the

.

Bos n i an fro n t I n 1 348 the ye ar of the Black Death

.
,

in the East Dush an himself led his army to J an i n a an d

,

co n q uered the gre at stro n ghold of E pirus The n by .

r apid p ar allel adv an ces on both west an d east coasts

he occupied all Norther n Greece from Arta to Volo .

A ll the B alk an l an ds except Thr ace the Pelop on n ese

, , ,

an d the districts rou n d Dur azzo S alo n ic a an d B yz an

, ,

tium were n ow u n der the co n trol o r in the alli an ce of

,

D ush an His ever faithful frie n ds R agusa an d Ve n ice

.
-
, ,

h aste n ed to co n gr atul ate the I mp e ra tor R ase iue e t

’

R omuuzoe on his n e w co n quests .

The i n structi on s of Dush an to his amb ass ador at

Ve n ice ( 1 35 0 ) show very cle arly the scope of his am
bitio n s He form ally prop osed an o ff e n sive alli an ce
.

betwee n Ve n ice an d himself for the co n q uest of C o n

st an t in o l e The child E mperor w as to be freed fr o m
p .

C an t ac u z e n u s who h ad tre acherously impris on ed him

, ,

Co n stan ti n ople w as to be c aptured by the aid o f the

Ve n eti an fleet an d the R epublic w as to be rew arded by
,

the Provi n ce of E piru s an d by commerci al privi leges i n

 TH E S E RBI AN M ED I l EV AL E M P I R E 75

Co n stan ti n ople The cautious diplom acy of the Re

.

public rej ected this dazzli n g o ff e r I n 1 35 0 as has .

,

already bee n n arr ated Dush an c ame himself with a gre at

,

host to the mouth of the N are n t a where he hoped to ,

crush the Bos n i an s an d to impress V e n ice with his

power C an t ac uz e n us promptly seized the opportu n ity
.

’
of Dush an s abse n ce to i n v ade the e aster n bou n d ary of
the Serbia n territory with his T u rkish allies Th e .

oper atio n s were startli n gly successful Verri a an d .

Vode n a fell an d the i n v asio n i n to Thess aly w as o n ly

,

checked with difli c ul ty Then Stephe n D ush an s howed

.

himself a gre at c apt ai n Hurryi n g b ack from B o s n i a

.
,

he brought a sm all army by forced m arches right up t o

the g ates of S alo n ic a The p o i n t of this m asterly move
.

w as that the burghers of S alo n ic a had a sturdy in de p e n d

e n ce of their own hated C an tac uz e n us an d had more
, ,

tha n o n ce co n sidered deliveri n g up their city to Dush an .

C an tac uz e n u s hurried to S alo n ic a an d i n terviewed

Dusha n outsid e th e walls Th e accou n t of the n e got ia
.

tio n given by Can tac uz e n us is ti n ged with his usu al

me n d acity an d the fact that he accuses Dush an of
,

duplicity is n ot n ecess arily ag ai n st th at ruler N e got ia .

tio n s were ab ando ned C an t ac uz e n us s ailed b ack t o

,

Co n stan ti n ople an d Dush an tur n ed rou n d an d stormed

,

Vode n a about the New Year The youthful

Joh n P al e ologus rem ai n ed in S al on ic a an d D ush an ,

sought to ally himsel f with him ag ai n st C an tac uz e n u s .

W he n civil w ar agai n broke out betwee n the Byz an ti n e

rulers in 1 35 2 Joh n P al e ol ogus bei n g s ou n dly be ate n
, , ,

sought help from Dush an Both Serbi an an d Bulg ari an.

levies were se n t to his aid o n ly to su ff er a defe at o f

,

gre at importan ce A Turkish force of c av alry u n de r

.

S uleim an se n t t o assist C an tac uz e n u s at Adri an ople

fell in with a m ixed Pale ologit e force on the w ay ,

co n sisti n g of Greeks with Serbi an an d Bulgar he av y

cav alry The o n set w as u n expected an d the Turkish
.
,
76 TH E S E RBI AN M ED I ZEVAL E MP I R E

light horseme n w on a victory The Serbia n s su ff ered

.

t h e severest losses but a rem n a n t u n der their le ader

,

pierced the Turkish ra n ks an d escaped I t was the .

seco n d time Serbia n forces had bee n defeated by the

Turks This disaster is usually co n sidered an eve n t of
.

world historic al importa n ce I t is n ot e asy to u n der

-
.

stan d why though the appe ar an ce of the Turks in

,

E urope is u n questio n ably the most mome n tou s fact in

moder n B alk an history But this w as n ot their first
.

defe at of Christi an arm s an d their appe ar an ce must

,

be held to d ate either from the e arlier i n vitatio n of

C an t ac uz e n u s or from the Serbi an reverse in I 343 .

Their fi rst de fi n ite establishment in E u rope d ates from

1 35 4 whe n Suleima n occupied an d forti fi ed Gallipoli
, ,

an d thus secured co n trol of the str aits which would

e n able h im to tra n sport troops from Asia to Europe .

The Easter n world as a whole w as now begi n n i n g

to re alise th at Turkish d an ger which Dusha n h ad
cert ai n ly foresee n for t e n ye ars The feeble Ca n ta.

c uz e n u s could n ot co n trol his formidable auxiliaries ,

w h o plu n dered at will an d fi n ally occupied a poi n t of

such import an ce as G allipoli Gree ks Bulg ars an d
.
, ,

Ve n eti an s all saw the d an ger Dusha n who had at .

,

le n gth bee n excommu n ic ated by the Byz an ti n e Patri arch

f or assumi ng the I mperi al title n ow tur n ed to the Pope
,

f or s an ctio n an d assist an ce He desired the Pope to

.

appoi n t a Capt ai n of Christe n dom ag ai n st the Turks .

Some ye ars before Stephe n had secretly i n si n uated that

,

he w as himself willi n g to revert to Rome This promise .

w as re n ewed in 1 35 4 .I n reply the Pope at A vig n o n

showed much prude n ce H e received his mess age with
.

gre at j oy an d bade him God speed in his e n terprise

-
.

I t is curious t o see that the Pope addresses him o n ly

as Re x Ra rc i ue perh aps in order to e n force the c on
,

versio n o f the Serbi an s to R ome by refusi n g the title

of I mpe ra t or u n til that w as public an d ack n owledged .
78 TH E S E RBIAN M ED I ZEV AL E M PI R E

alli an c e Yet it is certain that S e r b ia n rul e in Con

.

st an t in 0 l e would have
p introduced a ne w e l eme n t of

disse n si on in the E mpire which might h ave destroyed ,

an
y other adv an t age Th e Serbia n gover n me n t of alie n
.

r aces though mild an d j ust u n der Dush an does n ot

, ,

seem to have r e co n ciled them There was a disl oy al .

Greek party even in Skoplj e which had bee n u n der ,

Serbia for two ge n erat i o n s an d th e e asy surr e n der of

,

V ode n a an d Verri a in 1 35 0 poi n ts to Greek treachery

withi n the w alls Agai n the whole f abric of the Serbi an
.

’
state crumbled to p i eces almost immediately 0 11 D usha n s
death These c on sideratio n s suggest that a Serbia n
.

o ccup atio n of Co n st an ti n ople would have had n o per

m an e n t results u n der leaders less powerful an d skilled

th an Dush an Yet ther e is always an el e ment of un
.

certai n ty in history which gives fasci n atio n to a problem

of this ki n d Popul ar opi n io n in Serbia faste n ed on it
.

with u n erri n g i n sti n ct Dusha n was still in the prime of

.

life fully a d oze n years you n g e r tha n his father whe n

,

he l e d the Serbs to victory at Kfi st e n dil He was .

g atheri n g a m ighty host to capture th e Byza n ti n e ‘

c apit al an d rout the armies of I sl am Fortu n e had .

smiled on him as yet an d seemed to promise him ,

further triumphs Yet as the te n der mela n choly of

.
,

the old folk so n g records

-
,

W h t h I mp r i l it y w
en e ig h e a c as n

Th th D y of D oom f ou d D u h
en e a n s an .

In truth the Day of Doom was n e ar for m e di e val

Ser b ia as well as f or h e r most spl e ndid monarch .
 A G L A N E AT S E RB I A N
C ME D IE VAL S OCIETY

TH E reaso n s for th e collapse of th e imposi ng Serbi an

E mpire , o n ly thirty years after its gre atest glory ,

are both n ear an d f ar to se e k O bvious are th e .

milit ary an d the religious caus e s The Serbia n E mpire

.

was exposed to attack fro m Hu n gary in the n orth ,

from Ve n ice in the west from the Byz an ti n es Bulg ars

, , ,

an d Turks in the sou th E v e n the most skilful

.

diplom acy could hardly prevent an e n emy on both fro n t

an d rear . The e n mity of Rome sep arated Serbia from
the Croats Magyars an d Bos n ia n s an d the Imperial
, ,

prete n sio n s of Stephe n Dusha n had estr an ged B yz an

tium Fi n ally the Serbia n s wer e co n fro n ted by the
.

Turks the on e power in the fourteenth ce n tury which

,

re ally p o ssessed a professio n al army These expl an a .

tio n s do n ot however wholly su ffi ce The Serbs have

, ,
.

alw ays b e e n gre at warriors an d their u n fortu n ate situation

,

betwee n upper an d lower millsto n es was n o w orse th an

that of some other medi e val peoples To t ake two .

i n stan ces the Br an de n burgers ( afterw ards the Prussi an s )

,

an d the Austria n s survived an d bec ame great states

u n der co n ditio n s which were hardly less difli c ul t I t .

is worth n oti n g that these two were Teuto n ic states

with a L ati n civilisatio n an d th at n o m edi e v al Souther n
,

Sl av ki n gd om states ultim ately survived O f the N o rther n .

Slav ki n gdom s Bohemi a an d M oravia were absorbed

,

by A ustri a ; Pola n d fell i n to an archy an d bec ame the ,

79
80 S E RB I AN M ED I E VAL S O CI ETY
prey of other n atio n s Russi a the o n ly ultim ate sur
.
,

v iv o r am on g Sl av n ati on s w as origi n ally fou n ded an d

,

ruled by a Sc an di navi an dy n asty an d olig archy an d ,

has bee n ruled by foreig n an d bure aucr atic ide as ever

si n ce u n til the day whe n the P artitio n of Pol an d was
,

reversed an d Petersburg re n amed Petr ograd Lord .

Acto n solved the pr oblem simply by de n yi n g th at the

Sl avs as a race possessed politic al ability This is .

putti n g the case with too gre at stre n gth but there seem s ,

to be n o d oubt th at the soci al i n stitutio n s of the Slavs

hi n dered politic al u n ity an d military e ffi cie n cy All .
.

e arly writers represe n t the Slav rac e s as fi erce an d brav e

warriors but as we ak an d disorga n is e d in the political
,

se n se ; an d it is at l e ast si n gular th at the Bulgars who ,

were crossed with a Tartar strai n were the fi rst Souther n ,

Sl avo n ic r ace to develop politic al u n ity an d th e military

e fli c ie n c
y which resulted from it .

To say th at Sl avo n ic i n stitutio n s are i n ferior to those

of the West is like s ayi n g th at Buddhism is i n fe rior to
Wester n Christi an ity The stateme n t in either case
.

deals o nly with the strictly practic al side of i n stitutio n s ,

an d ig n ores their ide al v alues As a milit ary age n cy

.

Christi an ity has beate n B u ddhism j ust as the Teut on ic ,

polity be at the Slavo n ic But this stateme n t does n ot

.

mea n th at e arly Serbi an i n stitutio n s do n ot possess ma n y

eleme n ts of i n terest especi ally i n the ide als which they
,

prese n t The Serbi an l aws deali n g with the relatio n s

.

of man an d wife attr acted the admiratio n of M aitla n d ,

the Serbi an attempt to r aise the status of the serf was

a most striki n g hum an itari an e ff ort while the adapta ,
.

tio n s of the Byz an ti n e code were e n lighte n ed attempts

to improve Slavo n ic law Sl avo n ic politic al i n stitutio n s
.
,

like Slavo n ic music an d poetry have an i n terest an d ,

origi n ality that I s all their ow n .

The u n it of soci al an d politic al orga n isatio n is alw ays

th e famil y an d th e Serb family system had m an y di ff e r
,
 S ERB IAN M ED I E VA L SO CI ET Y 81

e n ce s from th at of the Lati n an d Teuto n ic peoples .

Amo n g the latter the so called patri archal system existed

-
,

the father of the family havi n g supreme pow e rs e xte n d

in g to life an d death over the rest of the family The .

importa n ce of this system lay in the fact that it was

rel atively adv an c e d that it trai n ed the m e mbers of the
,

family to the doctri n es of military obedi e n ce an d ,

e n abled the family u n it to be easily absorbed in the cla n ,

in the tribe an d eve n tually in the n ation

,
By the .

elev e n th ce n tury the West E uropea n p e opl e s had already

got f ar beyo n d the trib al stage They had adopted the .

feud al system u n der which baro n s agreed to raise

,

n umbers of tr 00 ps in eve n t of w ar in retur n for la n d

gra n ted them by the Crow n E ve n the feud al u n it w as.

a gre at adva n ce on cl an tribe or p at rI arc hal family but

, ,

its da n ger lay in the fact th at feud al baro n s might become

i n depe n de n t sovereig n s in their ow n territory This .

t e nde n cy w as sharply checked whe rever stro n g ki ngs

arose an d in the fourtee n th ce n tury stro n g rulers b ega n
,

to develop somethi n g like n atio n s in Fra n ce E n gla n d , ,

Hu n gary an d Spai n E ve n in Germa n y where the

,
.
,

emperors were weak an d feudal a n archy prevail e d states ,

like Au st ria B ran de n b urg an d B avaria developed adva n ced

, ,

political org an is atio n s an d became mi n iature n atio n s with

,

legal political an d military sta ndards of their ow n To

, , .

all this there w as n o parallel in th e S e rbia n la n ds for ,

political culture was still primitive .

The p atriarchal society proved itself a good fighti n g

orga n is atio n wherever it existed in E urope especi ally in ,
’
Rome where the father s authority was gre ater tha n in
,

an
y other k n ow n l an d But the patriarchal
. st age is a

rel atively l ate developme n t an d the Serb society shows

,

tr aces of a much e arlier u n it tha n the p atri arch al Serbi an .

i n stitutio n s certai n ly show traces of that very early orga n

isat ion the m atriarch ate where power rested more in the
,

ha n ds of mothers tha n of fath e rs We k n ow littl e mor e .

6
 SERB I AN ME D IE VA L S O C IET Y
tha n th at the most an cie n t Sl av tribes were loosely
orga n is e d I t is tempti n g to regard the earliest Serb tribe
.

as an associatio n of Z adrugas or e nlarged families This .

view would gre atly sim p lify m atters but u n fortu n ately the ,

evide n ce does n ot lead u s to suppose that th e Z adruga is

an aborigi n al I n stitutio n I t is primitive but by n o mea n s .
,

p
rehistoric There is.eve n some evide n ce to show th at

i t did n ot deve l op till the e arly M iddle Ages The n the .

impositio n of t axati o n by family or by hut or h ouse led t o

the developme n t o f imm oder ately large families an d
houses This organ is atio n of each family was k n ow n as
.

1
the Z adruga .

Wh atever the real origi n of the Zadruga an d it is ,

almost certai n ly n ot an extremely early on e its import ,

a n ce on the developme n t of Serbi an society an d politics

ca n n ot be overr at e d Mor e ov e r the di ff ere n ces from the
.
,

patri arch al families in the West are extr aordi n arily strik
in g . I n the Zadrug a the u n it of the S e rb family is in ,

on e se n se hardly th e father
,
At an y rate on e i n dividu al .

had n ot the s ame despotic authority as in the West ; the

whole family or commu n ity shared it I t was r ather a .

loose primitive system b adly de fi n ed an d qu e erly c on ,

structed O n e c an still get a good idea of it in some

.

p arts of O ld Serbi a to day You c an see there -

.

vast sh apeless buildi n gs co n sisti n g of a n umber of rooms ,

an d lea n tos added o n to a ce n tr al cottage co n tai n i n g in

-
,

al l some sixty or seve n ty perso n s housed u n der o n e roo f .

This is the Z adrug a or family As each son marries he ,

.

builds a n e w room an d the total buildi n g represe n ts a

,

primitive commu n al house I t is n ow o n ly a survival .

,

but it represe n ts the medi e val Serb system The .

”
eldest m ale was P ater famili as but his authority was ,

n ot u n q uestio n ed : he was se n ior part n er with the other

males an d the wome n ofte n h ad a sh are in the settleme n t

,

F o Z dr ug
i

1 r id J i E k G b d S b
a a, '
v e 8—
3 42 H b l i o
re e ,
e re . er er e n, 1 r e an

Vit c h , Se rbian Pe op le , 1 2 —3, 1 902 .

 S E RBIAN M E D I E VA L S O CI ET Y 83

of importa n t questions The whole system was f ar

.

more primitive tha n the pat e rnal system of the West .

I t was much m ore democratic an d therefore much more

,

di ffi cult to cha n g e or to m ake progressive I n primitive .

times democratic rul e alw ays me an s co n serv atism for ,

the d ari n g few alo n e can be e n terprisi n g As a military .

system too the Zadruga was n ot as good as the pater n al

, , ,

for absolute obedi e n ce could n ot be e n forced As a .

system for preservi n g the s an ctity of the h earth the ,

s acred n ess of home purity an d moral discipli n e in a

, ,

rel atively large circle the Zadruga h ad a gre at adv an t age

, .

So n gs were su n g an d stories told in the prese n ce of all

rou n d the he arth an d customs were e n forced by the
,

mor al weight o f the whole family Thus though it .

,

i nj ured n ati on al u n ity in on e w ay by detracti n g from

military e ffi cie n cy the Z adruga pres e rved it in an other
, .

But for the Z adruga th e Serbian arm ies might n ot h ave

bee n beate n at Kossovo Y e t but for the Zadruga the
.

Serb lege n ds of n atio n al unity an d the l on gi n g for

ve n gea n ce for Kossovo could n ot have been preserved as
a livi n g an d uplifti n g force for centuries .

A Zadruga in early times seem s to have co n sisted of

o nly thirty or forty memb e rs ; l ater it sometimes had
over a hu n dred members A group of several Z adrugas
.

form e d a Rod an d a n um b er of Ro ds formed a Pl e me

,

or cla n The territory i n habited by the Ple me was

.

c alled a Z upa an d the Z up an or head was elected by

,

the Ple m e usu ally from the s ame family The primitive
, .

democr atic i de a applied to cl an as well as to family an d ,

the Z u p an w as forced to rule in co n sult atio n with a

S abor or Assembly of the heads of the R ods The .

E mperor C o n st an ti n e Porp hyroge n e t u s ( 9 5 3) disti n

u i she d the Serbs from other Sl avs by s ayi n g th at they
g
had n o pri n ces o r ki n gs o n ly Z up an s o r elected
,
”
C hieft ai n s . The C hieftai n s were elected an d c on
trolled by the Assembly o f free warriors for the esse n ti al
,
84 S E RB I AN M ED I E V AL S O CI ETY
idea of the Serb w as an d i n deed still is the suprem acy of
, ,

the assembly or the commu n ity r ather th an the i n dividu al .

Subj ect to the existe n ce of a n umber of slaves there w as ,

democratic eq uality am o n g freeme n U n fortu n ately

.
,

democratic e q u ality which is a possible reality for the

,

moder n world w as an impossible an archy in the M iddle

,

A g es.

The fi rst ch an ges came from co n tact with the Easter n

E mpire especi ally in the te n th an d eleve n th ce n t u ries
, .

Byza n ti n e culture was the n the most adv an ced in E urope ,

an d the I mperi al admi n istr ators h ad the best system of

l aw in the world h ad a scie n ti fi c if harsh system of

,

tax atio n an d u n derstood the n eeds of i n dustri al an d

,

urba n commu n itie s Co n trast with this the Serb family

.

an d cla n system rude primitive an d almost wholly

, , ,

agricultur al . Th e S e rbs w e re n e ver wholly u n der

Byza n ti n e domi n atio n but they were usual ly u n der the
i n flue n ce of their ideas Whe n ever a stro n g civili sed
.

st ate co n trols a b arbaric on e it tries to erect a system of

t ax atio n an d for this purpose co n ce n trates fi sc al authority
,

by m aki n g Chieftai n s respo n sible for the tribute de

man de d Thus it was in I n dia whe n th e British cam e
.
,

an d in Zeta an d R ashka wh e n the Byz an ti n es c ame .

Co n stan ti n e Porp hyroge n e tus testi fi es to this fact an d ,

decl ares that the E mperor Basil 1 ( d 886 ) remodelled . .

the Slav trib al orga n is atio n The Z upans of the tribes

.

h ad hithe rto bee n co n trolled an d chose n by the Assembly

of free w arriors I n ste ad of this system B asil i n duced
.
,

the Serbs to choose the Z up an s from special families .

I n this way n o doubt he hoped to trai n up families of

, ,

hereditary tax g ather e rs in th e tribes The result was

-
.

th at the o ffi ce of Z upa n s becam e hereditary I n all .

prob ability this cha n ge also caused the de velopme n t of

hereditary n obles I n e ach district the Z up an m ade a
.

gre at n oble respo n sible for t axes in e ach of his vill ages
,

the gre ater n ob l e m ade a lesser n oble r e spo n sible an d ,

86 S E RBIAN M E DI E VAL S O C I ETY
S abor or N atio n al Assembly limited the power of the Ki n g
an d this Assembly co n sisted of bishops an d abb o ts n obles ,

an d delegates of the people These deleg ates of the .

people were usu ally heads of villages an d eve n tually ,

became lesser n obles No n e th e less there w as n ever

.
,

a complete surre n der to the feudal system The K n ez .

an d the Z up an were alw ays in theory roy al o fli c ial s

g o ver n i n g districts n ot heredit ary o ffi ci als holdi n g l an d
,

from the Ki n g on co n ditio n of supplyi n g milit ary service

at n eed . By the time of Stephe n Dusha n we do get a
state which in appe ara n ce resembles the politic al in st it u
,

tio n s of the West Stephe n Dush an the co n temporary of

.
,

our ow n E dward is like him a stro n g an d warlike

king but subj ect to fi n a n cial an d politic al restrai n t from
,

an Assembly of lords spiritual an d tempor al Be n eath .

this Assembly is in e ach c ase a mass of loc al self gover n i n g -

commu n ities an d feud al baro n s holdi n g their ow n la n ds

in retur n for the t ax of blood I n reality the picture .

is very u n like Stephe n Dusha n n e ver had on e tithe the

.

real power of E dw ard bec ause the Serbs were

politic al ly b ackw ard Th e Ki ng in Serbia was a glori fi ed
.

Gra n d Zupa n whose power rested more on his perso n al

prestige or authority in war th an on solid political
i n stitutions The oligarchy of the great n obles p aralysed
.

the ce n tre the democr acy of the f reeme n paralysed the

,

extremities of the Serbi an ki n gdom

,
.

U n der Stephe n Dusha n a gre at n atio n al code of Serb

customs an d l aw was draw n up an d sa n ctio n ed by the
Sabor or N atio n al Assembly The Code itself ( Z ak on ik )
.

is a revelatio n I n so f ar as its politic al ide as are

.

adva n ced they seem to b e due to Byza n ti n e i n flue n ces ;

an d a study of the whol e reve als the great primitive n ess

o f the Serb civilis atio n Some examples will m ake this

.

fact cle ar The code of D ush an gives little evide n ce of

.

tow n life amo n g the Serbs Such of them as were .

forc e d to liv e in tow n s seem to have regarded their

 S E RB IAN M ED I E VAL S O CI ETY 87

o bligatio n as a burde n Ragu san s an d Ve n eti an s c on

.

trolled commerce Germ an s were imported to w ork the

,

mi n es an d these foreig n ers w ho received gre at priv ileges

, ,

in the code of Dusha n comprised the bulk of tow n ,

populatio n s The Serbia n s themselves were trappers

.
,

forest e rs an d ploughme n livi n g in sc attered V ill ages

,
.

Yet at the mome n t we see this state of thi n gs in the

Serbia n l an ds the mag n i fi ce n t city life of the M iddle
,

Ages w as fully developed n ot o nly at Co n sta n ti n ople

an d Ve n ice but at ce n tres like Ghe n t Paris N ur e mberg
, , , ,

an d Lo n do n Agai n in almost all Wester n cou n tries the

.
,

free l an dow n e rs were relatively few b aro n s or fe udal ,

lords ruli n g over n umerou s serfs who cultivat e d the

la n d I n the Serbi an la n ds the serf ( or ostrok ) w as
.

the smallest class in th e commu n ity an d the small free ,

la n dholders were the largest The rel ative freedom .

thu s e nj oyed by the S e rbs though in on e se n se a u n ique ,

1
disti n ctio n an d a glory was militarily a dis aster ,
In .

th e W est E uropea n l an ds lords an d la n dow n ers forced ,

their serfs to till the la n d exercised j ustice upo n them , ,

an d led them to b attle whe n occ asio n c alled Pe asa n ts .

led by lords who were l an dow n ers j ustices an d military

, , ,

c aptai n s in on e w e re likely to obey th e m I n Serbia n o

,
.

s uch co n ditio n s were prese n t there were f ar more la n d

ow n e rs la n d was scattered amo n g the m an y Very few
,
.

la n dow n ers had the rights of j ustice over their n umerou s

free te n an ts o n ly over a few ostrok s or serfs The
, .

loc al courts of j ustice were n ot co n trolled by the lord

or his represe n tative but by the whole free commu n ity .

The Ki n g was s upp osed to dispe n se a system of roy al

j ustice fr o m above but there n ever w as in the Serbi an
,

l an ds a j udici al system ce n tr alised u n der the Crow n, ,

such as He n ry I I devised for E n gla n d I n th e same

. .

1
rb
I t is of t e n said t h at t he S e ian l aw did n ot e c o n ise t h e st atus of r g
lv
a s a e , b ut t h is a
pp e a s t o be an er o J ire E rr r
e k, G ear/
1 de r S e rbe n, 1 32
. . .

Th re vrl r
e are se e a G e man e dit ions of D ushan s c ode
’
.
88 S E RBIAN M EDI E VAL S O CI ETY
way there never w as a centralis e d control of local ad
m i n istr atio n such as the ki n gs were i n troduci n g i n to
Fra n c e I n the thirt e e n th an d fourt e e n th ce n turies Local .

lib e rties local courts an d local assembli e s all remai n e d

, ,

relatively free from ce n tral i n flue n ce The Ki n g seldom .

i n terfered in his executive c ap acity an d the Sabor or ,

Natio n al Assembly n ever seems to have attempted to

i n terfere with local self gover n me n t E ve n whe n the
-
.

N atio n al Sabor came to be formed simply of n obles an d

higher clergy the Sab ors of the districts the cou n ty or
, , ,

the village were still formed of the w hole free commu n ity .

I n the Serb as in all medi e v al la n ds the army

was th e oretic ally the people an d all me n co uld be sum ,

mo ued to fi ght I n practice as elsewhere it was fou n d

.

co n v e n i e n t to rely on feud al levies small well armed ,

-

mobil e and prompt to respo n d to the summo n s I n W e st

,
.

E urope the complete n ess of the feudal system e n abled

regular schemes to be worked out an d q uota to b e
calculated an d e n sur e d the good worki n g of the scheme
, .

I n Serbia on the other h an d the co n fusio n of t e n ures

, , ,

the abse n ce of a u n iform system the primitive democratic ,

feeli n g preve n ted the s ame u n ity of pl an I n the four .

t e e n t h ce n tury little feud al tyra n ts were begi n n i n g to

arise in di ff ere n t p arts of Serbi a reduci n g the n umber of ,

fre e l an dow n ers an d yet owi n g to their i n depe n de n ce

, , ,

n ot re ally stre n gthe n i n g the Ki n g or the n atio n Just 1

.

whe n Fra n ce an d E n gl an d were getti n g rid of feud al

da n gers an d a n archy Serbia w as falli n g i n to it Th e .

co n fusio n i n to which the Serbia n l an ds fell on the death

of Stephe n Dush an m arks the in e fli c ac y of the social an d
military system an d the slow progress Serbia had made .

The social syst e m was pe n alised for its very virtues It .

1 Th e Du h s fi b y
de ne s t h e asht ina or s st e m of h o din ande d
an c ode l gl
r ry w
p po e t , h i r
c h di ff e i e d f om t h e c ust omai
y me t hod and a e t he o d gv lr
b l
a so ut e posse ssion of h is l
and and of t h e se f s on it , i e
p r
l ac t ic al l
y . .

r g
e c o n isin g
a fe uda t e n u el r .
90 S E RB IAN M E DI E VAL S O C I ET Y
di ffi cult i n t o the feud al framew ork The serf
to fit .

w as m ore free the freem an an d the n oble m ore power

,

ful th an in the W est A ll these c auses w orked to the

,
.

disi n tegr ati o n o f the st ate With o ut a re al system of

.

S l avery the Serbs were at a dis adv an t age compared with

the Turks in i n dustry an d liberty Th e freema n fi erce .

, ,

i n depe n de n t an d w arlike hi n dered u n ity an d co n e e n

, ,

t rat ion,
the turbule n t n oble used his i n depe n de n ce
for the m ost sel fi sh e n ds The blood feud amo n g the
.
-

pe as an ts the feud al harryin gs an d p lu n de rin gs amo n g

,

the n obles all combi n ed t o disorgan ise the st ate The

,
.

Serbi an n obles seem seldom to h ave possess e d an y

e n larged ide as or patriotic feeli ngs Their s e l fi sh .

quarrels divided the state an d distr acted the mo n archy .

The extraordi nary q uarrels betwee n fathers an d so n s ,

which brought about the fall of so m an y Serbia n ki n gs ,

were almost all produced or fome n ted by aristocr atic

self—seekers To remedy the evils of i n dividu al in de p e n d
.

e n ce an d of turbule n t feudalism there was o n ly on e

medi e val solutio n a stro n g mo n archy But a stro n g
, .

mo n archy must rest on a ce n tr alised admi n istratio n on ,

a we althy burgher class or on a professio n al army The

, .

free spirit of the Serbs m ade it impossible for a ce n tralised

bure aucracy of the Byz an ti n e or Fre n ch type to b e
developed This di ffi culty w as o n ly i n cre ased whe n the
.

exte n t of the Serbi an E mpire u n der Dusha n n ecessitated

further subdivisio n an d compelled the p arcelli n g out of
la n ds amo n g a crowd of sem i i n depe n de n t chiefs I n -
.

E n gla n d the mo n archy bec ame stro n g partly by relia n c e

on th e we althy burghers who g ai n ed se ats an d i n flue n ce

in the n atio n al P arli ame n t an d developed i n terests

di ff ere n t from those o f the b aro n s Here agai n the .

medi e v al Serb Ki n g w as u n fortu n ate He could n ot .

persu ade his sturdy freeme n to forsake their sc att e red

v ill ages ,
their woods an d their hills for reside n ce in ,

wall e d towns H ence to mak e c itiz e n s he was obli ge d

.
 S E RB I A N M ED I E VAL S O C I ETY 91

to imp ort Ragu san s an d Germ an s an d these he co uld ,

protect but could n ot e n fran chise Co n seque n tly the .

popul ar represe n t atio n in the Sab or w as from the lesser

n obles ,
n ot from the foreig n burghers Foiled in all .

other directio n s Dusha n an d his two predecessors fell

,

b ack on the professio n al army of merce n aries as a mea n s

of developi n g their power over the n obles This force .

depe n ded on pu n ctual payme n ts an d w as n otoriously ,

c aprici ous an d u n certai n in use After a big defe at .

merce n aries freque n tly deserted an d on the de ath of ,

U rosh 1 1 they O pe n ly rebelled

. The force was n ot.

always e ff i cie n t but was always u n popul ar I t w as n ot .

an i n stitutio n but a tempor ary an d un certai n expedie n t .

I n the ha n ds of a stro n g ki n g like Dusha n i t was

e ff ective but a we ak ruler fou n d it a da n ger to himsel f
,

an d the St ate What Serbia w an ted w as a successio n of

.

stro n g ki n gs who would have slowly perfected her

i n stitutio n s an d moulded her i n to a complete u n ity .

This period of co n struction was pr e cis e ly what was

deni e d to her .

Serbia was n ot fully a n atio n before she became an

empire The earliest mome n t at which we can say that
.

the Serbia n ki n gdom w as based on n atio n al u n ity is the

reig n of Stephe n N e manya Yet e ve n at that dat e the
.

aim was hardly a n atio n al on e The double headed

.
-

eagl e broidered on the robe of Stephe n the First Crow n ed -

shows that his ambition w as Byza n ti n e an d Imperial .

This does n ot mea n that the Serb w as n ot n at io n al in

se n time n t but th at he did n ot co n sider th at a ki ngdom
,

n eeded to be fou n ded upo n u n ity of r ace I t has bee n .

n oticed that the Tc h e c h word for la n guage is az

j y k an d that
I
,

it sig n i fi es n ot o n ly lang uage but nati on But it is press .

in g the coi n cide n ce too f ar to say th at this fact illustrates

“

the Sl avic co n ceptio n of n atio n ality I n all medi e v al .

la n ds the probl e m of n atio n ality an d r acial u n ity was

1 L ut z ow J l m H V id G ibb ’
Ott m E i
, p
a 2 39 ue , o
. . e mp 96 ns o an re , 1 , n.
9 2 S ERBI AN M E DI E VAL S O CI ETY
very little u n derst ood I t is however certai n th at it
.
, ,

w as less u n derst oo d in the B alka n s th an elsewhere The .

M agy ars were the le ast exclusive of races they imported

Germ an s i n t o their tow n s an d admitted R oum an s an d
Cro ats pro m iscuously i n to the r an ks of their n obles .

The Bulg ari an s mi n gled freely with T art ars Greeks , ,

an d R oum an s The Serbi an s like them imit ated

.
, ,

the Byz an ti n e E mpire which b ased its power on a

,

ce n tr al c o n tr ol o f diverse r aces an d n atio n alities .

Dush an in fou n di n g his empire deliber ately set aside a

purely n atio n al co n ceptio n as B u lg ari an Hu n g ari an an d
, , ,

Byz an ti n e rulers h ad d one before him He described .

himself as E mperor of Serbs an d Roma n s ( Le Greeks ) .

,

an d n amed his son Ki n g o f Serbia which was o n ly the ,

fi rst o f his provi n ces .Thus he excha n ged n ati on al for

imperi al ide als an d b ased his p ower on the reco n cili atio n
,

o f m an y r aces n ot up o n the u n ity of on e

,
This is on e .

of the m an y re as on s which explai n why n o medi e val

ki n g ever ruled over all the Jug o Slavs an d why it w as
-

th at me n of the Serbi an r ace de alt the fi n al blow to the

Serbi an E mpire in the M iddle Ages U n til the O tto .

m an oppressio n welded the fr agme n ts i n t o o n e Serb ,

u n ity w as of a r aci al n ot of a n atio n al type I t is a

, ,
.

true an d tr agic reflectio n th at it was not love but hate

which u n ited the S e rb n atio n .
94 F ALL OF TH E EM P I R E

Co n stanti n ople the whole B alka n pe n i n sul a was his

, .

From th e D an ube to th e gulfs of Arta an d Volo ( the

bou n d ary of moder n G re e ce in 1 878) the sway of
Dush an was ack n owledged an d supreme Whe n his .

empire fell the pr actical e ff ects of his co n quests did n ot

altogether pass away His w ars with the Alba n i an s
.

produced a great migratio n of these tribes i n to Norther n

Greece an d Thessaly His co n q u est of M acedo n i a
.

i n troduced a n e w an d Serbia n eleme n t i n to th at district ,

which has subseque n tly co n te n ded for the m astery with

Greeks an d B ulgars His l aws an d his power un
.

doubtedly c on solid ated the authority of the Serbs in

districts where their co n quests were relatively rece n t ,

as at Skoplj e an d Prisre n d There can be n o questio n

.

also th at his great re n own an d the glory with which

he i n vested the Serbi an arms gave the Serbi an n atio n

a tradition an d a memory which has proved stronger
th an all the armies of I slam .

U rosh the youthful Ki n g of Rashk a was not ,

recognised as Serbo Roma n E mperor by Simeo n the

-

h alf brother of Stephe n Dush an

-
Simeo n who was
.
,

Despot of E pirus decl ared w ar on U rosh but the motley

, ,

crowd of Despots C e sars and Se bastoc rat s who ruled

, ,

the depe n de n t provi n ces of the n e w empire p aid re al

allegia n ce t o n either party E very ruler aimed at
.

establishi n g his ow n i n depe n d e n ce in his ow n l an ds ,

an d seized the opportu n ity of the civil w ar to gain it ,

t aki n g one side or another as occ asio n served I t would .

be tedious to rel ate the strife in detail but the im ,

mediate result was the r e volt of the u n tam able Alba n ia n s

an d the perma n e n t loss of Thessaly I n Zeta three
.
,

brothers of the n ame of Bal shi est ablished their power

by the ye ar 1 36 0 an d their desce n d an ts l aid the f oun da
,

tio n s of the moder n ki n gdom o f M o n te n egro I n the .

s ame w ay the districts in M aced on i a an d Thr ace fell

away ultimately to be swallowed pieceme al by the Turk
, .
 TH E TUR KI S H C ONQ U E S T 95

Th e two most importa n t of these i n depe n de n t rulers

were V u k ashin an d Laz ar H rbe l ian ov it c h V uk ashin .

was Despot of Prilep L az ar who is k n ow n m e rely by

.
,

the title of K n ez ( lord ) ruled the Rud n ik district in

,

the n orth Betwee n these two Chieft ai n s the feeble

.

Czar was powerless an d it is n ot surprisi n g to le ar n

,

that Vuk ash in assumed the title of Ki n g in 1 36 6 an d

o ccupied the cities of Prisre n d an d Skoplj e The o n ly .

di ff ere n ce betwee n him an d his master was th at he

called himself D ominar Re x Sla uonia e while U rosh w as ,

still D omina r I mpe ra t or Sla v on iae Docume n ts an d .

procl am atio n s an d ofli c ial s were used by each sep ar ately ,

but app are n tly with j oi n t authority The prob ab ility .

is th at the growi n g Turkish d an ger i n duced the mi n or

rulers to acquiesce in the authority of a stro n g man
who might be able to avert it .

While the Serbia n E mpire was falli n g to pieces its ,

riv als t he Bulg ari an an d the Byza n ti n e E mpires were

, ,

bei n g co n sumed by civil wars an d divided by her e sies .

The powerful Louis of Hu n g ary w asted his armies

an d i nj ured Christe n dom by attacki n g the Bu lgars .

Duri n g the same period the O tto man Sulta n s were

layi n g the fou n datio n s of power by a policy of c on
summ ate wisdom an d shrewd n ess an d slowly acquiri n g ,

the str ategic poi n ts from which to m aster the B alka n s .

Havi n g their origi n in the n orth —west cor n er of A s i a

M i n or u nder the sh adow of the Asi atic O lympus they
, ,

were n atur ally tempted to attack the Byz anti n e E mpire

an d t o p ass the D ard an elles I n fact their adv an ce an d
.
,

their aim w as f or lo n g E ur ope an r ather th an Asi atic .

Their fi rst ruler O thm an whose n ame in the c orrupt

, ,

form of O sm an li still describes the Turkish r ace c on ,

quered Brus a before his de ath in 1 32 6 O rkh an his .

,

successor expelled t he Byz an ti n es fr o m the l ast cor n er

,

of their Asi atic d omi n io n s an d e n tered i n t o th ose

,

r el atio n s with C an tac uz e n us which h ave alre ady bee n

96 FALL O F TH E E M P I R E

described The Serbi an s had bee n twice defe ated by

.

the Turks before Dusha n died The n the gre at step .

of perm an e n tly occupyi ng an d fortifyi n g the town of

G allipoli w as t ake n either I n 1 35 4 or By holdi n g
this bridge he ad the O ttoma n s were able to p ass i n to
-

E urope an d so ma n y availed themselves of the op p or

,

t un ity th at its temporary loss in 1 36 6 did n ot seriously

i n terrupt their pl an s Sultan A murat h the third in.
,

successio n from O thm an had alre ady b ased his power ,

fi rmly in E urope I n the ye ars 1 36 0— 6 1 a large

.

O ttoma n force adv an ced on Bulg aria an d he avily de

fe ated a combi n ed army of Bulgars and Byz an ti n es at
the fi rst famous b attle of Lule Burgas The fall of .

Philippopolis an d Adria n ople were the immedi ate results

of this victory which was soo n f ollowed by the loss
,

of all Bulgaria s outh of the B alka n s an d of most of

Thr ace Thus the O ttoma n s severed co n n ectio n betwee n
.

Bulg ars Byz an ti n es an d Serbia n s By occupyi n g Philip

, , .

popolis they threate n ed al l three powers As agai n st .

Bulgars an d Serbi an s they had the adv an tage of i n terior

li n es but they were exposed to an att ack in the re ar
,

from Co n stan ti n ople Had the feeble Byza n ti n e seized

.

this golde n opportu n ity the fate of Easter n E urope ,

might h ave bee n very di ff ere n t A s it was the n ews .

of the fall of Adri an ople st artled the B alka n world an d ‘

made it f or a mome n t forget its feuds A le ague was .

speedily formed V uk ash in Lazar an d Czar U rosh were

.
, ,

the Serb r e prese n t atives the Bulgari an s prom ised aid

, ,

an d s o me Hu n gari an troops were prese n t By Tcher .

m e n ab out twe n ty miles due west of Adria n ople an d on

,

the b an ks of the M arI tz a the armies met Lege n d

,

h as bee n busy with the details of the fi ght but there seems ,

ge n er al agree m e n t th at the Serbs were s u rprised in camp

by an att ack at d aw n The slaughter w as certai n ly terri fi c
. .

1 Th e l ri
att e s t he rk
Tu ish dat e , b ut th e rk
Tu ish c h r l
onic e s are not

c onte mpo a r ry .
9s FALL O F TH E E MPI R E

This h ero is the favourite of all Serb legends and has ,

left a n ame at which every Serb he art thrills His f ame .

eve n exte n ds far beyo n d the bou n d aries of the S outhern

Sl av r aces an d B u lgars an d Alb an i an s admire him as a
,

her o He is celebr ated as the perfect B alk an k n ight

.
,

u n rivalled in stre n gth beloved of the n ymphs ( v e e las)

,

for his be auty an d of the e agles for his v alour All .

n ature is marked with his impri n ts Th e p asses through

.

mou n tai n s are cut asu n der by his sword isol ated rocks,

are the b alls which he t ossed fr om the mou n t ai n s whe n

playi n g at bowls with the gi an ts R ou n ded hills are
.

his petri fi ed bell —te n ts the hollows of craters ar e the

,

w ateri n g pl aces for his famous grey horse Shab at z All

-
.

Serbs love the tale of how he che ated the Doge of his
’
bride defe n ded the Sultan s daughter from assault an d
, ,

slew M oussa the bully an d the gi an t M oor Historically .

littl e is k n ow n of him except that he w as Ki n g of Prilep ,

an d it is cert ai n ly somethi n g of an iro n y th at the n atio n al

Serb hero should have bee n a Turkish v assal I t is .

quite prob able th at he fought agai n st his cou n trym e n

o n the fat al da of Kossovo an d there is some real
y ,

evide n ce for showi n g that he died in battle in the year

1
39 4 . Before the b attle i n which he
,
was compelled
t o fi ght o n the Turkish side he is s aid t o h ave rem arked
,
“
to a frie n d I pr ay God that He m ay aid the Christi an s
,

an d that I m a be amo n g the fi rst to fall He h ad

y .

his wish an d died while the Christia n shouts of victory

,

were ri n gi n g in his ears This sle n der historic al f oun da

.

tio n is the origi n of th at beautiful lege n d that he rests

sleepi n g in a cave n e ar his own c astle of Prilep an d ,

will o n ce more come to the aid of the Serbs whe n th e

day comes th at the Turk is to be drive n from the l an d .

So deeply w as this lege n d writte n in Serbi an he arts that ,

thous an ds of soldiers saw M arko le adi n g them to victory

o n his famous white horse whe n they drove the Turk s

from Prilep I n 1 9 1 2 .
 TH E TURKI S H C O NQU E ST 99

Th e work of assimilatio n and s e ttl e m e n t we n t

steadily on Turkish troops c aptured O c hrida an d
.

i n vaded Alb an i a and all B ulgaria south of the B alkans

,

s u bmitted by 1 382 At some time subseque n t to this .

date S ulta n Am urat h must have perma n e n tly occupied

Nish O n ce this ce n tral strategic poi n t was in Turkish
.
1

ha n ds the whole B alka n pe n i n sula was co n tr olled At

,
.

Nish fo ur ways m e t— the w ay to Co n sta n ti n ople through

Philippopolis the way to S alo n ic a dow n the Vard ar to
, ,

Belgrade dow n the M orava an d to Skoplj e dow n it He ,

.

who held N ish prev e n ted all commu n ic atio n alo n g the
best roads b e twee n Bulgaria Salo n ic a Serbi a an d , , ,

Byz antium E ither Nish must be reco n quered or all

.
,

the B alkan pri n ces would become vass als of the Turks .

The sol e hope n ow l ay in L az ar the ruler of North ,

Serbi a an d in his ability to u n ite the still i n depe n de n t

,
’
Slav pri n c e s agai n st th e O ttom an Lazar s we ak n ess is .

evi n ced by the fact that he owes the titl e of Czar

e n tirely to lege n d ; he did n ot ev e n cl aim that of Kral
( ki ng
) but was co n te n t with that of K n ez ( lord
) His .

e ff orts were prais e worthy : he had succeeded in reco n

c il in Serbia with Byza n tium an d in 1 2 74 the Greek
g ,

Patri arch withdrew the ban of excommu n ic atio n which

he had laid on the Serbs in the d ays of Dush an H e .

had bee n beat e n an d forced to sue for pe ace at Nish an d ,

compelled to se n d a thousa n d horseme n as auxiliaries .

But he broke with A murath agai n in 1 387 an d prepared ,

to r e sist him His ally Turtk o the Bos n ian ruler who
.
,

called himself Ki n g cam e to his aid The Turks wer e , .

caught at a disadvan tage because their mai n army was ,

in Asia and at Pl ot c h n ik on the Topl it sa an army of

,

1 1
37 5 i t h d t of om
s ut h or
e it i a ew h i h G ibb o ( ps 6 ) e a e s, c ns . 1 1

r j t I t i po ibl th t Ni h w t k i r id i 375 t mpo

e e c s. s ss e a s as a en n a a n 1 , e r

ar il y b do d
a an d r o upi d f t r 382
ne , an B d of Ot t om
e cc r bb r
e a e 1 . an s an o e s

w r f r q u t d d r i g i th ir t rpr i f t w h i h M G ibb
e e e en an a n n e en e se , a ac c r
. ons

se e m r t h r t o ig or i dog m t i lly
s a e n e rt i g t h t g g r ph y pr v t
n a ca asse n a eo a e en s

Ni h b i g
s
pt ur d b for S fi
e n ca e e e o a .
 1 00 FALL O F TH E E M PI R E

O ttomans practically a n n ihilated Great j oy was

w as .

c aused by this first an d l ast victory of the Jug o Slav

Le ague an d Bulg arians t hrew off th e ir en f orced allegianc e
,

t o th e Turk an d ope n ly j oi n ed th e u n io n Bulg ari a took .

a year to subdue an d I n 1 389 A m urat h marched strai ght

,

aga i n st L az ar O n the 1 5 th of Ju n e the two arm i es

.

”
met on the fatal Field of Blackbirds in the pl ai n of ,

Kossovo which w on so sad a glory on that day Serbs

,
.
,

Bulgars Alba n i an s Cro ats an d eve n R ouma n s fought on

, , ,

on e side ; the Turks an d their Christia n vassals in ,

cludi n g prob ably th e famous Serb hero Ki n g M arko

himself on the oth e r The leaders on each side K n ez
,
.
,

Lazar an d Sulta n A murath w e r e killed ; but victory ,

declared itself for the Turks .

All the lege n ds agre e in suggesti n g that the 1 ssue of

the battle was d e termi n e d by treason A certain V uk .

B ran k ov itc h is repres e n ted as th e S e rbia n Judas who

led his forces over to the e n emy at th e c ritical mome n t .

“
Accursed be she who gave the traitor birth .

accurs e d for e ver be his proge n y But if we put an y .

trust in the lege n ds at all we must also lay stress on the ,

fact that K n ez Lazar spoke mour n fully to his chief

o ffi c e rs on the n ight before the b attle accusi n g some of ,

treachery This fact suggests fai n t hearted n ess an d dis

.

trust both in commander an d chief ofli c e rs Treachery .

is always the excuse of the va n quished for it assu ages ,

the bitt er n ess of d e feat This accusat i o n is freque n t I n

.

Serbia n epics deali n g with other battles A well—k n ow n .

moder n i n sta n ce proves that such a lege n d c an be m an u

f ac t ure d to excuse defeat an d it is qu i te plausible to ,

suppose that the same ki n d of fi ctio n was used in

medi e val times for a similar purpose .

1 Th e su rr e nde r H un g a
of in 1 849 w as e c use d b K ossut h on
ry x
y
t he g r ound t h at r
G Orge i, h is c ommande in c h ie f , h ad b e t a e d h im
- -
No ry .

r l r dr
impa t ia ea e of t he rvry
c ont o e s c an dou b h hi
t t at t s c harg e w as
b l ly b l
a so ut e ase e ss, and t h at it w as made by K o h ih r i
ssut e t e n t he e x c it e
1 02 FALL O F TH E E MPI R E

Clio is a muse but n ot the muse of epic or l yric

,

poetry These be autiful lege n ds attest the tragedy but

.
,

do n ot supply the causes of disaster I t is n ot eve n .

certai n th at the Jugo Slavs were out n umb ered by the

Turks or th at M il osh O b il itc h w as the murderer of
,

Amurat h .E ve n the discourageme n t which the lege n ds

represe n t as prev aili n g in the Serb r an ks m ay be a reflex
e ff ect from t he subseque n t disaster History really
.

k n ows little or n othi n g of t h e facts except th at the b attle

,

was n ot at the mome n t regarded as an overwhelmi n g

c al amity . Th e fi rst reports based on the de ath of
,

A m urat h were of a Serbi an victory an d Te D e um s

, ,

were su n g to celebr ate it in D al mati a I taly an d Fr an ce

, , .

E ve n whe n the actu al result of the b attle became k n ow n

its e ff ect was n ot immedi ately perceived Turkish .

histori an s l ay more stress on the b attle of the M aritz a

eightee n ye ars before which they call Seré S indin
,

( Serbi an defe at
) T.h e co n tempor ary chro n iclers reg ar d

K ossovo as but on e of a series of bloody e n gageme n ts .

Yet eve n in the military se n se Kossovo is an epoch

maki ng b attle I t s me an i n g was th at all the e ff orts of
.

the S outher n Sl av combi n atio n could n ot wrest Nish

from the Turks an d so lo n g as Nish w as in their h an ds
,

t hey co n trolled the meeti n g poi n t of the roads to Bos n i a ,

Serbia Bulg ari a an d Hu n gary I n a politic al se n se i t

, ,
.

was almost equ ally decisive for most of the Serbi an

,

pri n ces an d n obles i n cludi n g K n ez Laz ar himself were

, ,

killed in the battle or behe aded immediately a f ter it .

He n ce Kossovo eve n i n cre ased the existi n g disu n io n

an d an archy . I n the popul ar s e n se the Serbia n natio n al
i n sti n ct w as right in regardi n g Kossovo as the fi eld of
fate an d the 1 5 th of J u n e as the day of wrath I t was .

n ot till four ye ars a o th at a Serbi an ki n g an d a Slavo n ic

g
le ague were agai n able to face the O tt oma n with the same
ch an ces of success as they had had at K ossovo The direct .

e ff ects of the b attle were felt for fi ve hu n dred years .

 TH E TUR KI SH C O NQ U E S T 1 03

To the Serbi an s K ossovo was much more tha n wh at

Flodde n w as to the Scots a de fe at in which ki n g an d
,

army perished more eve n th an H asti n gs was to E n gl an d ,

a defe at which e n abled a co n q ueri n g r ace to impose its

will on the co n q uered The Nor m an s were civilised
.

ki n sme n an d m e n of the same faith as the E n glish .

But the O ttom an s were alie n barb ari an s with a lesser ,

civilis atio n an d a religio n tot ally di ff ere n t from that o f

the co n quered He n ce the terrible e ff ect which K os
.

sovo produced on the Serbs as the overthrow of their

,

l an gu age civilis atio n n atio n ality religio n of all th at

, , , ,

they held de ar Th e M o n te n egri n s still we ar rou n d their

.

c aps a bl ack border in mour n i n g for Kossovo The 1 5 t h of .

Ju n e ( O ld Style ) is yet O bserved as a day of mour n i n g

by all Serbs an d there is an a n n u al pilgrim age to the
,

tomb of L az ar where his body rests in the mo n astery of

,

the New Rav an itz a in Sl avo n i a The popul ar an guish

.

fou n d expressio n in that famous cycle of so n gs on

Kossovo which were preserved by the guslars the
, ,

w an deri n g mi n strels an d which were compared by

,

Goethe with the Iliad an d Odyssey E xpressio n s of the .

most te n der hum an pity are fou n d in them I n on e .

poem the ha n d of a dead warrior is brought to his

mother

W h ispe r ing h and, she stamme s st a

t o t he r rkly
‘M
y h and, m
y de a , de a r r
h an d, m
y gre en a
pp l e !
r gr w w r
W h e e didst t h ou o , and h e e h ast t h ou b ee n lp kuc ed ?
r ’
r
H e e , in my l ap, t is h e e t h at t hou didst o gr w ,

r r r
To n f om t h e t e e t h ou e t , onwr

The chord of hum an pity is o n e on which every p oet

c an pl ay but an ot her p oem of this series re aches a
,

height o f mystic al religi o u s resig natio n which i s r are

i n deed Before the b attle o f Kossov o the holy sai n t
.

E lij ah se n ds a message to Czar L az ar aski n g him to ,

1 04 F ALL OF TH E E M PI R E

choos e b etwe e n th e ki n gdom of God and the empire of

th e world Czar Lazar po n d e rs

.

The r ly k i gd m i
e a th n o s a l i l hi g
tt e t n ,
’
g
G od s K in dom is for e vr df y
e an or a e .

The Czar willed for the ki n gdom of the Lord rather

tha n for worldly empire No people which can tre a
.

sure such a height of Christia n idealism as this c an be

u n worthy of reg ard Yet it was in the midst of their
.

sorrow an d su ff eri n g that these glorious testimo n ies to

n atio n al feeli n g were f ashio n ed an d poured forth .

So f ar as Serbia w as co n cer n ed the real O ttom an

co n quest was i n evitable after Kossovo
'
Her ow n .

e fi ort s h ad failed an d these of n eighbouri n g powers were

n ot to succeed The gre at le ague formed by the

.

E mperor Sigismu n d was dissolv e d in blood on the fi eld

of Nicopolis his defe at bei n g assured by the Serbi an s
, ,

who fought on the Turkish side E ve n the

Asi atic troubles of the Turks an d the defe at of B ayezid
by Timur the T artar in the gre at b attle of A n gor a
( 4 )
1 0 2 could not loose n their grip o n the B alk an s .

Their work of absorptio n we n t st eadily on an d m ore an d ,

more Serbia n pri n ces became tributary Le af by le af .

th e y wer e sw allowed like the artichoke Serbi an pri n ces .

became Turkish subj ects Serbi an co n ti n ge n ts n ow regu

,

l arl y fought in the Turkish arm i es an d the Serbi an ,

cav alry greatly disti n guished themselves I n their service .

O n ly on the famous Black M ou n t ai n did the B al shit c h

dy n asty m ai n tai n their i n depe n de n ce of the Turk an d ,

thi s was at the cost of cedi n g Scutari to Ve n ice Those .

Christi an pri n ces who rem ai n ed i n depe n de n t fought with

o n e a n other an d were co n quered in det ail by the Turk
,

as it suited his c on v e n ie n ce George B ran k ov it c h

.

became despot of N orth Serbi a in 1 42 7 but fou n d the ,

B e lgrade district already ceded to Hu n gary Accord .

 TH E TU RKI S H OC C UP ATI ON OF S E RB I A
( 1 45 9 1 739)
-

TH E victory of the Turks over th e Serbs was a victory

less of arms tha n of i n stitutio n s The Turkish system .

was framed purely an d simply to secure military success

an d to devise solid i n stitutio n s for that purpose an d ,

there c an be n o doubt that these i n stitutio n s produced

a r ace superior in all the qu alities which secure immediate

practic al success The ce n tre of O ttoma n power was in

.

the n orth west cor n er of Asi a M i n or an d it was in the

-

reig n of O rkh an th at the ch ar acteristic i n stitutio n s of the

O ttoma n r ace were devised I n the A n atolia n pe as an t
.

of Asia M i n or O rkh an fou n d an ide al i n strume n t for

,

his purpose f or th at pe as an t has bee n for fi v e ce n turies

,

a p atie n t docile i n dustrious tiller of the soil n ever a

, , ,

rebel always a good taxp ayer an d at n eed a fearless

, , ,

h ardy soldier There w as n o fear of his revolti n g in the

.

abse n ce of his ruler or of his ru n n i n g away from the

,

b attle fi eld in his prese n ce Co n tr asted with the rough

.
,

poetic Serbi an pe as an t with his zeal for blood feuds an d -

his wild liberty the mild A n atoli an w as a pli an t in st ru

,

me n t of despotism The pe asa n t supplied the me an s

.

of p ayi n g the re al military force the O tt om an c av alry , .

O thm an who g ave his n ame t o the r ace seems t o have

, ,

do n e little but use his squ adro n s of wild Tartar h orseme n

1
to co n quer territory I t w as u n der O rkh an ( 1 32 6 6 0 )
.

1 Th A r b i f r m i O t h m
e a c o but t h Turk h d
s diffi ul t y i
an , e s a a c n

p
rn unc n
o o i g tb h th
,
orr u t i
p
e nc e O m e cd O m l i o O tt om
on
1 06
s an an s an r ans.
 TH E TURKI SH O CCUPAT I O N 16 7

that the system atic orga n isatio n of the m achi n ery of con
qu e st w as devised Whether this system w as the direct
.

i n spiratio n of O rkha n himself or of his brother an d ,

1
Gra n d Vizier Ala ad D in h as bee n disputed - -
But ,
.

the mai n outli n es of the system are clear They aimed .

at thr e e obj ects — the establishm e nt of a re gul ar milit ary

system the regul ar orga n is atio n of an O ttom an civil
,

polity an d the regul atio n of O ttoma n rel atio n s with

,

Christi an subj ects The military system aimed at est ab

.

l ish in g a perma n e n t professio n al ar my The ge n er al levy .

was of c av alry — for every O ttom an rode a horse if he c ould

— an d was to be draw n from those to wh om the Sultan
assig n ed milit ary fi e f s of l an d in retur n for m ilitary
services or for its mo n ey equiv ale n t on dem an d H e re
,
.

the n was a feudal system bu t on e carefully devised an d ,

ne w without the d angers an d O bscurities of E urop e an

,

feud alism O rkhan or his advisers further showed th e ir

.

ability in realisi n g that feudal levie s were o n ly useful as

a last resource and that they must depe n d in the m ai n
,

o n a regular military forc e This w as supplied by the .

est ablishme n t of regular cav alry an d of professio n al

i n fa n try both of whom received p ay an d could therefore
,

be depe n ded on for system atic an d le n gthe n ed service .

The i n fan try who wer e thus established were the famous
j an iz aries ( Y e n i Chari or n e w soldiery ) These proved , .

the mai n stre n gth of the Turkish army and the chief
cause of their ultimate victories Fi n ally the j an iz aries .

were supplied by a levy on the childre n of Christi an

subj ects of Turkey There is some doubt at wh at time .

1 G ibb o ( d B ury n e
5 6 7 ) f v ur A l
. d Di
1
, v 1. H A 2 , n. a o s a- a -
n. . .

G ibb o ( 7
ns0—
3) f v our O rk h A l d
a D i di d srly d an. a- a -
n e ea an so

c ou ld v rr r l
h a e c a ie d out t h e p inc ip e s, but t hat is no e ason w h y h e
n ot r
sh ou ld v v rk
n ot h a e de ise d t h e m Th e Tu ish ac c ount t h at h e w as a ho
. ly
v y y r
man w h o de ise d t h e s st e m in e a s of me dit at ion is uit e in ac c o danc e q r
w r l r
it h O ie nt a t adit ion, and is inde e d singul aI Iy ik e h at h appe ne d l w
rly A r b q r r
in t h e c ase of t he e a a c on ue o s w h o f o o e d out t he ide as ll w
d v i d by M h m i l
e se ly m di i
a o et n one e t at on .
1 08 TH E TURKI S H O CCUPATI O N

this tribute b egan to drain the Christi an l an ds an d to

stre n gthen the O ttoma n s At first the n umber of j an i .

z aries appears to have bee n small and their i n fluence w as ,

therefore n ot so overwhelmi n g as it subseque n tly proved .

But there seems n o doubt that the i n stitutio n goes back

to the age of O rkh an ( probably an d it is cert ai n ,

therefore that the O ttoma n s possessed a small force of

,

p aid i n fa n try an d a larger on e of paid cav alry— that is the

germ of a n ation al stan di n g army — before an y Wester n
1 ’
sovereig n s did The Wester n host of O rkhan s time
.

co n sisted of feudal levies of hired merce n aries an d of , ,

soldiers who were p aid o n ly duri n g the period of a war

the Serb E mpire relied on merce n aries an d on baro n s an d
pe as an ts whos e atte n d an ce it was di ffi cult to e n force the
E aster n E mpire had i n deed the germ of a sta n di n g army
but had n o n atio n al pri n ciple to b ack it .

I n t actics an d str ategy the O ttoma n s seem to have

excelled Wester n natio n s as much as they did in perma n e n t
org anis atio n for war The light horse whose evolutio n s
.
,

an d rapidity v an quished E urop e a n he avy cavalry had ,

le ar n t much from the Tartars who were the supreme ,

military au thorities both u n der Zin ghis an d Timur I t .

was they who taught the O ttoma n s th at cav alry drill

“ ”
which caused their li n e to move like a wall an d which ,

w as so admired for its perfectio n The discipli n e of the .

j a n iz aries who w e re trai n ed from the age of eight

,

ye ars w as n ecessarily superior to that of other soldiers

,
.

Moreover they represe n ted that new arm of i n fan try

,

which w as r apidly destroyi n g th e feud al heavy cavalry .

Th e characteristic Turkish method of fi ghti n g in battle

seems to h ave bee n to cover the fro n t with c av alry scouts
an d irregul ar i n fa n try to operate with light c av alry on
,

the fl an ks an d to keep the j an iz aries in the ce n tre As .

1 V id G ibb e d B ury V II 5
on , e 6 7 o t
. r t H ,
A G
. ibb2o , n. c n as . . ns,

1 1 7
— 21 T.h fir t W t r
e t di gs r my w th t
es e n t bl i h d by
s an n a as a es a s e

C h rla es V . of F r anc e in t he midd e l of t h e fif t e e nt h c e nt u ry .

1 10 TH E TURKI SH O CC UPATI O N

regular e stablishm e nt the dri ll and th e discip l in e e xpl ain

, ,

the mo n oto n ous record of thre e ce n turies of military

victory The legisl atio n of O rkhan rendered the true
.

O ttom an a soldier in nature as well as by trai n ing His .

political i n di ff ere n ce w as th at of a soldier his vices o f ,

cruelty an d lust his virtues of temp e rance and s e re n ity

,

and e n dura n ce were equally of th e camp

,
.

M ilitary e ffi cie n cy does not at all explai n why the

,

Turks could mai n tai n a political empire for six

ce n turies which i n creas e d its bou n daries and power
,

for three For that result the political reforms u n der

.

O rkha n were respo n sible The aim was to devise a

.

system which would secure O ttoma n supr e macy and

attract the Christi an races With this e n d in V i e w a
.

disti n ctive dress of flowi n g rob e s was pr e scrib e d for all

O ttom an s an d a n e w O ttoma n coi n ag e sup e rs e ded the
,

Selj uk an d Byza n ti n e curre n ci e s Thes e r e forms origi n

.

ated about 1 32 8 but the subs e qu e n t worki n g out of

,

the ideas u n derlyi n g them took mor e than a c e n tury . .

The fu n dame n t al pri n ciple was th e sup e riority of the

M o hammed an to the Christia n mark e d by the fact ,

th at the l atter paid t axes in mo n ey and the former

taxes in blood All ofli c e s in the State an d all posts
.

in the army were co n fi n ed to M ussulm an s Christia n s ,

whe n employed served always in subordi n ate c ap acities

, .

Christi an s w e re n ot ge n er ally allow e d to s e rv e in the

army but were with certai n exceptio n s give n complete
, , ,

lib e rty of private worship There was a fairly com .

p l e t e religious tolera n ce an d a fairly complete political

i n toler an c e A Christia n was at liberty to worship

.

his God in his ow n Church but he w as debarred ,

from high o ffi ce an d ra n k in the State Yet o n ce a .

Christia n abj ured Christ for Mahomet he was able to

rise to a n ythi n g except the Sult an ate A P al e ologus .

became a fam ous admir al in the sixtee n th ce n tury u n der

the n ame of Pi ali P ash a an d he is but on e of m an y
,
 TH E TURKI SH O CCU PATI O N 1 1 1

i n stances to show that a man who b e com e s a

Moh ammeda n becomes at once an equal of an y O tto
man wh atever his previous r e ligio n may have bee n
,
.

The O ttom an system reg ards the religio n n ot the ,

race of a man an d o n e c an still occ asi o n ally see in the

, ,

O ttoma n army a coarse thick lipp e d Nubia n comma n di n g

,
-

a force of thi n lipped Arabs or of superior looki n g

-

A n atolian p e asa n ts This policy attr acted me n to

.

I sl am while at th e same time it did n ot directly

,

persecute Christia n s The fou n datio n s of belief were

.

s apped by the pickax e of i n t e r e st an d th e spade of

politic al adv an tage .

I n the matter of toleratio n th e O ttoma n s aff orded a

complete co n trast to all Christ e n dom The hatred of .

the Lati n s an d the Greeks for on e anoth e r was i n te n se ,

an d a lasti n g caus e of divisio n It was th e m ai n reaso n .

which i n duc e d O rthodox Christia n s wh e th e r Serb , ,

Byza n ti n e or Gr ee k to acquiesce in th e O ttoma n rule

, , .

Th e ir attitude of mi n d is well illustrated by the so n g

which tells that George B ran k ov itc h the despot of North ,

Serbia o n ce asked Joh n Hu n yadi what religio n he w ould

,

e n force on Serbs if h e saved the m from the Turk .

”
“
Th e Lati n s aid the great Hu n g aria n with decisio n
, .

Gre atly perturbed Despot G e orge put the same questio n

,
“
to the Turkish Sultan I will build a church n ear
.

e very mosqu e s aid the Sultan ; I will l e av e th e

,
“

people to bow in the mosques or to cross th e mselves in

the churches as they will ”
This story is u n q uesti o n ably
.

true in spirit if n ot in fact The m ass of Gr e ek Chris .

tia n s preferred limited toleratio n u n der the Turk to

u n limited persecutio n u n d e r the Lati n Co o peratio n .

betwee n Greek an d Lati n w as always u n willi n g ; they

reviled on e a n other as dogs and in fide ls eve n while
they spoke of agreeme n t an d u n io n The Serb rulers .
,

who treated with R ome in their extremity u n doubtedly ,

h aste n ed the destructi on of their cou n try by so d oi n g .

1 12 TH E TURKI SH O CCUPAT I O N

Their O rthodox subj ects rebelled ag ainst them or ,

o pe n ed the gates of fortresses to the Turk r ather

tha n to the Pope The fall of Co n sta n ti n ople was u n
.

doubtedly h aste n ed by the u n que n ch able G reek hatr e d

for the A z ymite Lati n s
“
I t is o n ly in the most
.

rece n t times that O rthodox and Lati n Christia n s have

bee n i n duc e d to c o operate as fellow Slavs in Bos n ia an d
- -

Cro atia I f this b arrier has bee n of such practical im

.

porta n c e ev e n in our ow n times its importan ce may be ,

im agi n ed in the M iddle Ages I n an y case the hatred of

.
,

on e B alka n r ace for the other of Greek for Serb and

, ,

of Serb for M agy ar was acute The Latin an d th e

,
.

Greek rites were both i n tolera n t of di ff ere n ces of opi n io n .

The Turkish policy o ff ered bett e r t e rms than the Lati n ,

an d was therefore preferable to it D iv ide e r imp e ra .

has e ver bee n the maxim of Turkish policy and limit e d ,

toleratio n was its most e ff ective lever .

The last ge n eral cause of Turkish victory and

empir e must be sought in that perso n al and moral r egio n
wher e so much of history is accide n tally shaped I t .

h app e n ed that for two c e nturies the leaders of the

O ttom an s were ge n erally m e n of perso n ality and pow e r ,

true leaders brave ge n erals or wise statesm e n L e ss of

, , .

a dir e ct accide n t is the fact th at the O ttoma n s were as ,

a race superior in morality to those whom they co n quered

, .

’
I n the early st ages of a n atio n s co n versio n to M oham
m e dan ism their elev ation an d purity of life is ofte n
,

most m arked I t was so in the cas e of the Arabs for a

.

ge n eratio n aft e r the death of M ahomet it was so for ,

several g e n e r atio n s after the de ath of O thma n Sulta n s .

an d pe as an ts alike were m e n of simple faith ear n est ,

ideals and heroic bravery I t is n ot till the d ays of

,
.

B ayezid I an d M ahomet the Co n queror that we get an y

.

real evid e n ce of corruption amo n g the rulers an d their

followers Thus duri n g the days th at Kossovo was w on
.

the Serbians w e r e opposed by a natio n full of moral

1 14 THE T URK ISH O cc UPATl oN

Turkish gover n ors an d j an izaries ruled in the towns ,

spahis had estat e s in the cou n try Ar n auts or M us

,

limise d Ser b s appeared but the m aj ority of Serbia

,

was n ev e r M ohammeda n I t is worth while tryi n g

.

to ascertai n the true reaso n of this fi delity to the

O rthodox Church an d the Serbia n n atio n ality Serbia .

diEe rs from all other Balk an n atio n s in the very im

porta n t fact th at a sm all fr agme n t of the Serbi an r ace
n ever yielded at all to the Turks The battle which
.

the dwellers on the Bl ack M ou n tai n ( M o n te n egro )

fought with the Turks l asted for fi v e ce n turies an d
e n ded in the triumph of freedom I t will b e described
.

in more detail elsewher e here it is e n ough to say th at

,

the moral e ff ect of this i n depe n de n ce reacted per

e t uall on the Serbia ns u n der Turkish rule I t
p y .

spurred them co n stan tly to revolt and o ff ered them a

,

city of refuge whe n that revolt was u n succ e ssful But .

M o n te n egro was n ot the o n ly mou n tai n fortress that

could be defended agai n st the Turk All alo n g a li n e .

from the D an ube to the Alb an i an Alps are c aver n s ,

forests an d hills which formed the lairs of desperate an d

,

broke n m e n Chath am said of the America n s there

.

”
alw ays rem ai n ed to them their woods an d their liberty .

These wild foresters or mou n t ai n eers the Robi n Hoods,

an d Willi am Tells of Serbia n lege n d w e re k n ow n as

,

uskoks or heyduk e s They lurked in their wild hau n ts

.

like their a n cestors of old ever ready to destroy small

,

bodies of me n an d swift to fly i n to pathless marsh or

,

forest whe n large forces moved agai n st them I t is .

said an d the story is probably true th at eve n in the

, ,

R ud n ik H ills there are fortresses an d hidi n g pl aces which -

h ave n ever bee n pe n etr ated by the Turk I t is at an y .

rate certai n th at they did not do so for sev e ral ce n turies .

The stories of this fi erce an d desperate resista n ce were

well k n ow n am on g the Serbi an families w h o had sub
m it te d to the Turk an d tales rou n d the he arthsto n e
,
 TH E TURKI S H O C C UPATI O N 1 1 5

spoke as much of the doi n gs of the loc al briga n ds as

of Dusha n the mighty an d M arko the hero Thus .

memory an d hope the two sources of n atio n ality n ever

, ,

died out amo n g the S e rbians as th e y did amo n g the

Al b ania n s an d Bos n ia n s .

The settleme n t of Ser b ia an d th e applicatio n to it of

the Turkish feudal an d military system exte n ded ov e r
sev e ral ce n turies The Turkish pe n etratio n an d in
.

fi ltratio n of la n ds i n habi ted or co n quered by the Serbia n s

bega n almost immedi ately after the death of D usha n ,

but the process w as n ot in an y degree complete till the

seve n tee n th ce n tury perh aps in the true se n se n ever
,

complete at all I n M ace do n i a an d Serbi a as a whole

.

the process beg an by dem an di n g co n ti n ge n ts for the

O ttom an army from n at i ve depe n de n t pr i n ces Such .

were the troops supplie d by M arko Kralj e v it c h an d by

K n ez L az ar A treaty subseque n t to Kossovo in 1 389
.

arra n ged th at K n ez Stephe n should supply 1 000 c av alry

to the Turkish army an d pay tribute of 1 0 00 pou n ds
of silv e r Simil ar arra n geme n ts supplied the Serbia n
.

levies which fought at Nicopolis an d at Angora This .

early arra n geme n t co n ti n ued in on e form or a n other

throughout the Turkish domi n atio n of Serbia I t is .

on e of consider able importa n c e for it viol ated the O tto ,

m an rule th at Christians should n ot serve in the army 1

.

This was an i n ge n ious policy for a people n ot allowed ,

to use arms must eve n tu ally become u n w arlike I t was .

therefore fortu n ate for th e Serbi an s th at a part of the

co n ti n ge n t from Serbia ( as also from the Catholic
Alb an i an tribes ) alw ays co n sisted o f Christi an s I n this .

way th ose Serbi an s who submitte d to the Turks t e

mai n ed accustomed to the u se of arms O n e fact .

1 r h v lw y b
The e a ex pi a hi r l
a s b h y
een e ce t ons to t s u e, ut t e ha v e

lly b i h
usua ee n f d p d
n t p i
e i
c ase W o ll h i e en e nt 1 n c e s, as n a ac a, or of

g d r m r i V i l F i l y V 46
en a e e. T w rd h
ee d f h
n a , .v n. o a s t e en O t e se e nt e e nt h

ry C hr i i b g
c e nt u b dmi d
st ans hig h p l i i l ffi
e an t o e a tte to o t ca o ce.
1 1 6 TH E TURKI SH O CCUPATI O N

which re n dered the l an d settlement in Serbia e asier th an

in m an y l an ds w as that the w ars destroyed almost all
the gre at n ative l an dow n ers of Serbi a L arge n umbers .

of Serbia n n obles were killed or behe ad e d after Kossovo

an d other b attles an d duri n g the fi ftee n th ce n tury most
,

of the sur v ivors so ught refuge in the hills or fled to

Bos n ia an d M o n te n egr o Co n se q ue n tly there w as n o
.

fear th at the Serbia n n obles would retai n their l an ds on

co n ditio n of b e comi n g Turks as did the n obles of Bos n i a
,

an d Alb an ia The result in both c ases was to alien ate

.

the people from their aristocr acy for Bos n ia n n obles ,

an d Alb an ia n beys h ave alw ays oppressed those of

their subj ects th at were Christi an I n Serbia the .

aristocracy eve n t ually dis appe ared an d upo n the peasa n t

,

democracy of n ative Chri s tia n s arose a feud al an d

milit ary oligarchy of Turks This produced more
.

oppressio n as Turkish l an dow n ers n atur ally sided with

,

the Turkish Gover n me n t but it also welded the Serbs

,

i n to a n atio n The la n d policy followed the system of

.

O rkha n . Parts of the l an d were portio n ed ou t as feud al

fi e f s to supply the ge n eral levy of irregul ar c av alry o ther ,

parts w e re give n to thos e sp ahis as they were c alled , ,

who formed the chief regular c av alry I n M acedo n ia .

f eudal gr an ts were m ade on a l arge sc ale an d there still ,

exist some Turkish l an dow n ers with castles an d feudal

estates which they cl aim to have held in here ditary
desce n t for fi v e ce n turies But in Serbia the dist rib u
.

tio n of fi e f s to Turkish settlers w as certai n ly less th an

in M acedo n i a p ar tly b e c ause of the di ffi culties of sub
,

dui n g the i n terior of Rashka partly because the levy

,

dem an ded from the Serbi an districts always i n cluded

Christi an s These Christia n s were probably supplied
.

by those i n depe n de n t Christi an n obles or district

gover n ors k n ow n as the B ashi K n ez who occupied -

co n sider able districts I n ge n er al the tow n s of Serbi a

.
,

which were few an d h ad bee n alw ays i n habited by

1 1 8 TH E TURK I SH O CCUPAT I O N

an
y re al i nj uries were i n flicted o n the Serbi an s C or .

ruptio n an d extortio n are almost i n sep ar able from

Turkish rule because the legitimate salaries of o ffi cials
,

are n ever su fli c ie n t for their n eeds As years we n t on an d .

ce n tr al co n trol relaxed the pashas became corrupt and their

,

o fli c ial s extortio n ate an d cruel But for some co n siderable .

time the fi n an ci al oppressio n w as kept withi n bo un ds .

The Serb ia n p ash aliks were divided i n to n ah ie s or

districts pr e sided over by kadis for the purposes of
1
j ustice an d civil gover n me n t The k adis simply existed .

to protect the rights of O ttoma n subj ects in Serbia “

”
“
Political o ff e n ces alo n e were pu n ishable with death .

A Christi an who disobeyed or i n sulted or killed a Turk ,

or refused to pay tribute was at once summo n e d ,

be f ore the k adi an d his pu n ishm e n t w as summary an d

,

swift A k adi usu ally m ade his ow n rules of procedure

.
,

an d could de fi n e almost a n ythi n g as a politic al o ff e n ce

i f he wished to be rid of a troublesome Christia n L e ss .

serious o ff e n ces such as th e murder of a Christia n by a

,

Christi an were pu n ished by mo n ey fi n e s usu ally imposed

, ,

o n the whole district where the murder occurred The .

kadi was respo n sible o n ly to the pasha but if disturb ,

an c e s occurred freque n tly in his district he was liable

to removal or to death .

U n til almost the e n d of the seve n t e enth ce n tury

there were l arge districts of the Serbi an soil occupied
by the B ashi Kn e z e s Th e se perso n s were usually the
-
.

desce n dan ts of Serbia n n obles or pri n ces who had become

depe n de n t upo n th e Turk an d had ma n aged by their ,

services to w in his goodwill an d retai n their l an ds t e

F our p h l ik w r
1 ompr i d i
as a th
s mod r k i g dom of S r b i
e e c se n e e n n e a,

e x l udi g No ib
c n Pr i t iv d M
az ar, d i Th p h l ik of
s na, an ac e on a. e as a

B l gr d
e a out h f r om S h b t
e ran s l o g t h D ri t o U hit d t ur d
a a z a n e na s z e an ne

e ast t o th M r v ju t b v K u h t
e o a a x t di g f r om t h r i
s a o e r s e va z , e en n e e n a

n or t h t rly dir
-
e as et io to th D ub
ec r O r v Th p h l ik of
n e an e ne a so a. e as a s

L e sk ov at z , Nish , and W iddin c om

pr ise d t he te rri r i r
to es ound t h e se

r
t h e e t o ns w .
 TH E TURKI SH O CCUPATI O N 1 19

i n t act I n their ow n districts the B ashi Kn e z e s

l at iv e l y .
-

were respo n sible o n ly t o the pash a at Belgr ade S o lo n g .

as they supplied m e n f o r the army an d mo n ey for the

tribute to p ash a an d Sult an they were i n depe n de n t , .

The k adis had n o j urisdictio n an d the Turks n o h abita

tio n s withi n their districts Thus l arg e porti on s of the .
l

Serbi an soil were withdraw n almost wholly from Turkish

j urisdicti on The rebellio n of St Sava in 1 5 95 c aused
. .

the exti n ctio n of a n umber of districts held by the Bashi

Kn e z e s an d that of 1 6 89 caused the fall of n e arly all
,
2
the rest E ve n so however a few survived an d the
.
, , ,

exploits of the warlike heydukes kept other r e mot e

parts of Serbia fr e e from Turkish rule .

So lo n g as they got their soldiers an d their mo n ey

an d protected M ussulma n s agai n st the i n fi del dogs the ,

Turks cared very l ittle about civil gover nm e n t He n ce .

e ach n ah ie or district w as gover n ed by an O bor—K n ez ,

’
a Serbi an elected by the people subj ect to the pasha s
approval The O bor K n ez was respo n sible for the
.
-

order of the district an d was assisted for that purpose ,

by a force of p an durs ( armed police ) I n all executive .

m atters he w as legally co n trolled by the kadi to whom he ,

w as respo n sible He w as the represe n tative of the

.

Christia n s of the district in all rel atio n s with the k adi

or p ash a H e assessed its taxatio n an d w as respo n sible
.

for deliveri n g the right amou n ts His j udici al fun ctio n s .

were particularly imp ortan t bec ause he j udged the ,

Serbi an s accordi n g to their old l aws an d customs assig n ,

in g pe nalties an d settli n g disputes I n re ality he h ad .

executive fu n ctio n s for it w as to the i n terest of all

,

Christi an s th at his j udgme n ts sh ould be c arried out

an d his decisio n s fi nal I f they were n ot the m atter .
,

was re ferred to the k adi an d the kadi had a swift an d ,

C h i fly i w t r
1 e d m u t i ou p r t of S r b i r ou d N ib
n e s e n an o n a n s a s e a, n ov az ar.
2 Th e l ast B ash i -
K ne z die d as a r
B it ish V ic e -
C onsu l in B osnia
in 1 82 1 .
1 20 TH E TU RKI SH O CCU PATI O N

n ot alw ays agreeable method of settli n g disputes The .

s ame pri n ciples applied with gre ater force in the vill ages
i n to which e ach n ahie or district w as divided E ach .

vill age was ruled by a k n ez or village he adma n popul arly ,

elected by the village cou n cil The Serbia n commu n e

.

had always bee n democr atic an d the Turkish co n q uest

,

in n o way i n terfered with its ch ar acter Spe aki n g .

ge n erally all the n atio nal dep artme n ts of gover n me n t

,

were destr oyed or O sm an ise d but all the org an s of loc al

,

self g o ver n me n t were left i n tact The result w as t o

-
.

i n crease an d devel op their utility an d whe n the n ati on al

,

i n surrectio n came it was th e k n e z e s who u n ited with

,

the heydukes an d e n sured the success of t he revolt .

O n the whole the Turkish rule duri n g those ce n turies

,

do e s n ot appe ar to have bee n as oppres sive as th at of

a L ati n co n queror might have bee n The Serbia n s were .

n ot forced to fors ake their religio n n or much i n terfered

,

with in their loc al gover n me n t O ccasi on ally a ve n al

.

or a sav age pasha impoverished or depopulated the in

h abitan ts of particular districts But the co n ti n ual
.

Serbia n revolts which we e n cou n ter in the fi ftee n th an d

sixtee n th ce n turies were produced less by oppressio n
tha n by ge n er al restless n ess an d by disturba n ce fr om
o utside Th e i n depe n de n ce of the heydukes of the
.
,

B ashi Kn e z e s an d of M o n te n egro stimul ated an d kept

-
,

alive the stubbor n n ation al spirit of th e Serbi an s .

The chiefgrieva n ce of the Serbia n s as of all Christi an s , ,

was the i n stitutio n of the j a n izaries This was simply .

a system by which the Turk levied a t ax of childre n

up on his Christi an subj ects an d made use of the so n s
,

t o oppress an d sl ay the fathers This i n famous t ax o f

.

huma n flesh could n ot at fi rst h ave bee n he avy for ,

eve n in the d ays of M ahom e t the Seco n d the n umber of

j an iz aries w as rel atively small But they were recko n ed
.

at m an y th o u s an ds in the reig n o f S uleim an d

( .

by which time its e ff ects must hav e bee n felt E very .

I 22 TH E TURK I SH O CCUPAT I O N

provi n ces s uch as Serbi a where the j an iz aries were

,

g arriso n ed in the tow n s they ofte n showed cruelty

,

a n d o pressio n But spe aki n g ge n erally n either the

p .
,

j a n iz ar i es n or the spahis
,
n or the Turkish r égime in

Serbi a as a whole were u n e n dur able to the subj ect race

,

up to the e n d of the sixtee n th ce n tury .

A n immedi ate practic al result from the Turkish c on

quests in the fi ftee n th ce n tury was a l arge migratio n of
Serbi an s across the D an ube i n to South H un gary This .

migr atio n is k n ow n t o have bee n e n couraged by George

B ran k ovit c h in the middle of the fi ftee n th ce n tury an d ,

prob ably bega n much earlier Despot George had

.

acquired l arge estates in Hu n gary an d had peopled them ,

with Serb ia n s Subse q ue n tly Serbi an r e fugees i n cre ased

.
,

an d l arge tracts i n Slavo n ia i n cludi n g sever al tow n s

,

were peopled e n tirely by them They struggled w it li

,

difli c ul t y to m ai n tai n their free st atus an d their Greek

faith agai n st the Lati n ised Hu n gari an s I n all prob a .

b ilit y their lot w as actu ally improved by the Turkish

co n quest of Hu n gary in 1 5 2 6 D uri n g the Turkish.

occup atio n of Hu n g ary ma n y settlers were imported

from Serbia to settle in the Hu n gari an pl ai n Sub .

seque n tly this settleme n t was to be of great educatio n al

import an ce an d it is n o exagger atio n to say th at the
,

Serbi an s of Serbi a were saved from desp air by the Serbia n s

of M o n te n egro an d from ig n ora n ce by the Serbs of
South Hu n gary The st ubbor n n ess of the Serbi an resist
.

a n ce to the O ttoma n rule is show n by th e ir co n stan t

revolts in the sixtee n th ce n tury .

While the S ultan s were co n queri n g Hu n gary an d

c arryi n g t e rror to the walls of Vie n n a the i n do m it able,

Serbi an s wer e still distr acti n g Turkish forces by their

revolts I t was n ow th at the positio n of the Church
.

bec ame of supreme importa n ce The Serbi an Patriarch

.

of I pek from 1 5 92 — 1 6 1 4 w as J ov an an d like all

S e rbian Patriarchs he w as as natio n al an d i n de pe n de n t as

 TH E TURKI SH O CCUPATI O N 1 2
3
’

he d ared to be The st atus of the Serbi an Church w as

.

p e culi ar I n 1 35 2 i t had bee n excommu n icated by the

.

Greek Patriarch of C on sta n ti n ople but in 1 374 the b an ,

had bee n removed at the request o f K n ez L az ar an d the ,

i n depe n de n t an d autocephalous ch aracter of the Church

had bee n agai n ack n owledged But whe n M ahomet .

the Co n queror co n quered Co n sta n ti n ople he used the

Byza n ti n e Patriarch as a tool Bei n g at Co n sta n ti n ople .
,

this o ffi cial was u n able to resist the Turkish pressure ,

an d was always a pli an t an d usually a ve n al i n strume n t

of Turkish policy The authority of the Greek Patriarch

.

was exte n ded in order to support the Turkish rule an d ,

in the middle of th e fiftee n th ce n tury his authority w as

exte n ded over th e autocephalous Church of I pek I t .

will be remembered how ear n estly an d successfully

St Sava had strive n to ema n cip ate the Serbi an Church
.

from the Greek Archbishop of O c hrida The d anger of .

submissio n to Co n sta n ti n ople was n ow much greater for ,

this w as the fi rst i n troductio n of the Ph an ariot system .

1

This Pha n ariot r égime m e a n t a mixed system of Turkish

an d Greek i n flue n ce directed by t he Patri arch of
Co n sta n ti n ople This system w as n ot directly applied
.

to Serbi a for the Serbia n n atio n al Church was placed

,

under th e autoceph alous Archbishop of O ch rida who was ,

a Greek but i n depe n de n t of the P atriarch of Co n sta n ti

n o l e an d n ot devoted to the Pha n ariot system I t is
p .

n ot cle ar how f ar the system w as re ally applied to Serbia

in the fi ftee n th ce n tury because the Archbishop of ,

2
O c h rida w as subj ect to Serbi an loc al pressure But .

there c an be n o doubt that it i nj ured an d impoverish e d

1 SO ca ed ll f r om Ph ana r , b rb
a su u of C onst ant ino
pl e l
pe op e d by
G r k ee s.
2 re
’
J i é k ( G / d B lg e
pp 4 6 6 —
are J
7) p . er u are n, . oint s out t hat t h e se rvice

b k
oo O h id h v r
s, e t c . , at f S rb i fl
c r a a e t ac e s o e n ue nc e r
in t he fou t e e nt h and

fif ht e e nt ri d h ly i h middl
c e nt u e s, an t at on n t e e x
of t h e si t e e nt h is t he
Gr k i flee g i pr m
n ue nc e a a n su e e.
1 24 TH E TURKI SH O CCUPATI O N

the Serbi an n atio n al life I n 1 5 5 7 the ex Serbi an

.
-

Gra n d Vizier S ok ol ov it c h restored to th e Serbians their

n atio nal Church I n this measur e he was n o doubt
.

st no n l i n flue n c e d by his broth e r M ac arius a Serbi an

gy ,

mo n k who m he made the Patriarch of th e restor e d

,

Serbia n Church Ip e k o n ce more beca me th e seat of a

.

Patri arch w h o was autocephalous an d a n atio n al Serbia n

ch ampio n E ve n so there was quite e n ough d an ger
.
,

from the O ttoma n s Ma n y of the Christia n ch urches had

.

bee n tur n ed i n to mosques or de fi le d and appropriated

,

to civil uses The the ory was that Christi an s must n ot

.

co n duct their worship so as op e n ly to o ff e n d or compete

with the M ussulm an s But in practice an u nlimited
.

measure of toleratio n for privat e worship was allow e d ,

and gradu ally public worship was again permitted .

Some p art of the tax e s was devoted to V ak uf s ,

or funds for M oh ammeda n religious Obs e rva n c e s .

The result of this policy was to lesse n th e total of funds

n ecessary for Christi an religiou s purposes Many of the
.

m o n asteries wer e rui n ed an d aba n do n ed others su b sist e d

,

o n th e precarious basis of vol un tary o ff eri n gs made by

poverty stricke n p e as an ts E ducatio n su ff ered e v e n

-
.

more th an religio n proper Thous an ds of precious .

ma n uscripts were lost in the rui n of mo n asteries or fell

victims to the co n tempt of th e Turks or to the i n ce n diary
ze al of Ph an ariot Greeks who d e stroyed all Slavo n ic
,

writi n gs O n e great source of the preservatio n of

.

Slavo n ic liturgies an d literatur e w as the pri n ti n g press

set up at O bod by the Bishop of Mo n te n egro in 1 493 .

This press was e ve n tu ally smashed by the Turks but it ,

had served its purpose Duri n g the tim e whe n th e

.

da n gers o f helle n is atio n were greatest it pri n ted books

in the Sl avo n ic to n gue an d di ff used them through Serbia
their S pre ad must h ave do n e much to preserve th e
n atio n al to n gue an d ide as at the mome n t of sorest n eed .

Schools natur ally su ff ered like the ma n uscripts for the

I 26 TH E T U R KI S H O CC UPATI ON

though he did n ot yet remov e th e da ng e r of an in

,

depe n de n t Patriarch at Ipek .

Throughout the whole of th e s e vent e e n th century

the Turkish power steadily d e cli n e d I t is u n fortunate .

for their Christi an subj ects that the Turk l S alw ays more
d an gerous an d tyr an n ical as he grows we aker So it was .

i n the seve n tee n th ce n tury . The age of gre at Sultan s had

go n e an d a vizier of the famous Kup rile family rem arked
,

in 1 6 9 1 th at all the Sulta n s si n ce Suleim an ( d 1 5 6 6 ) .

h ad be e n
”
fools or k n aves As in all O rie n tal
.

mo n archies the e ffi cie n cy an d purity of the members

,

depe n ded on th at of the he ad The co n seque n ces of we ak

.

rule were at o n ce felt in the muti n ous spirit of the

j an izaries in the lack of prepar atio n for w ar above all
, ,

in the corruptio n an d oppressio n of the Christia n s As .

the ce n tral co n trol weake n ed the loc al la n dow n ers an d

p ashas ruled as they wished tortured oppressed and
, , ,

tyra n n ised over the n ative Christi an s A Christi an had .

n o leg al rem e dy ag ai n st robbery rape or murder if

, ,

committed by an O ttom an u n til the me asures of the last

Kup ril e in 1 6 9 1 .E ve n so th e ho n our of Serbi an
,

wome n an d the life of Serbi an men depe n ded on th e

c aprice or goodwill of their masters A power such as .

w as wielded by the Turk depe n ded on goodwill an d

s alut ary n eglect on the p art of loc al o ffi ci als Whe n .

the loc al p asha w as i n depe n de n t of the Sulta n the lot of ,

the Christia n might be a hard on e .

The great Powers of E urope were so occupied with

struggles 1n the West that they had little time to sp are
for the East Co n seque n tly the dec ay of Turkey was
.

n ot disastrous to her until the e n d of the seve n tee n th

ce n tury The sig n s already p oi n ted th at w ay whe n the

.

Austri an Ge n er al M on t e c uc ull i i n flicted a he avy defe at

o n the Turks at St G o th ard in 1 6 6 4 This w as the
. .

fi rst decisive l an d victo ry w o n ag ai n st the Turks an d ,

sho w ed cle arly that they were n o lo n ger the progressive

 TH E TU RKI S H O C C U PA TI O N 1 2 7

power that they had been Their military ideas were.

old fashio n ed their arm ame n ts o n ce the admiratio n of

,

E urope were out of d ate the discipli n e of th e famous

,

j a n izar i es was go n e I n a l ast fr an tic e ff ort of e n ergy

.

the O ttoma n s adva n ced to the siege of Vi e n n a in 1 6 83 .

The Serbia n hopes rose high whe n they wer e defeated

an d forced to a disgr aceful retre at which bec ame the pre ,

lude to a lo n g series of dis asters The citadel of Bud a

.

was fi n ally w on b ack to Christe n dom in 1 6 86 an d most of ,

Hu n gary w as reco n quered in the n ext ye ar Belgr ade .

was c aptured by the Austri an s for the fi rst time in 1 6 88 .

The Serbi an s of South Hu n g ary r o se in revolt agai n st

their Turkish m asters an d were aided by their brethre n
in Serbi a . The Austri an s were f or a time resistless ;
their sta n d ards Waved in the heart of the Turkish E mpire ,

they captured S k oplj é an d stood victorious o n the fat al

,

field of Kossovo The n the tide tur n ed so f ar as the

.
,

Serbia n s were co n cer n ed an d the O ttom an s recaptured

,

Belgrade an d all Serbi a The Pe ace of C arlowitz ( 1 6 6 9)

.

ceded all Hu n gary except the B an at of Temesv ar to the

Austria n s I t is rem ark able also for the fact that i t
.

ceded Azov to Russi a made her a Bl ack Sea power an d

, ,

brought the Sl av Colossus on the road to the B alkans .

Yet for the time bei n g th e gre at Sl av Power was too

distan t to aff ord the Serbi an s an y e ff ectu al support I t .

was Austria alo n e who could protect them from the

Turk .

Th e n egoti atio n s which centred rou n d the Serbi an

P atriarch Arse n 1 1 1 duri n g this period are of si n gul ar
.

i n terest He seems to h ave bee n a level he aded patriotic

.
-

Serbi an an d it is n ot cert ai n th at his policy at best a

, ,

choice of da n gers did n ot ch oo se the lesser evil E ve n

,
.

at this e arly date R ussi an an d Austri an i n terests beg an

to cl ash in the B alkan s At fi rst the Serbi an s welcomed

.

the Austri an vict ories with tr an sports but Arsen 1 1 1 , .

very soo n discovered that the Emperor Le opold i n te n ded

I 28 TH E TURKI SH O CCU PA T IO N

to force the Lati n rites upo n the liberated Serbi an s .

Co n se q u e n tly he beg an to n egoti ate with Russi a for

support of the O rthodox faith The Serbi an peasa n ts
.

wer e not as kee n sighted as Arse n an d they were in

-

duce d to support Austria n arms by promises of plu n der

an d the memory of their wro n gs George B ran k ov it c h
.
,

an alleged desce n d an t of th at famous Serbi an family was ,

us e d by the Austri an s to r aise the Serbi an s to rev olt .

A successful i n vasio n of Serbi a took pl ace an d an ,

Austria n force re ached Arse n at I pek in 1 6 89 Br an ko .

v itc h ,
who h ad bee n procl aimed Serbi an Despot w as ,

tre acherously seized an d impriso n ed for the rest of his

life by the suspicious A ustri an s This actio n combi n ed
.
,

with the lukew arm attitude of Arse n caused the

Serbia n pe asa n ts to lose heart The plumed helmets of
.

th e K aiser s soldiers an d the black robes of the Jesuits

’

w ho came with them soo n became as h ateful in their

sight as the turb an s an d the muezzi n s of the i n fi del .

Thus it was th at the Serbia n auxili aries melted away in

the wi n ter of 1 6 89 an d sought their ow n hearthsto n es
,

rather tha n fi ght for the Austri an dogs with their sh ave n
an d celib ate priests The military results were speedily
.

see n Nish w as occupied by the Turks at o n ce an d

.
,

eve n tually the vale of the Morava an d Belgrade fell o n ce

more i n to their ha n ds The Austri an armies were
.

ev e rywhere in retreat the Serbia n auxili aries in hidi n g

, .

I n a n ticipatio n of a s uccessful c amp aig n a procl amation

calli n g on all Serbi an s to revolt had bee n issued by the
E mperor L e opold in April 1 6 90 The n ews of defeat
.

obliged him to add to his gra n dilo q ue n t uttera n ce a

postscript in which he promised to all Serbia n s migrati n g
i n to Austria n territory full rights of religious worship
an d certai n n atio n al privileges Arse n . whose
positio n became si n gul arly u n s afe with the retur n
of the Turks at o n ce org an ised a vast Serbia n emi
,

g rat ion . O v e r Serbia n families j oined th e

1 30 TH E TURKI SH O CCUPATI O N

E mperor to k e ep those fi n e fighters directly under his

c on trol Arse n 1 1 1 is u n ivers ally bl amed by Serbi an
. .

histori an s for his compl ais an t surre n der to the Austria n

oppress or But it is by n o me an s cert ai n th at the with
.

draw al of this l arge eleme n t of Serbia n s from Serbia

proper did n ot preserve their n atio n al character bett e r
th an it would have do n e if they had rem ai n ed in th e ir
o w n la n d Thought was mor e free an d civilisatio n more
.

accessible on the n orth side of th e Da n ube an d it was ,

in th at regio n that the liter ary re n asce n ce of the Serbia n

r ace w as m ade possible The future developm e n ts of
.

the Serbi an s in Hu n gary will be rel ated elsewhere .

At the e n d of the seve n tee n th ce n tury the Serbi an s

of Serbia had to face the full wrath of the O ttom an ,

deprived of great part of his l an ds an d e n r aged at the ,

Serbia n uprisi n gs which had aided in that disaster .

Duri n g the whole period of the war the Turks appe are d
to the Serbia n s in the n e w light of religious persecutors .

I n reality the Turks had n ot ch an ged an d it is doubt ,

ful whether they hav e e ver persecuted an yo n e purely

because of his religious beliefs All n on M ohamm e da n
.
1 -

races are n ecessarily i n ferior an d therefor e unworthy of

political or milit ary disti n ctio n “
but man ca n n ot c on ,

str ai n the opi n i on s ordai n ed o f God ”

The M oh am .

med an l aw in fact actually forbids the forcible co n versio n

o f an u n believers above the age of uberty an d thus
y p ,

forbids i n terfere n ce with religious O p i n io n “

I f God .

h ad so willed it every m an who liveth on the earth

,

would have believed Wouldest thou be so mad 0

.
,

W h I w i Al b i
1 en as n 9 0 t h B k t hi d rv i h w r b i g
an a I n 1 1 e e as e s es e e e n

ut d
e I Se c t f o t h ir r l ig iou f it h but b
e no r e e u s it w a b l i v d th y e c a se as e e e e
p
h d i t ig t d t h A l b i
a ns a e e t o r v ol t
an ans I h v b ei f r m d t h t t hi
. a e e en n o e a s

fir
is t h e r r
st oc c asion of t h e i pe se c ut ion in Tu rk ry
ish hist o , and so far as
vr y r
I c an e if t h e matt e t h is stat e me nt appe a s t o be t ue r r Ye t t he .

r r
B e kt ash is dat e f om t he f ou t e e nt h c e nt u ry r lly r
and are p ac t ic a f ee
kr
t h in e s I t is safe t o say t h at t he
. yw l v b
ou d h a e r r
e e n mo e
pe se c ut e d

by C r
an
y h i st ian
po e wr
t h an t h e h a e y v b by
e en rk
t h e Tu .
 TH E TU R K I SH O CCUPATI O N 1 5 1

mortal ,
as to seek to compel thy fellow cre atures to -

believe ? N o the soul believeth n ot u n less by the will

,

of G od .

The Turk persecutes Ser b s Bulg ars Greeks or , , ,

Arme n i an s on ly whe n he believes th at their religi ous

beliefs lead them to politic al co n spir acy ag ai n st the
O tt o m an rule I n f act their r eligious beliefs h ave
.
2
,

usu ally led the Serbs in the past t o what the Turks
would reg ard as politic al tre achery I t is t rue th at the .

Turk O fte n persecutes Christia n s on very fl imsy evide n ce

o f c o n spir acy an d th at his pu n ishme n ts are alw ays severe
,

an d freque n tly i n huma n but this fact does n ot prove ,

him to be a religi ous persecutor like Philip 1 1 o r Bloody .

M ary I t o n ly pr o ves that cruelty an d credulity are

.

two O ttoma n v i ces it does n ot pr o ve th at religious

.

i n toler an ce I S a third Certai n ly the treatme n t of the

.

Serbi an s at this period does n ot support the ch arge of

persecutio n on religious grou n ds as such .

Th e relatio n s of the Serbia n s with Leopold of Austri a ,

with Peter the Great of Russi a an d with their free c o m ,

r ades of M on te n egro had n ot bee n those of l oy al ,

Turkish subj ects Further the est ablishme n t of Serbs

.
,

withi n the military fro n tiers of Austria Hu n g ary proved -

a c o n st an t me n ace to the Turkish rule in Serbi a U n der .

these Circumst an ces th e religi ous attitude of the O ttom an

Gover n me n t toward the Serbi an P atri archate was si n gu
l arly p atie n t an d toler an t They mass acred an d imp aled .

a cert ai n n umber of Serbi an s as rebels an d to ok the ,

opportu n ity to abolish almost all the old semi feud al -

liberties of the Bashi Kn e z e s B ut after thes e l e sso n s

-
.

of p olitical i n timidatio n they came to terms on religious

1
Q uote d b y F in a , G reece ly 39 n v . .

v
2 E e n th e
A me nian massac e s e e p o a induc e d
r r w r r b bly f e a of by r
R ussian c onspi ac ie s r q r g rv l r
I n c on ue in a e o t e d dist ic t , c h u c h e s e e
. r wr
some t ime s de file d by
O tt oman s, as t h e ywr
e e some t ime s a
pp op iat e d I n r r
t ime of e ac e
p b p p x
ut t h e se e c e t ions do not im ai t he e ne ar g r
p inc i
p e l r l .
1 32 TH E TU RKI SH O CCUPAT I O N

matters The Turkish Gra n d Vizi e r Kiuprile the las t

.
,

of th at gre at r ace w as a si ngul arly e n li ghte n ed m an an d

,

o n e of the fi rst to m ake legal e ff orts to protect t h e

Christi an subj ects of the P orte He Off ered in 1 6 9 1 to

.

restore i n tact the religious liberties of the Serbi an Church

as gr an ted by M e he me t Sok olo vitc h in 1 5 5 7 After a .

dece n t i n terv al he deposed Arse n 1 1 1 from the P atri .

arc hat e of I pek The n e w Patri arch elected w as Kal in ik

.
,

who m ade a compromise with the Sultan promisi n g th at ,

he would keep the Serbi an s quiet so lo n g as they were

u n molested by the O ttom an s I n fact th e circumstan ces
.
,

were n ot such as allowed the Serbia n s to remai n q uiet .

I n 1 70 2 the Mo n te n egri n s by a bloody massacre of

Mohammed an s l aid the fou n datio n s of their freedom
o n an u n sh ak able basis an d the M o n te n egri n relatio n s
,

with Russi a still further e n couraged an d e n lighte n e d the

Serbia n s of Turkey But a more importan t i n flue n c e
.

was th at of Austria which still c ast greedy eyes on

,
-

Belgrade an d the fair vale of the M orava I n 1 7 1 5 the .

Turks attacked the Austri an s o n ly to m e et with a terrible

vengea n ce from Pri n ce E ug e n e That gr e at ge n eral in.

the l ast o f his V ictories routed the Turks an d o n ce more

’
took Belgrade At the Peace of l assarow itz
which the Turks were forced to co n clude they ,

ceded South Easter n H u n gary ( the B anat of Temesv ar)

-
,

Sl avo n ia Belgr ade an d portio n s of moder n Serbia an d

, ,

Bos n ia Thus for some twe n ty years ( 1 7 1 8—39) the

.

Serbs of Hu n gary an d the Serbi an s were tempor arily

u n ited . The former had been treated with a g ood de al
of O ppressio n by the M agy ar G over n me n t an d their ,

civil an d religious liberties had both bee n viol ated I n .

1 73
5 there was a widespread revolt in Hu n gary which

w as st amped out with brut al cruelty The Serbia n s of

.

the districts rou n d Belgr ade fared little better u n der

Austri an g over n ors R eligi ous persecutio n began an d
.
,

fi n a n ci al an d military levi e s were m ade with exact

 MONTE NE G R O AND H ER S H ARE I N S E RB I A N
NA TI ONA L D E VE L OPME NT

IT is an old s ayi n g in Mo n te n egro that her fate has

bee n n othi n g but war for five ce n turies an d an older ,

s ayi n g i n E urope th at eter n al vigil an ce is the price o f

liberty Each 1 3 as true as such s ay i n gs c an be an d if
.
,

there has alw ays bee n some part of the M o n te n egri n

rocks held by a f e w Christian shepherds an d g oatherds
ag ai n st I sl am this h ard liberty h as o n ly bee n w on by a tire
,

less w arfare Nor has it bee n simply a ce aseless str uggle

.

with m e n agai n st overwhelmi n g odds ; it h as bee n a

struggle agai n st clim ate an d co n diti on s which have im
posed almost superhum an tri als upo n the M on te n egri n s .

Th e relatio n of a Ve n etia n traveller at the begi n n i n g

of the seve n tee n th ce n tury makes it prob able th at the
clim ate was the n warmer an d th at the beech ash an d
, , ,

fi r covered the slopes of the Black M ou n t ai n m ore

thickly th an they do to day But eve n so n ature
-
.
,

must h ave imposed app alli n g tri als of e n dur an ce up on

man . The face of eve n a you n g M o n te n egri n is ofte n
wri n kled from exposure to the we ather ; an d it is
commo n f or him to sleep out on the mou n tai n side -
,

exposed t o the cruel wi n d amid mist an d rai n covered ,

o n ly with a cl oak . I t is o bvious th at the br avest ,

fi ercest an d h ardiest w arri o rs could alo n e survive u n der

,

such co n ditio n s o f n ature an d war f are .

The pr e se n t borders of the cou n try form a rough

1 34
 S E RBIAN D EV EL O PMEN T 1 35

squ are — with a l on g arm stretched out eastw ards alo n g

the Alb an i an Alps This territory was greatly e n l arged
.

both in 1 878 an d agai n in 1 9 1 3 AS it n ow stan ds .

it v e ry fairly correspo n ds to the territory of the O ld

Serb ki n gdom of Zet a Except for the fact th at Zeta
.

had an o utlet to the se a at the port of Cattaro an d a

great fortress in S k odra at the east e n d of the l ake of
Scutari the limits are almost ide n tic al
,
Bu t O ld .

Mo n te n egr o whi c h beat back I sl am for fi v e hu n dred

,

years co n tai n ed h ardly on e fourth of the existi n g terri

,
-

t ory a n d n umbered less th an on e sixth of its populatio n -

.

The approach from the blue b ay of Cattar o at the ,

e n d of which is a medi e v al w alled tow n we dged u n der

the heights leads to the mou n tai n plateau of C e t t inj e

,

up i n fi n itely steep limesto n e cli ff s which sp arkle in the ,

su n like fr o sted silver This great rock barrier with

.
,

M ou n t L ov tc he n as its highest peak is typical of O ld ,

M o n te n egro C attaro was n early always u n der the

.

i n flue n ce of V e n ice an d from it provisio n s could be

,

p ai n fully c arried up the goat tracks to the impreg n able -

1
rock fortresses lyi n g betwee n it an d C e tt inj e I t is .

almost impossible to see how life could have bee n sup

ported amo n g these wilder n esses of bare grey st o n e where ,
”
God threw a shower of gr an ite from heave n acc ordi n g ,

to an old b allad The earth seems to have dis appeared

.

altogether in m an y places leavi n g a heavi n g m ass of

,

sto n es E ve n where there are cultiv ated p atches of

.

e arth some twe n ty feet s q u are they seem to h ave bee n ,

p ai n fully sm oothed in the rock an d the n t o have bee n

c overed with e arth dr aw n from the clefts an d the cr an n ies
in which it h as drifted The co n ditio n s in w i n ter are
.

sometimes app alli n g an d the mou n t ai n which gliste n s

, ,

so brightly in the su n is called Tc h e rn agora or Bl ack

, ,

M ou n t ai n by Mo n te n egri n s from the gloom which the

, ,

1 Th pr et m g ifi
e se nt r o d of Mo t
a n ceng ro of v ry r
a s t n e ne are e ece n

r
c e at ion.
1 36 M O NT E N EG RO AN D

wi n ter rai n an d mist bri ng up on it This is O ld M o n te .

n egro w aterless b arre n an d wildly rom an tic full o f

, , ,

c aves an d gorges an d admirably suited for mou n t ai n

,

w arfare To desc e n d from C e tt inj e to the l ake o f

.

Scutari an d the n follow up the rivers of the M oratc ha

an d the Zeta is to fi n d a wholly di ff ere n t cou n try .

These streams run through v alleys which are bro ad ,

fertile an d smili n g M aize an d tob acc o fi gs apples

,
.
, , ,

ora n ges an d mulberries are e asily cultiv ated an d Podgo

, ,

rit sa the o n ly l arge tow n of m oder n M o n te n egro

,
lies ,

here . I t h as an old Turkish q uarter an d beyo n d it

1
,

ag ai n to the n orth lies the rui n ed Turkish fortress of

Spuz N orth east of this fertile strip lies the district of

.
-

Br da or New M o n te n egro a hilly district cleft with

, ,

stre ams well wooded an d with high p asture—l an ds

, ,
.

This brief descriptio n of the n atural fe atures m akes

clear the military aims of the Turks They attempted .

always to h old the v alley of the Zet a with t h eir fortresses

at Spuz an d Podgorits a an d thu s to sever O l d M o n te ,

negro from Brd a There w as the n a re al ch an ce o f

.

s tarvi n g the former i n t o submissio n— a purpose w hich

Would certai n ly h ave bee n e ff ected but for the b ack
d oor co n n ectio n with C attaro The battles such as .
,

they were usually to ok place in the v alleys So me

, .

times the Turks m ade an adva n ce in force i n to the

hills an d C e t t inj e itself has bee n at le ast thrice in the
,

ha n ds of the i n vaders But eve n whe n their n umbers .

or their stro n gholds failed the Mo n te n egri n s could ,

alw ays rely on fami n e A sm all Turkish force w as .

alw ays be ate n an army alw ays h ad eve n tu ally t o retire

, ,

an d there w as a M o n te n e gri n behi n d every rock to

haste n its retre at .

The e arly history of the ki n gdom o f Zet a has alre ady

bee n touched upo n Here it is e n ough t o say th at
.

Zeta pr oved the refuge of Serb n atio n al feeli n g in the

It h b tw 1 as d e i h b it t
een an n a an s.
1 3s M O NT E N E GR O AN D

a rrow the side o f a gi an t go at an d c aused a river to flow

fr om i ts side of how he s ailed over the se a to Ve n ice
,
’
to bri n g b ack the Doge s daughter as a bride f or his son ,

an d how the Doge an d a hu n dred n obles atte n ded him

t o his g alley They si n g too of his great fortress of

.

Z ab liak where the gold was piled in the cell ars where
, ,

h orses an d falco n s abou n ded an d where I van j udged

,

the people sitti n g on a S ilver settle Lastly they si n g .

of how he lies sleepi n g in the cave of O bod his he ad ,

’’
pill owed on a v e e la s ( fairy s ) breast an d desti n ed to ,

aw ake whe n the time is at h an d when the Turk shall be

1
ch ased from the la n d .

Betwee n 1 47 8 and 1 6 96 Monte n egro has almost n o

history the o n ly records are a few ballads an d an
occ asio n al accou n t by a Ve n eti an age n t The p op ula .

ti on n umbered some eight thousa n d of whom some ,

were cert ai n ly n ever subdue d That thous an ds of un

.

k n ow n her oes died in scores of n ameless b attles we

m ay be sure but there is n othi n g bu t lege n d t o tell
,

h o w the Turkish ass aults were repelled I t is w o rth .

while the n to p ause for a m ome n t an d try an d estim ate

, ,

t h e r aci al ch ar acteristics of the M o n te n egri n s Duri n g .

“
th e se ye ars hu n d re ds of Serbs from B os n i a an d O l d
Se rbi a sought refuge on these heights which thus bec ame ,

peopled with the boldest an d most e n terprisi n g of the

r ace The tr aditi on th at m an y of them were n obles is
.

pr ob ably correct for the M o n te n egri n wome n still h ave

,

p ale be autiful regul ar pro fi les cle an cut as a cameo an d

, , ,
-

the m e n h ave an air of true dig n ity about them an d

an e agle l oo k such as I ha v e see n in n o other Slavo n ic

1 b r g r
I t w as at O od t h at a p int in p e ss w as se t up in 1 493 h ic h is w
C l
aime d as t h e fir vr lv
st on e t h at e e se t u
p S a on ic t
p e y I n f ac t , t h e e
. r
wr e e et e r Cr w
one s at ac o and in B oh e mia, but n on e in R ussia t i ll
1
553 . r b v lly
Th e p e ss at O od w as e e nt ua smash e d by
t h e Tu s rk .

A n ot he
p r r g r
in t in
p e ss se t ugr
p i n Mont e ne o b y P e te 11 i r
n t h e n in e
.

t e e nt h c e n t u ry l w b ll
h ad t o b e me t e d do n int o u e t s at a c rit ic a mome nt l .
 S E RB IAN D EV E L O P M E NT 1 39

l and O ver the border Alb an i an s h ave the s ame m arti al

.
,

chiv alrou s air but their wome n h ave n either the dig n i fi ed
,

be ari n g n or aristocr atic fe atu res of the M o n te n egri n s .

1

I n st ature the m e n are ofte n gig an tic — the aver age must
be very h igh — an d m e n exceedi n g six feet are quite
comm on j ust as t all me n ( though n ot such t all m e n )
,

abou n d in D alm ati a an d B o s n i a Their fe atures are o fte n .

fi n e the h air light brow n with blue or light eyes

,
The ,
.

N orther n Serbia n s who are a more mixed race h ave d arker

, ,

h air an d fe atures an d are shorter in stature the s ame ,

suggestio n of gr ace but n ot the s ame dign ity Th e .

M o n te n egri n type has m an y o f t he pr i mit i ve Sl av

ch ar acteristics an d s ugge sts rel ative purity of blood
,
.

O n the other h an d there are cert ai n ly stro n g Alb an i an

an d Roum an i an i n flue n ces prese n t whilst other eleme n ts ,

h ave bee n i n trod uced through M o n te n egri n c om merce

which is as of old in the ha n ds of I tali an s an d by the ,

d ar k ski n n ed gipsies who wa n der freely over the l an d

-

as they h ave alw ays do n e The M o n te n egri n type i s .

mixed as is th at of every Balka n race but is prob ably

, ,

more pure th an th at of an y other The we akli ngs h ave .

bee n extermi n ated by w arfare an d the rigours of the

clim ate an d the ge n er ou s blood of the old Serbi an n obles
,

is the stro n gest curre n t i n the vei n s of a M on te n egri n .

The soci al system in M o n te n egro is di ff ere n t from

th at of the Serbia n s but the di ff ere n ces c an be ex ,

pl ai n ed by the pressure of n e w co n ditio n s produced by

a life of perm an e n t poverty an d warfare The fact th at .

Byz an ti n e arm ies pe n etr ated to Zet a is show n by the

an n ihil ati o n o f on e i n 1 0 4 somewhere o n the bou n d
3 ,

aries of Zet a al o n g th at white an d purple li n e of

1
l r ly h
U nt i e c e nt t e st at us o f t he Mont e ne g r in w ome n w as a lm ost as
l ow r l iv ly h m
, e at e to t e an , as t h at of t h e A l ba n ian . C h iv lry i
a n Mont e
ne gr i Al b i i
o as n an a s usua lly sh o w n to
p ot e c t e un r d w m o e n, so t h at

t h e i f gr
a r or f e at e Ie i ne me n t , b y
e aut , an d di n it Of g y t he Mont e ne g r in
w m i pr b b ly d
o an s o a ue t o biI t h and h e I e dit
y .
 1 40 M O NT E N E GR O AN D

mou n tai n s which lie w e st of Prisre n d With Byz an ti n e .

armies e n tered Byz anti n e i n fluenc e an d Byzantine

methods of taxatio n At an y r ate the admi n i strative
.

an d fi n an ci al system in Zeta had caused the erection of

a Z adruga system at an early date The Zadruga we .

,

m ay ag ai n rem ark is not a primitive type of commu n ity

, ,

but a ch an ge imposed by an eco n omic system at a

rel atively l ate dat e The Z adruga s ystem then remai n ed
.

as the basis of orga n isatio n an d though the house com

,

m un it ie s were collected in sm all spaces Mo n tenegri n ,

villages were an d still are sc attered over wide areas an d

, ,

ill adapted for defe n ce Th e Zadr uga system has always

-
.

h ad a remarkable i n flue n ce in promoti n g equality an d ,

eve n in re n deri n g it perma n e n t after the Z adruga itself

has dis appe ared E qu ality w as an d is a n ot able f eature
.

of M o n te n egro Peas an ts shepherds an d w arriors were

.
, ,

all crushed by a commo n p overty an d attack e d by a

commo n e n emy and the n atural co n ditions allow e d n o
,

di ff ere n ce to exist betw ee n m an and man Th e dis .

ti n ctio n betwee n n oble an d peas an t w as soo n blurred .

The Sabor or Serbi an N atio n al Assembly had ceased to

, ,

be popular in an y re al se n se u n der Stephen Dusha n an d ,

represe n ted o n ly n obles an d higher clergy We do n ot .

k n ow whether a similar fate befell that of Zeta whe n

tr an sferred to M o n te n egro I n all prob ab ility the
.

N atio n al Assembly disappe ared There seem to have .

bee n four districts or n ahie s in Tc he rn agora e ach prob ,

ably with a l o c al or cou n ty Assembly But of these .

districts RIj e k a as bei n g rel atively fertile an d approach

,

able by river is k n ow n to have bee n co n sta n tly in the

,

h an ds of the Turks I t is equally prob able that some

.

of the others were at di ff ere n t times At an y r ate there .

is abu n da n t re aso n f or seei n g why a ce n tral Assembly

may h ave b e e n formed from these four cou n ty A ssem
blies N ow in Serbi an loc al A ssemblies as disti n guished
.
,

from n atio n al o n es the democratic and popular eleme n t

,
1 41 M O NT EN E GR O AN D

of the little st ate an d that the dwellers or refugees 0 11

,

the Bl ack M ou n t ai n thre ate n ed to develop i n to r obbers

who v alued Christia n property an d life as little as they
v alued Turkish .

I t is at this p o i n t th at the imme n se i n fl ue n ce of the

O rthodox or Easter n Church made itself felt on M on
t e n e gro an d g ave it a special character
,
At some time
.

betwee n the d ays of I va n an d the V ladika Da n il o

betwee n 1 46 8 an d 1 6 96 ) Mo n te n egro w as tr an sformed
from a civil ki n gdom i n to a theocratic st ate gover n ed by
a Pri n ce Bish o p
-
Th e tr an sitio n w as n ot as abrupt an d
.

remark able as it would h ave bee n in a Wester n st ate ,

for the Church an d St ate were always very closely allied

in the E ast Co n stan ti n e the Gre at was k n ow n as
.

Zo w oo oxoq the equal of apostles every E mperor was in

a r ,

some se n se a religi ous perso n an d n o Byza n ti n e P atriarch

,

ever cl aimed the same i n depe n de n ce of the Byz an ti n e

'
C e s ar as the Pope did his Germa n m as ter Cz ar .

Dusha n who was deeply imbued with Byz an ti n e mode l s

, ,

showed ex actly his co n ceptio n of the Church whe n he

procl aimed himself E mperor of R om an s an d Serbs an d
m ade t h e Serbi an Archbishop of I pek a P atri arch in ,

o rder t o m ake the exte n sio n of his I mperi al p ower

evide n t in both Church an d State The i n sep arability
.

of the altar an d the thro n e w as the n a Serbi an c on

c e t ion tr an smitted by the gre atest o f Serbi an rulers
p .

B ut where as u n der Dush an the Cz ar w as alw ays

supreme over the Church the Vl adika or Bish op in
,

M o n te n egro ruled the State for over three ce n turies .

I t 1 8 n ot altogether e asy to accou n t for this ch an ge ,

but the mo n ks of C e t t inj e from whom the Bishop w as

,

elected had alw ays exercised gre at i n flue n ce o ver the

,

Bl ack M ou n tai n They were fan atic ally p atriotic their

.

bl ack gow n s were ofte n see n on the b attle fi eld ; their

mo n asteries were alw ays a fortress an d a refuge ag ai n st
the Turk They must h ave co n d ucted such diplom acy
.
 S E RBIAN D EV EL O P M ENT 1 43

an d correspo n de n ce as the rel atio n s with Ve n ice an d

Ragus a re q uired They fou n ded an d co n tr olled the
.

ri n ti n g press of O bod u n til th e Turks destroyed it an d

p ,

represe n ted the o n ly perm an ent cultur al or civili si ng in

fl ue n c e in the la n d Fi n ally the Tc he rn oj e v it c h rulers
.
‘

s e em to have bee n ofte n abse n t on missio n s to obtai n

succour from V e n ice ; th e se missions sometimes l asted
years for the Tc he rn oj e v itc he s were seduced by its
,

delights to remai n lo n ger in I taly th an w as n ecess ary .

I t is probable that on these occ asio n s the Bishop would

’
gover n the state in the lay ruler s abse n ce an d w ould in ,

this w ay gr ad u ally i n crease his power Also the M on .

t e n e g rin Bishops were always co n secr ated by Serbia n

P atri archs an d at I p e k th e Serbia n P atri arch though
,

co n quered by the Turk was becomi n g a civil ruler as

well as an ecclesiastical on e He may have give n advice
.
,

or the M o n te n egri n Bishops may hav e take n the hi n t .

There is n o evide n ce on the subj ect but traditio n though ,

in M o n te n egro th at is ofte n the best history The .

story go e s that the last Tc he rn oj e v itc h about the ye ar ,

1 5 1 4 or 1
5 5
1 decided
,
to leave the Black M ou n t ai n ,

solem nly co n voked an Assembly of the people an d ,

tra n sferred his whole authority to the re vered Bish op o f

C e t t inj e the M etropolitan of the old ki n gdom o f the
,

Zeta The lege n d sou n ds very like th at of the origi n

.

of the p ap al suprem acy whe n Co n stan ti n e obliged to

, ,

leave Rome to fou n d Co n stan ti n ople co n ferred his ,

powers on the P o pe Th e re is however this di ff ere n ce

.
, , ,

th at the P o pe of Rome cl aimed secular supre m acy o ver

Pri n ces but seldom in pr actice exercised it on the o ther
h an d the Vladika o n ce elected bec ame actu ally reig n i n g
,

Pri n ce as well as supreme Bishop There c an be n o .

doubt th at the lege n d is true in on e respect Th e .

fusi o n of Pri n ce with Bishop w as m ade pe ace ably an d

gradu ally an d was an arra n geme n t carried out with the
,

th or ough approv al o f the whole commu n ity .

 1 44 M O NT E N E G RO AN D

The co n se q ue n ces of p ower bei n g c on ce n tr ated in

the Vl adika were exceedi n gly import an t fr o m every
poi n t of view A civil gover n or i n deed rem ai n ed an d
.

his o ffi ce bec ame heredit ary but his st atus an d positio n

,

were i n ferior to the Vl adik a who could dismiss him at ,

will Thu s the Church had sw allowed the State an d the

.
,

O rthodox Church was the e t e rn al foe of the Turk It .

w as n ot impos sible f o r a l ay ruler to m ake terms with

the Turk I n deed there are sever al heroic ballads
.
,
’
which relate how on e of I v an s so n s became a M oham
med an an d how other Christi an pri n ces wer e won to
I sl am by the o ff er of sple n did m arri ages or of rich
’
bribes Ki n g N ic hol as s dr am a The E mp re ss of tb e
.
,

B al kans is b ased on this i de a an d tells how the love

, ,

of a Mo n te n egri n m aide n re n dered u n av aili n g th e se duc

tive temptatio n s o ff ered by the S ulta n to on e of the
B alsha dy n asty The Vl adik a w as more e ff ective tha n
.

an
y m aide n in re n deri n g such a betr ayal impossible .

As a celib ate Bishop he w as n ot to be w on by the ,

o ff er of a Turkish pri n cess ; an d his religio n which ,

n ever sat as lightly on him as on a lay ruler m ade ,

him the eter n al foe of the Turk His c on n ectio n s .

w ith the Serbia n P atri archs in Hu n g ary or in Turkey

were all with ope n or co n ce aled e n emies of I sl am an d ,

his faith an d his i n terest both led him the s ame w ay .

’
Further the V ladik a s electio n preve n ted an y of those
,

j e alous qu arrels which were so commo n in Serbia n

dy n asties an d guara n teed a perpetual successio n of m e n
,

who were m e n of some i n tellect as well as de adl y

e n emies of the O ttom an an d whose whole we alth an d ,

i n flue n ce could be throw n i n to the patriotic sc al e .

We k n ow very little of M o n te n egro from 1 5 1 5 to

1 600 . Duri n g this period the Turkish power in
cre ased all but on e third of Hu n gary w as co n quered
,
-

Vie n n a was besieged an d the o n ly re al check received

,

by the Turks was the naval victory of Sp ai n an d Ve n ic e

14 MO N TE NEGRO AND

w in a gr e at victory n ear Castel n uovo in the latter year .

But this success was followed by disaster : the Turkish

’
attentio n was tur n ed to this hor n ets n est in the
mou n tai n s ; a huge Turkish army adv an ced up the
v alleys was aided an d guided by Mo n te n egri n re n e
,

gades an d e n abled o n ce more to occ upy C e t t inj e I n .

spite of risi n gs in Bos n i a an d of aid re n dered by

A ustri a to the Souther n Sl avs the M o n te n egri n s were
,

u n able to g ai n an y re al adva n tages over the Turks ,

though they eve n tu ally compelled them to evacuate

C e t t inj e. Th e i n depe n de n ce of M o n te n egro w as still
i n secure an d it might h ave perished but for the electi on
,

of a n e w Vladika the remote a n cestor of the prese n t

,

reig n i n g house whose powerful perso n ality i m pressed a

,

n e w ch aracter on the w arfare of Turk an d Christia n an d ,

began a fresh era in B alka n history .

I n 1 6 96 or 1 6 97 a n e w Vl adika was elected by n ame ,

Da n ilo Petrovitch Nj e gush a n ative of Nj e gush th at

, ,

barre n sto n y i n accessible vill age j ust below the heights

, ,

of M ou n t Lov tc he n where dwelt the oldest an d n oblest

,

families in the la n d Lik e so ma n y of the famous Serbs

.
,

Da n ilo came from Herzegovi n a Th e fables which

.

trace his desce n t to Fre n ch or It ali an houses are n eed

less for he himself w as of the type of whom a n cestors
,

are made Attai n i n g chief power at th e e arly age of

.

twe n ty he saw that Mo n te n egro could o n ly be saved to

,

Christia n ity an d i n depe n de n ce by de e ds of savage rigour .

There was n o rigid li n e draw n betwee n Christi an an d

Mohammeda n communities ; Turkish garriso n s still
li nger e d in fortified posts in the de fi le s of Tc he rn agora ,

there were Mo n te n egri n traitors who abj ured Christia n ity

or betr ayed military secrets for a bribe there were ,

Christi an co mmu n ities which lived amicably with Turks

i n the v ales of the Zeta and of the M oratc ha M oh am .

med an influe n ce was slowly an d i n se n si bly spre adi n g up

the lower slopes of the Black M ountai n itself How .
 S ERBIAN D EV EL O P M E NT 1 47

Danilo freed Mo n te n egro from this d an ger may be lear n t

’
from a grim b all ad of the time n amed v e Osloboa E h
t ire ly ema n cipated I n the wi n ter of 1 70 2 D an ilo w as
asked to co n secrate a church for the Christi an commu n ity
at Podgoritsa Whe n the little buildi n g w as fi n ished
.
,

the po p e ( priest ) appeared before the elders of the tribes

assembled I n S abor ( Assembly an d said to them
) O u r .

church is built but it is n o better tha n a he athe n caver n

,

u n til it hath bee n blessed let us therefore obtai n a s afe

co n duct by mo n ey from the Pasha ( of S k odra) th at the
”
Bishop of Tc he rn agora m ay come an d co n secr ate it
‘

The P asha delivered the s afe co n duct for the black -

Vladik a . D an ilo Petrovitch on re adi n g it shook , ,

his he ad an d s aid : N o pr om ise is s acred amo n g the

“

Turks ; bu t for the s ake of our holy faith I will go ,

”
though it be my f ate n ot to retur n He had his best.

h orse s addled an d departed The tre acherous M ussul

.

m an s let h im bless the ch urch ; the n the y seized him

an d m arched him with ha n ds bou n d behi n d him to
Podgorits a At that n ews the whole Zeta plai n an d
.
,

mou n tai n ros e up and we n t to the accursed Sk ad ar

,
’
( Scutari ) to implore O mer Pasha who fixed the
,
Bishop s
r an som at 3000 gold ducats To complete that sum.

alo n g with the trib e s of the Zet a the so n s of Tc he rn agora

,

had to sell all the sacr e d vessels of C e t t inj e .

The Vl adika was u n bou n d At the retur n of their

.

dazzli n g su n the mou n tai n eers could n ot restrai n f rom

”
tra n sports of j oy D an ilo who had lo n g mour n ed
.
,

over the spiritu al co n q uests of the Turks settled in

Tc h e rn agora n ow called on the assembled tribes to
,

agree upo n a day on which the Turks S hould be

attacked an d m ass acred all over the cou n try O therwise .

the people would b ow the k n ee to B aal M ost of the w ar .

c apt ai n s w ere S ile n t at th at propos al ; the fi v e br others

M art in o v it c h al o n e o ff ered themselves to execute the ,

plot . The n ight befor e Christm as Day was cho se n

 1 48 M O NT E N E GR O AND
for the m ass acre which was to take pl ace in memory
,

of the victims of Ko ssovo .

“
Th e time fi xed f or the holy vigil arrives ; the
brothers M art in ov itc h light their holy tapers pr ay ,

e ar n estly to the n e w bor n G od dri n k e ach a cup of ,

wi n e to the glory of Christ Seizi n g their co n secr ated .

”
m aces they set out in the dark
,
Wherever there .

were Turks the fi v e executio n ers appeared : all who

refused b aptism were m ass acred without pity all w ho ,

embr aced the Cross were prese n ted as brothers to the

Vl adik a Th e people assembled at C e tt inj e h ailed the
.
, ,

d aw n of Christm as with so n gs of gl ad n ess for the fi rst

time S i n ce the b attle of Kossovo they could excl aim ,

Tc he rn agora is fre e
” 1
.

This m ass acre more terrible tha n Gle n coe Droghed a

, , ,

or St Bartholomew was celebrated by mo n ks with hym n s

.
,

of glad n ess on the day that brought goodwill to m e n

an d pe ace on earth The spirit of the poem an d the
.

n eeds of the time are remote from almost an ythi n g th at

we c an co n ceive Memories of Kossovo in the p ast

.
,

de adly da n ger from Isl am in the prese n t a h atred as ,

i n te n se as th at of I srael for Moab or Amalek a ster n ,

holy exult atio n as of an I ronside — these see m the ele

me n ts in this horrible tr agedy There should be n o .

attempt to obscure the fact of a cold blooded murder -

,

organ ised an d deliberate of all m e n ( an d app are n tly ,

of all wome n ) who refused to abj ure Islam But there .

were politic al motives b e hi n d the deed an d n e c e ssi

ties in the c ase such as did n ot exist at Gle n coe
or St Bartholomew . The sta n dards are those of.

Homer or of Joshua of cla n an d tribal morality whe n ,

the k n ife is at the thro at an d the struggle on e of

de ath W e c an n ot comp are the rage or desig n of the
.

iro n Vl adika with the deeds of silke n dipl om atists .

A l ig h tly diff r t v r i of t h i fi r b ll d i g iv b y F S
1 s e en e s on s e ce a a s en . .

S te v e nson in h is e x ll
ce e nt H ist ory o
f M onte neg ro pp , . 1 2
3 4
-
.
I 5 0 M O NT E N E GR O AND
M o n te n egr o two messe n gers re ached D an il o
. In 1 7 1 1

from the gre atest of all Russia n Czars an d told of how ,

Peter the Great had co n quered Ch arles x 1 1 at Pul tava .

an d w as n ow adv a n ci n g agai n st the Turks Russia .

e xplicitly recog n ised the i n depe n de n ce of Mo n te n egro

a ce n tury an d a h alf before an othe r great Power did so
y ,

an d c alled on her Sl avo n ic brethre n to u n ite ag ai n st the

Cresce n t I t was an epoch in history as imp ortan t as

.
s

th at Christm as E v e of eight years be f ore for it me an t ,

t h at the fut u re of M o n te n egro was bou n d up w ith th at

o f her m ighty pr o tector in the N o rth .

P opul ar feeli n g is alw ays well expressed in the

M o n te n egri n pj e sma or b all ad O n e tells how th e .

’
Cz ar s letter w as read to a Gra n d S abor at C e t t inj e .

W arriors of the Bl ack Mou n tai n you are of the s ame ,

blood as the Russi an s of the s ame faith of the same, ,

l an gu age Are you n ot too as are the Russi an s m e n

.
, ,

without fe ar ? Awake you who are heroes worthy

of old times an d rem ai n th at terrible people eter n ally at
,
”
w ar with the Turks At these words of the Sl av Cz ar
.
,

of the gre at Christi an E mper o r all bra n dish their s abres ,

an d ru n to their muskets
”
Th e pj e sma goes on to rel ate
.

the victories of the Mo n te n egri n s an d of how though ,

’
they he ard with sorrow of Peter s de f eat an d humiliati n g
tre aty with the Turks they resolved to fi ght on alo n e ,

for their liberty O h— it is n o sh adow the freedom of

.

Tc he rn agora No other th an God could quell it an d

.
,

who k n ows but God H imse l f would tire of such an

”
e n terprise The Turks were n ot prep ared to do so
.

yet an d an other pj e sma tells how fi f ty thousa n d Turks

,

c ame to Podg orits a Their l eader dem an ded h ost ages

.

an d a little h aratch or tribute from the Vl adik a Da n ilo

( ) .

wept sorely an d summo n ed the chiefs of Tc he rn agora to

,
” “
C e tt inj e
. Let us give the h aratch s aid some Let ,
.

” “
us give sto n es r ather said others Comrades give
, .
,
”
“
wh at you ple ase s aid on e chief ; as for me I will n ot
, ,
 S E RB I AN D EV E L O P M ENT 1 5 1

give up my brethre n as h ost ages u n less they c arry off ,

my he ad with them At le n gth the S abor resolved

.
,
“
We will die to the last man for faith an d for sw e et
”
liberty r ather th an surre n der to the tyra n ts .

While the V ladika w as pr ayi n g to the v e e la which dwelt

o n Mou n t Koumo the spie s were observi n g the Turkish
,

c amp They c ame b ack an d said We f ou n d the e n emy

.
,

so ma n y th at were we all thre e tur n ed i n to s alt we

, ,
”
should n ot h ave bee n enough to salt their soup The .

b ard the n tells how the spies had to e n courage the timid ,

an d how the Vladika set out th e ir order of battle — th e n

’
havi n g “
received their dear V ladik a s blessi n g an d
”
spri n kled with holy water they adva n ced on the foe , .

Th e S leepi n g Turkish c amp i s ass ailed rich booty ,

c aptured Turks hurled from precipices an d bl asted by

,

“
fi re. O h it w as a fi n e sight to see how Serb s abres
,

fl ashe d how they drove in the heads of the foe an d

, ,

how the very rocks flew in spli n ters whe n they c ame in
their way Thus it w as that in July 1 7 1 2 Tc he rnagora
covered itself with glory an d was fi ll e d with the richest
booty O brother Serbs an d all you who have fre e
.

he arts in your breasts rej oice for th e a n cie n t liberty

, ,

will n ot perish so lo n g as w e poss e ss th e Black

M ou n tai n .

This fi n e b allad reve als the solid historic fact th at

M o n te n egro w on a gre at victory over the Turks in 1 7 1 2
at a trifli n g cost though D an ilo himself w as wou n ded
, .

A s ofte n h appe n ed however a defe at roused the

, ,

Turks t o re n ewed e ff orts an d in 1 7 1 4 C e tt inj e was agai n

,

c apture d an d occupied by the Turks an d o n ly evacu ated ,

aft e r s o me time I n the n ext year Cori n th an d the

.

Pelopo n n ese were c aptured from Ve n ice by the Turks ,

an d D an ilo we n t o n a missio n t o Petrograd whe n ce he ,

brought b ack promises an d mo n ey an d the fi rst of those ,

an n u al s u b sidies which Russi a has si n ce abu n d an tly

b e stowed on M o n te n e gro Duri n g the n ext few ye ars
.
1 5 2 M O NT E N EGR O AND

the pressure on M o n te n egro w as relieved by the

victories of Pri n ce E ug e n e o ver the Turks an d the ,

c apture of Belgr ade by the Austri an Ge n er al in 1 7 1 7 .

I n 1 7 2 7 the M o n te n egri n s w on an o ther gre at V ictory ,

an d were u n iformly successful in a series of smaller

actio n s The Vl adika w as alw ays at their he ad an d
.
,

M o n te n egri n s still tell how twe n ty two T urks fell to -

his sword in on e battle The ge n er al result of all .

these operati on s w as that he n ot o n ly preserved Tcher

n agor a i n vi ol ate but th at the r ulers of the Brd a the
, ,

fertile district t o the n orth e ast of the valley of the Zeta

-

wer e i n duced t o throw in their lot with freed om Thus .

Da n ilo left his cou n try imme n sely i n cre ased in territory
an d in power an d with allies n ear at h an d in the Brda
, , ,

far dista n t at M oscow pr omisi n g a brillia n t future H e

, .

so exte n ded the prestige of O rthodoxy that the Ve n etia n

C atholic prel ate of A n t i var1 compl ai n ed of his prose
l yt isin g i n flue n ce he doubled the prestige an d territory
of Mo n te n egro an d his perso n al re n ow n as Vl adika as
, ,

ge n er al an d as diplom atist was i m me n se I t is n ot , .

withou t reaso n th at the prese n t Ki n g Nicholas has

erected a m e mori al to him on a hill overlooki n g
C e tt inj e .

’
D an ilo s l ast service to his c ou n try was the d e vising
of a system by which the Vl adika appoi n ted his suc
cessor usually or n omi n ally a n ephew This str an ge
, .

system of n epotism combi n ed the merits of hereditary

an d elective rule for it secured the successio n withi n
,

on e family but allowed the ruli n g Vladika some

,
’
discretio n Da n ilo s ow n choice was n ot happy for
.
,

his n ephew an d successor S ava w as more of a

sai n t th an a ruler an d in his period of gover n me n t
,

( 735
1 — 82
) he w as freque n tly superseded by bolder or

m ore ambiti ous me n an d was u n able t o co n trol the

,

di ff ere n t p l e me n a ( cl an s ) in the cou n try The eve n ts .

of the period do n ot n e ed a lo n g rel atio n they i n clude a

1 54 M O NT EN E GR O AN D

co n trived to m ake the simple m ou n tai n eers believe th at

he w as the de ad C z ar Peter 1 1 1 Steph e n practically .

ruled M o n te n egro till his de ath in 1 774 He was n ot .

a w arrior but his i n flue n ce was so great th at he could

,

o rder two mou n t ai n eers t o be shot for robbery — a deed

which the Vl adika himself would n ot have d ared to do .

His i n flue n ce was used to hum an ise an d compose the

l oc al cl an feuds an d with the sple n did e ff ect th at w as
,

see n 0 11 the b attle fi eld in 1 7 6 8 By these victories M o n te .

n egr o secured r e cog n iti o n f o r herse lf an d c o n cluded a ,

very imp ort an t alli an ce with Maria Theres a in 1 7 79 which ,

g ave M o n te n egro the assur an ce of Austria n support .

Sav a died in 1 7 82 an d w as succeeded by his nephew

,

Peter on e of the ablest an d stro n gest of the Petrovitch

li n e qu ai n tly termed the Louis X I V of Tc he rn agora H e
,
. .

ruled for n early fi fty ye ars dyi n g in 1 830 an d leavi n g a , ,

deep impr e ss on the cou n try Like Louis x 1 v his . .

,

greatest service to his cou n try w as t o organ ise an d

develop its i n ter n al resources like him his foreig n policy ,

w as brilli an t but che q uered H e fou n d a loose co alitio n .

of cla n s an d tribes he left a rel atively u n ited state The

, .

Brda an d Tc he rn agora previously j oi n ed by o n ly a loose

,

alli an ce were form ally u n ited to on e a n other A code

,
.

w as draw n up in 1 798 which system atised an d m ade ,

u n iform the customary l aw an d m ade it applic able both ,

to Tc he rn agora an d Brd a The gover n me n t w as syste .

m at ic ally organ ised from the cl an or p l e m e an d the trib al ,

g atheri n g up to the Natio n al Assembly or S k up tc hina ( the

old Sabor ) an d a regul ar j udici al system w as worked
,

out e n di n g in the fi n al court of appe al where the V ladika

, ,

himself sat to j udge in perso n u n der the oak at C e t t inj e .

1

Thes e co n siderable cha n ges were e ff ected by the diplo

matic skill of the Vladika .

1 Th is p r ac t ic e h as now b een a o b li h s e d, b ut K ing Nic h ol as st ill g iv e s

audie nc e s tope asant s, sitt in on a c h aig r i fr n ont of l
h is pa ac e and c on

vrigw
e s n r
it h t he m in t ue pat ia c h a st r r l yl e.
 S E RBIAN D EV EL O P M E NT 1 55

Peter 1 w as als o a v ali an t w arrior an d comma n ded

.
,

in perso n whe n the Turkish troops were hopelessly

routed in a de fi le n ear Kruz e in 1 796 But M o n te n egr o .

g ai n ed little save wh at it already held in all the wars o f

this period Duri n g the Austro R ussi an war ag ai n st
.
-

Turkey of 1 7 88— 9 1 M o n te n egro o n ly repulsed at t acks

,
.

’
Peter s attempts to support R ussi a agai n st N ap oleo n
betwee n 1 80 5 an d 1 8 1 0 were n ot successful an d the ,

M o n te n egri n s were ultim ately repulsed by the Fre n ch

from C attaro an d R agusa I n 1 81 3— 1 4 M o n te n egri n s
.

aided the E nglish to recov e r C attar o but this coveted ,

se aport was soo n wr e sted from them by Austri a I n .

1 82 0 however Peter achieved a n other success over the

, ,

Turks an d o n ce mor e drov e them headlo n g from the

,

valley of the Zeta .

The st ate of the M o n te n egri n s in 1 80 6 — 7 was

described by a Russi an ofli c e r B ron ie v sk i He testi fi es
,
.

to their milit ary e fli c ie n cy an d me n tio n s th at their whole

,

forces could be collected in twenty four hours Their -

.

m ilitary system is described as the off e n siv e defe n sive -

o n e of se n di n g out a small number of skirmishers as

decoys l uri n g the e n emy i n t o rocks an d de fil e s an d the n

,

destroyi n g him by the att ack of the m ai n body He .

admits their e ffi cie n cy as irregulars in scouti n g an d ,

ambush work but says they ca n n ot compete with regular

,

troops I t is impossible s ays he to k ee p them in

.
, ,

reserve an d they ca n n ot calmly bear the view o f the

,

e n emy Whe n in i n ferior n umbers they allured h im

.

from the heights with opprobrious n ames j ust as do the ,

heroes in H omer Whe n equ al in n u mbers they rushed

.

o n with savage cries some with he ads o f foeme n slu n g

,

rou n d their n ecks They pill age an d destr oy wherever

.

“
they come an d leap on the e n emy like wolves on a
,

white flock ”
Wh e n the cou n try was in d an ger all
.

priv ate feuds were forgott e n an d these primitive re,

public an s thought th at ther e was no h appi n ess like that

1 56 M O NT E N E GR O AN D

of dyi ng in battle f or their cou n try This accou n t .

of M on te n egri n w ar fare u n der Peter 1 has co n sider able .

i n terest for it exhibits how u n cha ngi n g are the real

,

ch aracteristics of the M o n te n egri n s Duri n g the rece n t .

B alk an W ar the whole army mobilised in four d ays an d ,

proceeded to the fro n t with an h eroic disregard of the

moder n impedime n ta of hospitals tr an sp ort an d b aggage , , .
1

I n their gre at success in the mi n or oper atio n s an d re

duc t ion s of sm all fortresses an d in their rel ative failure
ag ai n st Scut ari in their c o n tempt of de ath o f scie n ce an d
, , ,

o f discipli n e in their u n par alleled heroism a n d e n d u r an ce

,

of h ardships they S howed that the old traits still re mai n ed

, .

Th e impressio n pr oduced on them by the moder n

discipli n ed army of Serbia at Tarab osh an d Dur azzo is
well k n ow n A M o n te n egri n descri b ed it to me an d
.
,
“
added I t is wo n derful their troops do n o t fi re u n til
an o ffi cer gives the w o rd ! A n army o f this ki n d is
like th at which Pri n ce Ch arlie led to death at Cullode n .

Peter 1 1 succeeded Peter an d ruled fr o m 1 8 0—

.
3 51 ,

carryi n g on the traditio n s of his u n cle H e still further .

ce n tr alised gover n me n t an d abolished the blood feud

,
-

an d the civil gover n or of C e t t in e th u s removi n g the

j ,

gre atest cause o f loc al disu n io n an d ce n tralisi n g all

powers of the state in the Vl adika The l ast step which .

remai n ed t o m ake the system of gover n me n t a moder n

o n e w as to substitute a civil co n ceptio n of rule for that

of the Vl adika This w as do n e by his successor

.
,

D an ilo 1 1 ( I 85 1
. Da n ilo fell in love with a be autiful
girl at Trieste an d in order to marry her C h an ged the
,

Co n stituti on of his cou n try abolished the Vl adik a ship

,
-

an d substituted for it the o fli c e o f a h ereditary absolute

1 r
N e a R1j e k a in 1 v ry
9 1 3 I saw a e old Mont e ne g r in
d as e d h im an k
if h e had f ou h t g in t h e w ar
. F indin g bl
h im una e t o unde st and my r
q ue st ion , I put it t o a oun e y gr
man A oo of ast onish me nt c ame
. l k
o e vr h is f ac e : W h y, e e one e nt v ry w ll r
I t is st i t ue in Mont e ne o,
. gr
and in n o ot h e rc ount ry r y
in t h e w 01 1d, t h at t h e a m is t he S t at e .
1 5s M O NT E N E GR O AN D

gover n ors amo n g a n atio n of w arriors an d it is impossible

,

for an y Mo n te n egri n t o obey a stra n g e r Corruption or .

i n e ffi cie n cy c an hardly f ail to be the r e sult for the moder n ,

b ure aucrat is as out of place in Mo n te n egro as was M ark

’
Twai n s Y ank ee at the court of King Arthur These .

di ffi culti e s have b ee n i n cr e ased by the fact that thousands

of M o n te n egri n s have e migrat e d to America an d have
retur n ed with n e w ideas an d higher sta n dards of livi n g ,

which ar e bou n d in the e nd to work havoc in a primitive

commu n ity Those who h ave only seen the m agn ifi
.

ce n t embassies an d relative civilisatio n of C e tt inj e

do n ot realise th e primitive co n ditio n s preval e nt in
the i n t e rior or th e di fficulty of grappli n g with them .

An e ffi ci e nt admi n istratio n would meet with sav age

oppositio n an i n dole n t on e c annot ad apt the old
,

co n ditions to th e r apidly cha n gi n g circumsta n ces .

A civili satio n of its own Mo n te n egro possesses The .

Mo n te n egri n of Podgoritsa is certai n ly superior to the

Alba n i an of Dibra or E1 Bassa n He has forgotte n .

the blood feud he tre ats his women folk with r el ative
-
,
-

ki n d n ess he welcomes strangers with courte sy an d

,

dignity His loyalty is to Monte n egro n ot to the

.
,

Za drug a or to a c la n chi e f But his civilis ation is

.

strictly li mited he certainly has show n himself una b l e to

assimil ate the Alba n ia n s who have been u n der his rule
,

si n c e 1 878 and it is in such a test that w e fi n d proofs

,

of a high civilisation Th e younger ge n e ration of

.

M o n tenegro has no lo ng e r th e old savage religious fi re ,

which was nurtured b y hatred of th e Turk The .

O ttoman danger is now ov e r an d with it the ag e —lo n g

,

traditions of M o n t e n e gro There is a You n g M onte

.

n egrin moveme n t which looks forward to progr e ss im ,

prov e me n t an d civilis ation Yet in spit e of everythi n g

, .
, ,

the co n servative forces of M o n t e negro are trem e nd ous ,

an d conservatism there mea n s a mild an archic al equ ality .

E xtr e me poverty an d the m e di e v al traditio n of equality

 S E RBI AN D EV EL O PM E NT 1 59

b oth retard y c apit alistic movem e n ts

an The Mo n te .

n egri n of the i n terior at bot to m cares little what admi n istr a

tive e fli c ie n c y m ay b e resents e xt e rnal i n terfe re n ce an d , ,

loathes the machi n ery of sy n dic ates exploiters fi n a n ci al , ,

age n ts an d capitalists who i n troduce civilis atio n H e

,
.

cares almost equally little for the Lib e ral Co n stitution

gra n ted by the Ki n g in 1 9 0 Wh at he wishes to do
is to liv e qu ietly on hi s plot of l an d to w an der over his ,

mountai n s free an d armed as of old to liste n to the old ,

b allads of the guslar over the hearthsto n e an d to te ach ,

his childre n the sword da n ce of winter eve n i n gs Such -

.

a man likes Nikita f ar better f or h avi n g pl ayed on a

“

gusle before an n ou n ci n g his decl ar ation of war on

Turkey in 1 9 1 2 th an for all the be n efits th e King has ,

brought to his cou n try .

C e rt ai n ly until the pr e s e n t war Ki n g Nicholas h ad

caus e for pride wh e n h e looked b ack o n M o n te
n egro as it was in 1 86 0 H is reign bega n with a .

s e r i es of d e feats an d the Turks as of old moved ,

up th e v al leys and s e v e red Tc h e rn agora from the

Brda Y e t I n 1 87 5 76 Pri n ce Nicholas was n ot afraid
.
-

to declar e war ag ai n st the Turks After a ch e quered .

campaig n h e i n flicted im m e n se losses upon them

, ,

eve n tually captured N ik sitc h an d Po dgoritsa and drove ,

the O ttoman for e v e r from the vale of th e Zeta I n to .

the d e tails of the Treaty of Berli n in 1 878 an d its

subsequ e n t modi fi catio n s we n e e d n ot enter E ve n tu ally .

the indepe n de n ce of M o n te n egro was form ally recog n ised ,

an d the v ale of the Zeta an d acces s to the sea at A n ti

vari secured I n 1 881 th e harbour of Dulcig n o w as

.

added by the aid of Gladsto n e in 1 9 1 2 —1 3 th e limits of

1 The r v id d f A
C onst it ut ion
p o e or an sse mb ly of br
74 me m e s, 6 2 e e c t e d l
on th b i fe iv r l ffr g
as s o df un e sa su a e , an or 1 2 e x -
qfi c io me m e s br U
.
p t o

th pr
e h w v r h
e se nt ,r gpr l o e e , t e st on e sona r y
aut h o it of t h e K g
in and t h e
r gl l i dp d
st on oc a f h di r i
n e en e nc e o t e st c ts ha v rv
e
p e e n t e d an
y n ot ic e ab e l
gr w h f i p w r
o t o ts o e .
1 60 M O NT EN E GR O AND

M on te n egro were exte n ded to Pl ava, Gusi nj e Dj akova, ,

an d I pekThus duri n g this reign the territory of

.

M o n te n egro has bee n for ever freed from the Turk ,

h as bee n more th an doubled in exte n t has re ached some ,

thi n g like the limits of the old ki n gdom of Zeta an d ,

h as secur e d a leg al an d u n ivers al recog n itio n of that

i n depe n de n ce which it has in fact e nj oyed for five
ce n turies I n all th e se achievem e n ts Ki n g Nicholas has
.

do n e much perh aps more tha n any other could have

,

do n e for it is still true that in Mo n te n egro as in every

primitive co mmu n ity th e man c an do more tha n the
ruler Wh at is still more remarkable is that a ruler
.

with the peculiar qualities which app e al to a wild race

should also h ave bee n able to exercis e great i n fl u e nc e on
the statesme n of Eur ope .

I n th e more ambitious sch e me of s e curi n g the leader

ship of the Serbia n race for himself an d Mo n te n egro King
'
,

Nichol as has failed This is the ide al which seems to

.

be prese n ted to M o n te n egro in th e Ki n g s drama The

’

E mp ress of the B alkans an d in vi e w of th e past glory

,

of Zet a an d M o n t e n egro is on e which was e n tirely l e git i

mate U n fortu n ately it is no longer a possible on e for
.
, ,

the very history of M ont e n egro itself and th e services

which it has re n dered to the Serb race make it now
n e cessary for her to surr e nd e r these claims So lo n g as .

the ki n gdom of Ser b ia was weak and divided an d the

vassal of Austria so lo ng M o n te n egro stood for all that
,

was b e st in th e past— the h e roic freedom of the Serb

race But wh e n S e rbia show e d h e rself arm e d and stro n g
.
,

co n quered Turkey crush e d Bulgaria and de fi e d Austria

, , ,
’
M o n te n egro s part became that not of a le ader but of an
ally I n th e last few mo n ths before the war Ki n g Nichol as
.

pr actic ally agreed to a peaceful economic an d politic al

u n io n with the ki n gdom of Serbi a I f this agre e me n t
.

ev e r becomes e ff ective it will be n ot o n ly the most self

,
’
sac rifi c in
g but probably
,
th e most r e al of all N ikita
,
s
 TH E PRE P A RA TI ON F OR I ND E PE NDE N E C
( 1 739 1 804)
-

B ETW E E N the ye ars 1 7 39 an d 1 7 88 the S e rbi an la n d

h ad rest from w ar but n either Hu n g ari an Serbs n or
,

Turkish Serbi an s h ad rest from struggle I n Turkish .

Ser b i a the co n ditio n of the Christi an people the r ay ahs , ,

grew stea dily worse after 1 739 The positio n of the .

Patriarch gre w more di ffi cult f or he was u n der by no

,

mea n s u nj usti fiable suspici on s I n truth a Christi an

.
,

ecclesi astic u n der Turkish rule can n ot be purely

ecclesi astic al for the Turks the m selves ofte n m ake him
,

respo n sible f or civil order But if Serbi an ecclesi astics

.

were deeply ti n ged with p olitics their Ph an ariot rivals wer e

,

o n ly lightly ti n ged w ith religio n D uri n g th e e ightee n th

.

ce n t ury the worst fe atures o f the Ph an ariot syste m

were ma n ifested thr oughout the B alk an s The P atri arch
.

of Co n sta n ti n ople had bec ome an abs olutely servile tool of

his O ttom an m aster in politic al m atters He pl aced all
.

rebels agai n st the Turkish rule u n der the ecclesi astical

b an an d exh orted all to obedie n ce to th at b e n e fi c e n t
,

sw ay Yet the Byz an ti n e P atri arch m ade up f or his

.

servility in politics by his tyra n n y in religio n I f politics .

were to be all Turkish religio n was to be all Greek

, .

This w as the u n derlyi n g id e a of the Ph an ariot system .

All the Sl av on ic Ch urches o f the Balkan s w e re to b e

m ad e to submit t o t he Gr e e k theol ogy E verythi n g .

th at w as n ati v e or n ati on al w as t o be destroyed an d the ,

Churches an d pe oples we re to be forcibly Helle n is e d .

 PR EPARATI O N FO R I ND EP E ND E NC E 1 63

Greek bi shops an d Greek priests repl aced all Sl avs in

religious mi n istr ations so that clergy who did n ot k n ow
,

Sl av on i c co n trolled vill agers who did n ot k n ow Greek .

The Greek l an gu age alo n e was to be ta ught in the

schools an d old Sl avo n ic books an d m anuscripts were to
,

be mercilessly destr oyed This forcible i mpos i tio n of a

.

Greek liturgy an d civilisatio n upo n Slavo n ic r aces would

h ave bee n b ad e n ough in itself Th e viole n ce to n atio n al .

feeli n g an d the destructio n of n atio n al records would

h ave bee n cr uel eve n had they bee n due to religio u s
bigotry But the Pha n ari o t system was n ot carried ou t
.

by pure an d ster n fanatics but by graspi n g an d worldly

,

eccl e si astics Fi n es pe n alties an d taxes were i mposed

.
, , ,

a n d l arge am o u n ts of mo n ey extorted from the wretched

Sl av popul atio n s E cclesi astic al o ffi ces

. from the ,

P atri arch ate dow n w ards were ope n ly f or s ale an d th e

, ,

s u ccessful bidders rew arded themselves for their o rigi n al

o utl ay at the expe n se of their co n greg atio n s I n some .

c ases ecclesi astics used their positio n n ot o n ly to rob the

m e n but to r avish the wome n u n der their c are an d the ,

wa t o w in favour of a bishop was sometimes to bribe

y
his mistress The end of forcible Helle n is atio n which
.
,

the Ph an ari ot system sought w as possibl y defe n sible f o r, ,

the Greek civilisation was still a high on e The .

Ph an ariots certai n ly built e duc atio n al i n stituti on s pro ,

duc e d an imit ative liter ature an d di ff us e d Helle n ic culture

,

o ver are as in which it h ad n ever bee n k n ow n But the .

cruelty corruptio n an d immor ality of the me an s used

, ,

suggest dou b ts as to the desirability of the e n ds H ad .

the P h an ari ots s ought to m ake the Greek liturgy an d

culture w in its w ay by its i n tellectu al an d mor al
superiority their success would have b e e n gre ater an d
,
1
their co n d uct more j ust ifiable .

1 l
E iot ( Turf ey in E urop e , 2 5 0—3, 2 80—2 ) sa s all t h at c an be y
said f or t h e r
Ph ana iot s in a most impo tan t t e at me nt of t h e c ase r r .

V ide J ire Ee k, G e sc b de B ulg arie n, 5 1 0 se q , and F in a , G re e ce , v ol

. . ly . v .
 1 64 PR EPARATI O N FOR I ND EP E N D E N C E
At the b e gi n n i n g o f the ei ghte e n th c e n t u ry the
Ph an ari o t p oli c y w as ap pl i e d t o all p ar t s o f t h e Balk an s
except S e rbi a Th e Bu lg ari an s an d Roum an i an s re
.

sisted in v ai n an d the Greek l an gu age ste adily m ade

,

its w ay A n ex ample m ay illustr ate the o p p r e ssi on A

. .

B ulg ari an pri e st w as ordered by a Greek bish op to c arry

aw ay horse d u n g fro m t h e episc op al st able
-
H e refused .
,
’
an d w as pu n ished by a be ati n g fr o m the bish o p s d e ac o n s ,

wher e up on he fle d t o the k adi W he n the de ac on s .

arrived in pur suit they fo u n d him a full blo w n M o ssul

,
-

I n M aced o n i a priests
’
m an u n der the k adi s pr otectio n .

an d co n g r eg ati on s were t aught to b abble Greek the ol d ,

Sl av liturgies w e re destroyed an d the cou n trysi de im,

p o v e rish e d
. T h e bitter n ess of the resist an ce ev ok ed

seems to h ave i n duced the Turkish Sultan s t o supp ort

the Ph an ari ots The fi rst ass ault w as on the arch
.

bi sh opric of O c h rida which w as a Greek see but n ot

,

subj ect t o Co n st an ti n ople The fi rst m an w ho propo sed

.

its aboliti o n on the gr ou n d of politic al i n trig ue lo st his

he ad A fter 1 737 the P atri arch of Co n st an ti n ople
.

succeeded in getti n g the n omi n atio n of the see o f I pek ,

w hich he pr oceeded t o p ut up to auctio n I n 1 7 6 7 the .

Byz an ti n e P at ri arch S amuel succee ded in ab olishi n g

the see o f O c h rida A ye ar befo re he had obt ai n ed the
.
,

ab oliti o n of th at of I pek Th e Serbi an s were at l ast

.

subj ect to th at reli gi ou s oppressi on which had thre ate n ed

them aft e r the Turkish co n q uest an d had bee n mercifully ,

a verted by the S e rbi an Gr an d Vizier in 1 5 5 7 The

Serbi an resi stan ce w as an obsti n ate but hopeless on e .

A ll the Serbi an bishops were dep o sed an d m an y of the ,

l ower clergy expelled from their livi n gs Th e v ac an t .

pl aces w ere q uite ope n ly put up t o the highest bidder ,

w i t h t he pr ovis o th at the buyer must spe ak Greek .

E cclesi astic al c orrupti o n w as foll o w e d as a m atter o f

c our se by fi sc al oppressi on Th e i nj ury to religi on an d
.

e duc atio n w as i m me n se but it was fortun ate for t he

,
1 66 P RE P ARATI O N FOR I N D E P E N D E NC E

were o n ly exter n al griev an ces The re al da nger lay I n

.

the fact th at O ttoma n law did n ot defe n d the life o f a

Christi an man or the ch astity of a woma n agai n st the
murder or lust of the Turk So l o n g as the p ash a did
.

n ot i n terfere the i n dividu al r ay ah w as at the mercy o f

,

the i n dividu al O ttom an I t so h appe n ed th at the p ash a

.

c o uld n ot i n terfere in the eightee n th ce n tury an d thus ,

a n e w ch apter of woes ope n ed f o r the Serbi an s The .

r ay ahs h ad arrived at good worki n g agreeme n ts with the

sp ahis an d lived co n te n tedly payi n g their t axes in pe ace
, , .

There c an h ardly h ave bee n more th an a thous an d spahis

i n the whole p ash alik of Belgr ade But the arriv al of .

the j an iz aries in l arge n umbers i n troduced a wh olly

n e w species of oppress i o n i n to Serbi a Duri n g the eigh .

t e e n t h ce n tury the ch ar acter o f the j an iz aries ste adily

deterior ated E ver si n ce the tribute chil dre n had c e ased
.
-

to fi ll their r an ks they h ad bee n a close hereditary cor

orat ion an d a corporatio n which bec ame ever m o re
p ,

sel fi sh an d n arr ow in i n terest an d prej udices They .

qu arrelled and fo ught with the other u n its in the army ,

they set u p an d pulled dow n more tha n on e Sultan To .

avoid the d an ger of their acti n g as a pr e tori an gu ard in

Co n st an ti n ople the Sultan fi n ally hit upo n the scheme
,

of dispersi n g the more turbule n t of them thr ough

the provi n ces As Serbi a w as a dist an t pr ovi n ce the
.

most turbule n t were se n t there an d tow ards the e n d of,

the eightee n th ce n tury their oppressio n s bec ame almost

i n toler able They k n ew n o l aw they fe ared n o p ash a
.
, ,

they oppressed sp ahis an d ray ahs with imp arti al cruelty .

Their chiefs t ook to themselves the ti tle of D ahis ( le aders ) ,

an d set at n ought the auth o rity of k adis or p ash as I t w as .

q u ite a commo n occurre n ce for a D ahi to m arch i n to a

V ill age with a few followers to decl are himself its ow n er
, ,

to shoot the le adi n g i n h abita n ts an d to c ompel the rest t o

,

build him a tower which riveted his yoke on the district

, .

I n this stro n ghold he kept the mo n ey wru n g from the

 P RE PA RAT I O N FO R I N D EP E ND E NC E 1 67

rayahs whilst the vill age be auties were carried thither to

,

form his h arem The lot of an u n fortu nate r ayah might

.

be very u n happy 1 11 these times for n o professio n o ff ered ,

him security I m agi n e an ex ample of wh at might h appen

.

to a single i n dividu al A p oor Serbi an priest dispos .

,

sessed of his p arish by a Ph an ariot decided to e n ter a ,

mo n astery There after ye ars of t oil he mastered the

.
, ,

Gl agolitic writi n g an d had c omposed a tre atise o n the

,

Bogo m ile heresy f rom the m an uscripts in the libr ary .

Just as it was completed the Pha n ariot ofli c ial s arrived , ,

threw the m an uscripts an d the tre atise i n to the fl ames an d ,

i n troduced Greeks i n to the m on astery I n desp air the .

,

Serbi an mo n k fled to the hills an d bec ame a heyd uke .

There he w as so h arried by the police of the e n ergetic

as ha th at he g ave up brig an d age an d bought a piece of

pan d 0 11 wh at w as left of his plu n der H e settled dow n .

as a pe aceful r ay ah married a wife an d h ad two childre n

, .

’
O n e mor n i n g a D ahi e n tered the vill age gave the r ay ah s ,

l an d to o n e of his followers an d t ook his d aughter for ,

himself I II desp air the r ay ah fli n gs h imself on the

.

D ahi is arrested an d behe aded

,
M ultiply this in .

stan ce by thousa n ds an d you h ave a picture of Serbi an

o re ssI O n s
pp .

The re aso n th at the Serbi an s were before other B alk an

r aces in achievi n g their freedom is i n teresti n g S erbia .

had a stro n ger n atio n al life an d a stro n ger loc al feeli n g

th an existed elsewhere Her life w as multicellul ar ; h e r
.

stre n gth lay n ot in an y on e organ but in hu n dreds ,

of free self gover n i n g vill ages in the k n e z e s of district

-
,

an d vill age w h o were still dev o ted an d p atri o tic in the ,

heyd u kes who remi n ded her of freed om I t w as op p re s .

S io n that w as n e w in Serbi a it w as t h e feeli n g of n atio n ,

ality th at w as old N atio n al u n ity h ad bee n fostered by

.

the Serbi an Church an d the Ph an ari ot r égime had n ot

,

had time to destroy it S imil arly the p ash a an d the .

,

spahis had n ever oppressed an d b roke n the n atio n al spirit

1 68 PR EPA RATI O N F O R I ND E P END E N C E

as they had br ok e n th at o f G re e c e an d Bulg ari a W ild .

fr e ed om s till li v ed in M o n t e n e gro an d in the mo un

t ai n fast n e sses of S e rbi a a n d t h e t yr an n y of t h e j an iz arie s
,

c aused it t o de ce n d t o t h e pl ai n s A ll the eleme n ts of

s
.

n ati o n al l ife exi sted opp re ssi on w as n eeded to c ause

,

them to u n ite .

N o i n ter n al revol ts of an y Chr isti an r ace in the

B alk an s h ave ever bee n u n in fl ue n c e d by the course of
exter n al p olitics Serbi a w as less i n flue n ced th an the
.

o thers b ut it is n ecess ary t o describe the ph ases of the

,

E ast e r n Q uest io n t ow ards the e n d o f the eightee n th

ce n t u ry in so f ar as they aff ected Serbi a I n this c on
,
.

n e c t io n the p ositi o n of the Serbs in South H u n gary

is of the fi r st imp ortan ce They were subj ect b oth
.

directly to A u stri an co n t rol by the E mper or an d to the ,

c on tr ol of the M ag yar G over n me n t of H u n gary The .

t w o i n tere sts ,
A u stri an an d M agy ar we re di ff ere n t
, .

Th e C hief o n e o f the E m per o r a n d his w ar c o u n cil

\

w as to tr ai n s oldiers Wit h this V ie w c e rt ai n districts

.

al o n g the D an ube h ad bee n c u t o ff fro m Hu n g ari a n

c on tr ol an d pl aced direc tly u n d e r t h e E m p er or These .

dis t ricts were k n o w n as t h e milit ary fro n tiers an d

“
,

were l argely i n h abited by S e rbs Th e E mper or h ad .

pr omi sed P at ri arch A r se n 1 1 1 to gi v e t he S e rbs the free

.

w ors h ip o f the O rt hod ox re li gi on an d s o me n ati on al

self g over n m e n t u n der a C ivil V oiv ode ( g over n or ) The
-
.

E mper or did n o t k e e p the H om e R u le b arg ai n an d ,

he s ought to u n d e rmi n e the religi ous O rthodoxy o f

the Serbs by prom oti n g the U n i at e faith i e a creed ,
. .

usi n g the Gr e e k r ite b u t in comm u n io n with Rome .

A n umber o f Se rbs acc e pted this faith an d bec ame

U n i ates Th e d an ger w as very s oon evide n t f or whe n
.
,

the Serb bish opric o f P akr atz b e c am e v ac an t in 1 70 4 the

old P atri arch A r se n 1 1 1 w as sh ock e d t o fi n d a U n i ate
.

as c an did ate f o r the p o st an d it w as o n y w i t h di fi culty

,
l f
th at he w as able to b uy off this opp osi t i o n an d g i ve th e
 1 70 P RE PA R ATI O N F O R I ND E P E ND E N C E

It c an not be s aid that they looked to him altogether in

mm .

The w ar of 1 737—39 and the loss of Belgr ade was

foll o w ed by a further immigr atio n across the D an ube
fr om Serbi a M aria Theresa in her e arly ye ars favoured
.

the Hu n gari an policy an d suppressed the Serb privileges

'
.

B u t in 1 745 in defere n ce to e n ergetic rem o n str an ces

,

from the Serb ecclesi astic al Assembly an d pressed by

m ilitary needs she resolved to co n cili ate them an d to
,

restore their old st atus For this purpose the I llyri an

.

”
Court Deput atio n or Commissio n w as set u p ( 1 747)
’

to protect the Serb ( I llyri an ) i n terests I t at o n ce c ame .

i n to co n flict with the Hu n garia n Parliame n t an d the ,

result w as a further immigr atio n of Serbs n ot to Turkey

but to South Ru ssI a ( 1 7 5 0 Better times came
f or the Serbs Of Hu n g ary with the Russia n w ar agai n st
Turkey which e n ded in 1 7 74 The result w as a great in .

cre ase of R ussi an territory an d prestige an d a recog n itio n ,

by the Sult an of the right of Russi a to protect the religious

i n terests of the Christi an subj ects of the Turk This .

co n cessio n al armed the E mperor Joseph the ambitiou s ,

s on of M ari a Theres a who saw the import an ce of c on

,

c il iat in the Austri an Serbs an d of usi n g them to promote

g
revolt ag ai n st the T urk in Serbia proper He was like .

wise a hum an e an d toler an t man an d his e ff orts lifted ,

the cloud which overhu n g the Serbs in Hu n gary .

I t is co n ve n ie n t at this poi n t to sum up the ge n er al

resu l ts of the Serb settle m e n t n orth of the D an ube .

There was a co n sider able di ff ere n ce bet w ee n the Serbs

an d other alie n races absorbed or oppressed by the
A ustri an an d the M agy ar The Serbs are vigor o us
.
,

imp assi o n ed an d c ap able of zealous attachme n t to their

,
’ 2
n atio n an d their fai t h With such feeli n gs they lo oked
.

over the w ater an d dre amed of the day whe n b o th sides

1 Th ir d e d t h v b
e sc e n b or b d i t h l o l p pul t io
an s a e een a s e n e ca o a n
.

2 Marc z ali,
H ung a ry in t he E ig btee nt ls Ce nt ury, pp . 201-
7 .
 PR EPARAT I O N FO R I N D EP E ND E N C E 1 71

of the D an ube would be free an d S e rbi an Th e re c an .

be n o doubt th at there w as al w ays an in t e c o u rse 1

betwee n the Turkish Serbi an s an d t l e H u n g rian -

:!

Serbs The ide a of on e r ace re mai n ed an d som e t hin g

.
,

of u n ity an d n ati on ality devel oped wi t h this i n t e rc om

m u n ic at io n F or i n st an ce whe n the B e lg rade district
.
,

bec ame Austri an duri n g the ye ars 1 7 1 8—39 succ e ss f ul ,

e ff orts were m ade to prom ote reli g i ou s u n i t y Th e re w as .

a Turkish Serbi an P at ri arch at B elgr ad e a H u n ari an S e rb

g
P atri arch at K arl ow itz but the t w o ofli c e s w e re u n i t e d
,

in 1 7 3 1 . Agai n gr e at e ff orts were m ade by t h e S e rb

,

ecclesi astics to pro m ote educ ati o n an d the se e ff orts

,

were i n cr e ased in the middle o f the ce n t ury The Serb .

eccle si astic al S ab or in Hu n gary m ade provi si on f or

schoolhouses an d f or sch ools Th e re w as r ath e r more
.

we alth am on g the S e rbs th an m i ght h ave bee n s u p p ose d ,

f o r they p o s se sse d a go o d d e al o f the t rade of S outh

Hu ng ary Th e ed uc at i o n al moveme n t progress e d an d
.
,

it w as gre atly e n cou raged by the E mperor Joseph w ho ,

i s st ill reg ar ded with aff ect ion by the Se rbs of S ou t h

Hu n gary as their ki n dly g uardi an an d pr ot ect or His .

E dict o f To ler ati o n ( 1 7 8 1 ) further secur e d th e ir rel igi ous

rights There w as a g ood de al of co n tr adict ory l e gi sla
.

’
ti on with reg ard to the Serbs after J oseph s de ath
an d eve n t uall y the I llyri an Deput atio n w as ab oli sh e d .

B ut the u pshot was th at the religi ous i n de p e n de n c e

o f the Serbs their churches an d sc h ools w e r e r e se rv e d
, , p ,

an d th at their p olitic al st atus b e c ame that o f o rd i n ary

subj ects of H u n g ary U n der the c i1 c u m stan c e s t he

.

re ally imp ortan t p oi n t w as to preserve ed u c ati on I t s .

results were very soo n see n M an y o f the b e st S C I b

.

sch ol ars h ave come from South Hu n gary n o t ab ly ,

Ob radov it c h the fo u n der o f n ati o n al e du c at i o n 1 11 S e t ia 1

,

an d J ov an ov it c h t h e poet The fi 1 st S e rb ian l it e rary

.

s ociety w as fou n ded in Bud ap e st ; the r e ge n e rat or o f

the Serb l angu age the fam ous V uk Karadj it c h p ub l ishe d
, ,
1 71 P R EPA RAT IO N FO R I N D EP E ND EN C E

his works an d pursued his studies in V ienn a Bud apest , ,

an d K arl o witz M oreover clergy were better educ ated

.
, ,

a n d it w as f rom Hu n g ary th at Serbi a drew her best

priests an d b ishops The educ atio n al ce n tre of Serbi a

.

w as n orth o f the D an ube for lo n g after Serbia h ad w o n

her freedom .

’
Joseph s co n cili atory policy to the Serbs w as p art of
a l arge scheme for p artiti on i n g the Turkish E mpire
which he had lo n g bee n tur n i n g over in his mi n d H is .

pr oj ects were outli n ed in 1 7 81 in a secret agreeme n t

with C atheri n e the Gre at of R ussia I II this arr an ge .

me n t for the p artitio n of the Turkish E mpire o n ly t h e

Austri an side co n cer n s u s Joseph w as t o h ave B os n i a ,

Herzegovi n a M o n t e n egro an d p art of Serbi a I n 1 787

, ,
.

w ar actu ally broke out for the re alis atio n of this pl an .

’
Joseph s policy h ad gre atly moved the Serbs who had ,

commu n ic ated with their brethre n south of the D an ube ,

so th at he w as h ailed as a deliverer and protector by

both secti on s of the race The inv asion of Serbi a w as
.

at fi rst a failure but i n 1 7 89 Belgr ade w as captured an d

,

the Turks everywhere defe ated O n both sides of the .

D an u be the Serbs fought br avely for the Austri an s

a n d gre atly assisted them But the co n clusio n of pe ace
.

dis app o i n ted their hopes Austria gai n ed n othing by

.

the w ar and was obliged by pressure from E nglan d an d

,

Prus si a to cede her co n quests at the Treaty of Sistova

The Serbia n s of Serbia received an am n esty ,

an d s o me exte n sio n of civil rights So f ar Austri a .

h ad me an t more to the Serbi an s tha n Russi a but Russi a ,

n o w co n ti n ued the w ar an d kept her c o n quests over the

O tt om an . Thus she gai n ed in power an d prestige

while A ustria lost No n e the less n ot eve n yet w as
.
,

the gre at Sl av Power recog n ised by the Serbi an s as their

pr o tect or I t is deeply sig n i fi c an t th at whe n they
.

ultim ately revolted their fi rst applicati on for aid w as

to A ustri a O n ce agai n Austri a had the ch an ce of
.
 TH E TW O S ERB I A N I NS U R RE C TI ONS
“ Arot a g ra v e of t bc murde re d f or f re e dom, hut g row s f re e dom in its
t urn t o ée a r se e d, c ubic b i lse w in ds c arry af a r a n d re sow , an d I lse r ains
a n d t he sn ow s n ouris b.
”—
W HI T MAN .

TH E F I R S T S E R B IAN I N S U RREC T I O N D E ED S
( )
1 A N D TH E

or KA RA G EO R G E ( 1 80 4 .
-
I 3)

TH E st ory of the Serbi an rev olt is an epic with folk ,

s on gs f or its hist ory an d K ar a Ge orge for its hero .

Th e deeds o f the Serbi an s an d of their le ader are

s o rem ark able th at eve n lege n d c an h ardly ex agger ate

them A h an dful of r ay ahs aris e s sudde n ly r outs gre at

.
,

Tu rki sh armi e s besieges cit adels alter n ately defe n ds

, ,

an d defe ats p ashas an d fi nally wi n s its

,
i n depe n de n ce
by its ow n bravery There is n o c ase i n which a si n gle
.

sm all p ow e r in the B alkan s h as d on e so m uch wit h out

m ore aid fr om t h e gre at Powers W h at Greece owed
'

t o C an n i n g R oum an i a t o Louis N ap ole o n an d Bu lg ari a

, ,

to Czar Alex an der the ti n y st ates of Serbi a an d M o n te

,

n e gro o w ed t o themselves Th e on e m ai n t ai n ed an d
.
,

the other achieved her liberty in the face of the whole

,

Turkish E mpire Hi story usu ally supplies the key to

.

p olitic al m iracles an d it is history al on e th at expl ai n s

,

the di ff ere n ce betwee n Serbi a an d other B alk an st ates .

I f the Serbi an s achieved their freed o m before the others ,

it w as bec ause they were more fi tt e d to do so The .

i n depe n de n ce which they h ad l on g m ai n t ai n ed f or their

Church which they still preserved in their l oc al g over n
,

me n t an d the u n tamed spirit o f liberty e n ge n dered by

,

the heydukes of their b orders these were the sources ,

1 74
 ’‘
TH E FI RST I N S U RR E C I I ON 1 75

of their stre n gth O ther re aso n s there were such as

.
,

their dist an ce from Co n stan ti n ople their i n accessible ,

hills an d forests ; the mo n ey the arms an d the liter a

, ,

ture which c ame from their brethre n over the D an ube

,

t h e dec ay an d divisio n of the Turks at the begi n n i n g

‘

of the n i n etee n th century which ofl e re d an ide al mome n t

,

at which to strike for freedom L ast of all th e re

.
,

were a hu n dred fi erce Chieftai n s in th e Serbi an la n d ,

full of wild h atred of the j an izaries an d thous an ds ,

of Serbi an peasa n ts re ady to follow them to the de ath .

The n obles t aspect of the Serbi an revolt is its u n iv e rs ality .

There was n o ha n gi n g b ack an d n o tre achery yet there ,

w as n o p a for those who fought an d e v ery m an who

y ,

j oi n ed the r an ks j oi n ed for love I t w as a true p e as an t

.

uprisi n g a people in arms for liberty Perh aps the

,
.

liberty these me n sought led them to cruelty in war

an d to lawless n ess in pe ace but this wild freedom was
,

so m ethi n g for which all of them were re ady to die .

Amo n g wild races a gr e at man alw ays has immeasurable

i n flue n ce ye t the true hero of the revolutio n is n ot
,

K ara George but the i n dividual Ser b i an pe asa n t For

, .

Kar a George is o n ly the gre atest bec ause the most ,

typic al of these fi erce so n s of freedom

, .

I t has ofte n bee n rem arked th at revolutio n occurs

n ot amo n g the peoples which are most oppressed but ,

amo n gst those which are m ost c on sc i ous of their

oppressio n So it w as with the Serbi an s who e nj oyed
.
,

privileges u n der the Turks such as B ulgari a an d

M acedo n ia n ever had Hist oric mem o ries of p ast
.

gre at n ess an d co n scious n ess of prese n t stre n gth e n abled

the m to rese n t an d to pu n ish i nj uries which the Bulg ars
h ad t o su ff er in sile n ce The very mild n ess of the
.

Turkish o ffi ci al rule i n fl amed the Serbi an s to mad n ess

ag ai n st the tyra n t j an iz aries who showed equ al c o n tempt
,

for the p ash a the spahi an d the r ay ah I n 1 7 88 a

, , .

miracle from heav e n occurred in Turkey : the n e w

1 76 TH E F I R ST I NSU RR E CTI O N
S ultan w as a reformer an d an e n lighte n ed d e sp o t The .

p ath o f a reformer in the W est is be set with th or n s in ,

the E ast it is stre w n with fi re I n the We st reforms are

.

ge n er ally p olitic al in the E ast they are al w ays religious

, .

As the i n stituti on s are b ased on the K or an an d as the ,

s an ctio n s of all l aws are religi ou s the Turks m ust ce ase ,

to be religious if they c o n se n t t o be refo rmed He n ce .

a ch an ge i n religi o n must precede a ch an ge in the St ate ,

an d this fact m akes it d o ubtful whether the refo rm o f

a the o cr acy like the Turkish is n o t a species o f s u icide .

There c an be n o do u bt th at in Serbi a the reforms of

the well i n te n tio n ed Seli m on ly s ucceeded in m aki n g
-

it e asier f or the Christi an s to c ast o ff his yoke Yet .

,

fro m the Wester n poi n t of V iew his policy w as emi n e n tly

,

sou n d The Austro Russi an W ar e n di n g in 1 7 92 had

.
-

reve aled to him the we ak n ess of the Turkish arms He .

wished to reform an d reorg an ise the army on Fre n ch

li n es so th at it c ould face a E urope an force of equ al
,

n u mbers He wished also to e n sure good g over n me n t

.

to his Christi an subj ect s an d thus to cultiv ate their

l oy alty To both of these aims the j an iz aries were
.

O pp o sed They had ce ased to be e ffi cie n t in the army

.
,

th ough they wished to c on tr ol all military policy They .

h ad n ever formed p art of the civil g over n me n t but ,

they wished to depose p ash as t o d ispossess sp ahis , ,

to plu n der r ay ahs an d to become l an dow n ers in their

,

ow n right They were more turbule n t an d troublesome

.

’
al o n g the Serbi an borders th an elsewhere an d Selim s ,

del i ber ate i n te n tio n seems to h ave bee n to crush them .

With this V iew he sought t o i n fuse e n ergy i n to the

l oc al p ash as an d e n cour aged the Christi an r ay ah s to
,

support them by the gr an t of privilege an d protectio n .

I n the ye ars 1 793—94 the Sult an gr an ted Serbi a a

gre at de al of l oc al auto n omy in acc ord an ce with pledges
,

i n the Pe ace of Sistova The Serbi an s m ade g ood use

.

o f their advantages an d in particular of the privile e of

, g
1 78 TH E FI RST i N SU RREC TI O N

the arms O f Christi an s who had st ood up as free me n

an d cut O ff the he ads O f M ussulma n s with the ,
1
approv al O f a p ash a This sca n d al must be stopped at
.

an
y cost i n the future Accordi n gly M u st aph a was
.
,

ordered to permit the j a n iz aries t o retur n i n to his

p ash alik app are n tly o n the assumptio n th at they would
,

at o n ce become his loy al subj ects an d st o p their former ,

pr otector P asv an O gl u from m aki n g an y further raids

-

I n fact the retur n O f these co w ardly o ppress o rs produced

,

the de ath O f an able an d successful gover n or an d the ,

revolt O f a c on te n ted pe ople .

M ust aph a Pas ha though u n able to preve n t the

,

ret ur n O f the j an iz aries in 1 799 did his best to t e ,

strict their p ower He did n ot restore their l an d but

.
,

g ave them Co u rt appoi n tme n ts an d kept them under

o bserv ati o n The n in 1 80 0 he w as ordered by the
.

Sult an to pr oceed ag ai n st P asv an O glu an d s u bdue him -

.

O n ce ag ai n M ust aph a P ash a w h o k n ew he c ould n ot ,

rely on the j an iz aries summo n ed Serbi an auxili aries to

,

his b an n er an d o n ce ag ai n he defe ated the ar my O f

,

P asv an O glu
-
M e an while a Serbi an had bee n u n
.

j usti fi ably sh ot at S hab at z by a j an iz ary M ust aph a .

with imp arti al j u stice se n t a b ody O f tro ops to arrest the

murderer which besieged him an d the n drove him
,

o ver the Bos n ia n border This refus al to co n do n e .

their crimes u n ited all the j an i z aries ag ai n st the j ust

p ash a w ho thre ate n ed t o deprive them O f their free bor n
right t o murder While the army w as abse n t on the
.

fr on tier the j an iz aries att acked M ust apha at Belgr ade

, ,

an d by a tre acherous str at agem succeeded i n rec alli n g

an d dispersi n g the army and in sl ayi n g M ustaph a ,

himself Thus fell the best p ash a w h o had ever ruled

.

in Serbi a Th e fi n est tribute to his memory is the

.

I t did n ot appa e nt
1 r ly r h oc c u to t e l
S u t an and h is ad ise v r hs t at

man y of t h e k e rdj al ias h f gh w o ou t v

f or Pas an O u -
e e gl w r l a so

Cr
h ist ians B ut t h e Tu ik i h i g if s n ot n c onsist e nt .
 TH E FI RST I NSURR E C TI O N 1 79

ki n d n ess at first show n b y the Serbia n revol utionaries

to all Turks who were n ot j a n izaries .

After the murder of M ustaph a the fou r chiefs O f

the j an iz aries assumed the title of D ahi an d i n stituted ,

a re i g n O f terror They asked the Sult an f or a p ash a

.
,

b u t tre ated the n e w arriv al as a puppet Wild Alb an i an s .

an d B os n i an s flocked to Belgr ade draw n by the hope O f ,

plu n deri n g the Christi ans A n umber of age n ts were .

se n t r ou n d the tow n s an d vill ages who e n forced the ,

’
j an iz aries comm an ds agai n st all comers Neither .

T u rkish k adis n or Ser b i an k n e z e s d ared to i n terfere

with these illeg al age n ts N O man n o woma n an d .
, ,

n o pr o perty w as s afe ag ai n st the vi ole n ce of the D ahis .

The sp ahis who were as cruelly oppressed as the

,

Christi an s attempted resist an ce but their pl an w as dis

,

c o vered an d they were exiled or murdered The j an iz arie s

, .

so on t u r n ed their atte n tio n to the Christi an s The help .

less S ult an thre ate n ed the j an iz aries with ve nge an ce but ,

his i n ter f ere n ce o n ly i n cre ased their su ff eri n gs Selim .

t old the j an iz aries th at he would se n d ag ai n st them an

army but an army n ot of the faithful
,
I n other words .
,

he proposed to r aise an army O f r ay ahs ag ai n st the m

the very me asure which he had ce n sured M ust aph a for
t aki n g ! The j an iz aries resolved th at at an y r ate an
army O f Serbi an ray ahs S hould n ot come ag ai n st them .

The Dahis decided to destroy the O ber K n e z e s Of the

districts . Te n of the most emi n e n t were speed ily
butchered alo n g with sever al famous ecclesi astics
, .

Pill age an d r obbery were everywhere alre ady an d the ,

horr ors an d the butchery were growi n g W here would .

these D ahis st op ? We are n ot in the secret O f their

d ark an d bloody desig n s but there is n o doubt th at the
,
1
Serbi an s began to fe ar a ge n er al m ass acre I t w as .

N ovak ov it c h e de r e burt ( le s S e rbis e be n S l aa te s

1
( D ie [ V i g ( 1 80 4

S a raj e v o, 1 9 1 2 , p. 1
5 e t se
q )
. ebl v
ie e s i n t h e t he o ry g
of a e n e a massac rl r e

and q uote s f ai rly g r

ood aut h o it ie s for it .
 1 80 TH E FI RST I NSURR E C TI O N

d ang e r ous to i nj ure a pe asa n try proud O f t heir p ast ,

fl u s he d w ith r e c e n t mili t ary succe ss an d fully ar m ed ,

.

Th e re sul t w as i n evit able an d the rev olt beg an u n der

,

K ar a Ge orge 1 11 1 80 4 .

K ar a Ge orge w as on e O f those gre at ro ugh simple , ,

m e n w ho I n h ap pier d ays might h ave sp e n t his life in

r u stic q ui e t B u t for the r o u gh times an d the ru der
.

tyr an n y O f his age H ofer might h ave rem ai n ed at his

,

in n an d Cr om w ell o n h is farm K ara Ge orge w as

.

c alled fr om the h omely occ u p atio n O f pig de ali n g to -

he ad a rev ol utio n O f a m o re s av age type His fo rce of .

ch ar acter had alre ady m arked him ou t amo n g his fell ows ,

an d w as ill u st rated by those st riki n g i n cide n ts w hich

ab o u n d in S e rbi an history .

I n the w ar O f 1 7 87 he resolved to cr o ss over the

S ave an d j oi n the Aus t ri an s an d c arried his family with
,

him in t rue p atri arch al fashi on W he n they re ached the

.

’
river his O l d father s c our age failed him an d he bes ought
, ,

K ar a G e orge to retur n K ar a Ge orge refused an d his

.
,

f at her the n decli n ed t o go farth e r H ow sh all I live

.
,
”
to se e thee S l owly t ort ured to d e ath by t he Tu rks ?
s aid K ar a George .
“
Better th at I should kill thee
” 1
myself on the S pot . S n atchi n g u p a pist ol he s u ited ,

the actio n to the wo rd an d sh ot h is father Biddi n g a .

c omr ade put the O ld m an out O f his p ai n an d le avi n g a ,

rew ard to some n e ighbouri n g vill agers for buryi n g the

b ody the murderer we n t slowly 0 11 his w ay The ac t
,
.

w as alm ost symb olic al it showed th at he preferred de ath

to sl avery ei t her f or h i mself or for his depe n d an ts He .

c ame b ac k to his ow n terri t ory a serge an t in a v ol u n

,

t e er corps O f A u stri an Serbi an s n oted b oth for his ,

br avery an d his imp atie n ce O f co n trol Subseque n tly .

1 V zde R an k e, S e re ia . r
En g t ans p 1 2 9 . . The st o . ry
y l
is v aI iousl t o d,b an d h as e e n de n i e d, b ut o n n o ev ryc on inc in oun ds v g gr .

x r r ry l v
Th e e t ao dina rb o e of t h e S e ian f or t he h ome a n d, a maI ke d l
r r r ll r b y
c h a ac t e ist ic of t h e ac e , is i ust at e d
’
r
t h e f at he s mu de r r .
1 82 TH E FI RST I NSURR E CT I O N

not to be m istak e n he has a mi n d Of a m asculi n e an d

fi

comm an di n g order The imputation O f cruelty an d

.

bloodthirsti n ess appears to b e u nj ust Whe n the .

cou n try was without the shadow of a Co n stitutio n he w as

c ompelled to be severe He dar e d n ot vacillate or rel ax
.

his discipli n e ” “
As a soldier ther e is b ut on e O pi n i on
.

”
o f his t ale n ts br avery an d e n duri n g fi rm n ess
,
I t w as .

i n deed as a w arrior th at his peculiar gifts led him t o

excel Gig an tic in st ature with lo n g bl ack h air an d
.
,

deep set glitteri n g eyes he w as th e very type O f a

-
,

b arb aric chief His cheek had bee n sc arred his righ t
.
,

h an d dis abled by wo un ds yet he fought with his left ,

h an d an d preferred to fi ght in the foremost r an ks on

foo t His i n dividual prese n ce on the battle field had an
.

i n describ able e ff ect in i n vigorati n g his ow n m e n an d in

dism ayi n g the Turks His eff orts as a str ategist are
.

eve n more striki n g tha n his perso n al exertio n s in b attle .

The m an n er in which he co n trolled the divided an d

sc attered c o mm an dos the bold n ess with which he held
,

b ack on e Turkish army with a ha n dful O f me n whilst ,

he co n ce n tr ated his forces to de feat another the speed ,

an d e n ergy with which he brought up rei n forceme n ts at

the critic al mome n t were all achieveme n ts O f a high

,

order He h ad as much di ffi culty with his sc att e red

.

u n its as Pri n ce Ch arlie with his Highl an d c lan s ,

yet he achieved a more perm an e n t success with an

auth o rity which w as perso n al an d n ot heredit ary Th e .

re al s o u rce of his power l ay i n deed in the stre n gth O f

his ch ar acter an d in his im agi n ative i n sight i n t o the
mi n ds of his fellow pe as an ts He k n ew whe n to terrify
-
.
,

whe n to exh ort whe n t o strike Some of his cruelties

, .

were prob ably c alcul ated as whe n he executed t w o of ,

his followers for pl un deri n g an d exposed their severed ,

limbs on the gates O f Belgr ade O thers were in .

volu n tary as whe n he fi red at a Chieft ai n f or ab an d on i n g

,

a positio n or sle w his o w n father Yet whether desi gn ed .

,
 TH E F I RST I N S U RR E C TI O N 1 83

or u n co n sci o u s his ge st u re s h is ac t ion s an d his w h ole

, , ,

existe n ce c om bi n e d t o im p re ss an d aw e his c on te m p o
r aries F or h is w as o n e O f t h ose w il d e le m e n t al n at ures
.
,

so O ft e n fo u n d a m o n t h e sav a e e asan t s o f t h e B alk an s

g g p ,

cruel yet her oic w i ld an d ye t g e n e ro u s ! H e w as like

,

o n e O f their g re at li m e st on e cr ags forbiddi n g s av age , ,

an d sublime .

The ri si n gs O f the Se rbi an r ay ahs were at fi rst c on

fi n ed to the p ash alik O f B e lgr ad e an d covered three ,

m ai n are as the n orth e r n p art O f m oder n Serbi a e ast O f

—

the M o rav a the S h u m adya th at is the regi on betwee n

, ,

the M or av a an d the Kol ub ara ( wi t h K rag uj e v atz as its

ce n tre ) an d the w e ste rn re gi o n bet w e e n the R ud n ik
,

M o u n tai n s an d t h e B o sn i an D ri n a Th e fi rst c on spir acy .

an d up ri si n g t oo k p lac e in the Sh u m ad a K ar a Ge o rge

y .

w as o n his w ay t o the Au stri an m arket with his herds

m e n an d his pi gs w h e n he l e arn t t hat the j an iz aries
,

were se n di n g m e n to arre st him Le avi n g his pigs he .

,

fled i n t o the fore st w i t h his h e rd sm e n an d b e gan c on

spiri n g w ith ot her l e ad e rs O f the S h u m adya A ll r e solv e d .

t o die fi ghti n g i n b at t l e r at h er t ha n t o aw ai t d e at h in
their h omes I n a m om e n t t h e w h ole c o u n t ryside w as
.

in rev olt an d the Tu rks w e re p e n n e d w i t h i n their

,

fo rtresses or m as sacr e d in the su r rou n di n g v i llage s .

K ar a Ge orge w as S p e e di ly e l e c t e d S u p re m e C h ie f o f t he
S hu m adya The t al e O f his r e l u c t an c e is w e ll k n ow n
.
,

pr ob ably true an d c e rtai n ly c h arac t e i st i c

,
A t fi rst he r .
1

refu sed the O ffi c e al t oge t h e r t h e n he t ol d h is f ollo w e rs

,

th at if he acce p t ed his r u le w ou ld b e s t e rn If o n e O f .

o u were t ak e n i n t he s m al l e st t re ac h e ry the l e ast

y ,

falteri n g I w ould k ill h im h an g him p u n i sh him in

, , ,

the m o st fe arful m an n e r ! H is h e are rs said th e y

deserved t o die f or suc h c ri me s sw ore t o gO th rough ,

1Th t ry i g iv
e s o th s u h iy fe n on y w i
e a t b
O1 t t i SO r b i an e e- t ne ss, u n e a

l g d ily i d y w it
e en s e as al se an e fe- d l
n e ss e s Vi / L
w e o te n c re u o us . z e az ar

H I bc lianon t c h , ii 6 2 9 3 .
— 0 . K a ra G e o rge me ans B l a c k C m :
‘
e
1 84 TH E F I R ST I N S U RR E CTI O N

fi re an for him an d h e ld up their h ands to prove

d w ater ,

it .
“
D O you
w an t th at ? asked he thrice ; an d thrice
c ame the reply We do“
,
The n thu n dered Bl ack
.
,
“
G eorge I too wa n t you
,
H e was the n co n secrated
for his task by a priest in the prese n ce Of sever al chiefs
an d some fi v e hu n dred followers The re al reaso n of .

the choic e of K ar a George l ay p artly in his ow n extra

ordi n ary character which w as alre ady re n ow n ed p artly
, ,

in the fact th at he rep re se n ted three aspects O f Serbi an

life The k n e z e s O f vill age an d n ah ie wished to revo l t
.
,

but bei n g civili an s fe ared the wild heydukes from the

, ,

mou n tai n s whose aid they wished to have As a pig

,
.

de aler Kara Ge orge u n dersto od civili an s an d could ,

co n cili ate them ; as an old brig an d he appe aled to

h e ydukes an d cou l d keep them in ch e ck Fi n ally h e .

h ad what the heydukes h ad n ot experie n ce O f the

, ,

regul ar Operatio n s of w ar I t was speci ally importa n t .

that K ara George w as in comm and Of the S humadya for ,

that district w as n ot o n ly ce n tr al but fertile an d we althy .

Kara George at fi rst c alled h imself o n ly Comma n d an t

S e rb iae an d w as more t h an o n ce remi n d e d that his
,

authority stopped at the Kol ub ara But his suprem acy .

was formed n ot o n ly by his ow n superiority O f character

but by circumstan ces H e co n tr olled more we alth
.
,

provided more arms an d p ossessed more c an n o n th an

,

an
y other revol u ti on ary le ader Fi n ally his sig n al .

victories g ai n ed for him the title O f Supreme Le ader .

Th e Serbi an revolt had the ch ar acteristic of u n ity in

aim an d di v ersity in method Chiefs O f heydukes .
,

vill age k n e z e s an d w arlike priests pursued their ow n

,

local O bj ects yet at e ach m ome n t critic al for the n atio n al

,

i n terest they w e re c ompelled to si n k their di ff e re n ces by

the arrival of K ar a Ge orge Th e chiefs were very .

n umerous ; they c alled themselves Voivodes ( ge n er als

)
an d were e ach O f the m surr o u n ded by a b o dygu ard O f

devoted foll ow ers ( M om k e s) n umberi n g fi fty to a ,

1 86 TH E F I R S T I N SU RR E CT I O N

O fthe P ash a O f B o sn i a with pr op os als o f medi ati on I t .

a ppe ars th at h e w as acti n g u n d e r secret i n str u ct io n s from

the Gr an d Vizier w ho w as q uite re ady t o get rid O f the

,

an iz aries an d to l ull the Serbi an r a ahs i n t o a st ate o f

j y
false security by doi n g 80 The arriv al O f P ash a Bekir
.

produced immedi ate results G ushan c z Ali the m e rc e n

.
,

ar comm an der O f Belgr ade beg an t o w aver in his supp ort

y ,

o f the j an iz aries an d the D ahis fled by w ater d o w n the

,

D an ube to N e w O rsova ( on the prese n t b ou n d ary b e

twee n Hu n gary an d Roum an i a) Ther e upo n the mer .

c e n ar
y chief fl un g O pe n the g ates an d the p ash a e n tered
,

Belgr ade in triu m ph F or the D ahis a terrible fate w as

.

reserved as the p ash a had decl ared them e n emies O f the

,

Gr an d Sig n ior O n e day M ile n k o an d s ome O f his m e n

.
,

w h o had bee n abse n t sever al d ays arri v ed in the Serbi an

,

camp before Belgr ade an d flu n g four bl oody he ads at the

,

feet O f Kara George They were th ose O f the four D ahis

.

w h o h ad bee n murdered at N e w O rs ov a by M ile n k o .

P ash a Bekir n ow i n formed the Serbi an s th at al l th at w as

n eeded had bee n do n e an d ordered them t o ret ur n t o t heir
,

pe aceful pursuits But his ow n sit u ati on w as prec arious

.
,

an d it w as beyo n d his p o wer to e n fo rce their ret u r n .

G u shan c z Ali stil l held the cit adel O f Belgr ade an d the ,

Serbi an chiefs were e n c amped outside the t ow n .

There is n o evide n ce th at the Serbi an s beg an the

i n surrecti on with an ultim ate ide a of i n depe n de n ce But .

’
they could n ot be expected to accept Bekir 3 terms .

The D ahis were o n ly the chiefs O f the j an iz aries ,

n umbers Of their f ollowers still g arriso n ed str on g

fortresses an d h eld certai n districts i n terr or Th e .

S erbi an s had to secure g uar an tees for the future ,

while they still held arms in their h an ds M ore over .

,

the rough an d turbule n t chiefs w h o had t asted plu n der

, ,

were resolved n ot to submit t o the domi n ati on of the

Turk I t w as there fore decided to apply to a gre at
.

Power for sup port Th e re can be no dou bt th at Austr ia

.
 TH E FI RST I NSURR E CT I O N 1 87

w as seri ou sly c on sidered an d it is p ossib le th at appr oaches

,

were actu ally made Kar a George himself alw ays had a
.

r e g ard for Austri a But the power o f Russi a h ad

.

gre atly i n cre ased an d sh e had rece n tly gai n ed a gre at

,

i n fl ue n ce in M oldavia an d Wall achia ( the m oder n

Ro um an i a) whose lot she had greatly ameli or ated in
,

1 80 2 . I t w as fi nally decided to se n d a missi o n t o

R u ssi a which retur n ed in Febru ary 1 80 5 with a pr omise
,

of R ussi an support to an y petitio n s l aid before the

Sultan . A deput atio n set O ff to C o n stan ti n ople t o
1

p rese n t the Serbi an c ase Neg oti atio n s we n t on duri n g

.

1 80
5 h an d in h an d with a S iege O f the s o uther n fortresses ,

O f which U dsh it z e fell before N e n adov it c h w ho like all , ,

the o ther Serbi an chieftai n s still decl ared th at he w as ,

acti n g i n the n ame O f the Sultan E ve n tu ally S ultan .

Selim repudi ated the S e rbia n cl aims arrested their ,

deputi e s an d ordered the whole cou n try t o submit

, .

O p e n h o sti l ities broke out in the autum n O f 1 80 5 Th e .

pl an of defe n ce adopted by Kara George w as the o n ly

p ossible on e He trusted to the loc al chiefs to repel the
.

e n emy o n the adva n ced borders an d kept a str on g ,

reserve well in ha n d in the ce n tre of the Shumadya u n der

his ow n perso n al comm an d Thus he w as able to rei n .

force an y thre ate n ed poi n t an d at th e same time to ret ai n

a ge n er al c o n tr ol O f oper atio n s .

The chief d an ger in 1 80 5 was fr om the Turkish

army adv an ci n g from Nish alo n g the M o rav a ro ad which ,

8 0 m an y gre at armies h ad tr amped At the vill age O f .

I van o vatz n e ar Tc hup ria on the border O f the p ash alik

, ,

O f Belgr ade a Serbi an force of u n der three th o us an d m e n

,

wel l e n tre n ched actually repulsed a Turkish army of

t e n times its n umber The p ash a in comm an d the n re
.

tired s ome miles b ackward to Paratc hyn But the arriv al .

O f K ar a Ge orge with gu n s an d rei n forceme n ts compelled

1 F or t he missions t o R ussia and onst ant ino

pC l e ‘
v ide Novakovit c h ,
[Vie de rg e burt de s S a bin /J e n S t aa t e s, 2 8—5 0 .
1 88 TH E FI RST INSUR R E CTI O N

him to fall b ack to N ish ,

where he di e d o f w ou n ds .

I v an ov atz w as n ot a defe at but it w as a d e ci sive check ,

f or the Turks I t w as to the Serbi an Comm o n w e alth

.

wh at Valmy w as to the Fre n ch Rep ublic I t sh ow ed th at .

the S On s O f liberty co uld st an d at b ay an d rep u l se a gre at

r e gul ar army M or e over it pr oved de ci si vely th at the
.
,
’
S ultan s writ n o lo n ger ran in t he p ash alik O f B e lgr ade .

I n 1 80 5 the Serbi an s h ad d on e well b u t in 1 80 6 ,

K ar a George e ar n ed u n dyi n g fam e I t w as k n o w n th at .

the Turkish forces would adv an ce f r o m al l S ide s but the ,

Serbi an s had the i n terior li n es M il e n k o defe n ded the .

D an ube on the e ast N e n adov it c h fac e d the B osn i an army

,

in the west while n e ar Parat c hyn a S e rb ian fo rce c on

,

t ain e d the m ai n Turkish army which w as t o m arch u p the

v alley O f t he M or av a on to B e lgrade I n A u g u st Kara .
,

Ge orge we n t t o the relie f O f his h ard pr e sse d wester n

fro n t an d arrived j ust in time H e fl un g u p an e n
,
.

t re n c h m e n t n e ar S h ab at z an d t h e re aw ait e d the Bos n i an

at t ac k .Th e T urks h ad dem an d e d an i m m edi at e sur
r e n der O f arm s by the Serbi an s C om e an d t ake them .

an sw e red Kar a George Tw o bl oody assaults on succes

.

sive d ays failed t o c arry the po siti on b u t on the third day ,

the superior n umbers O f the Turks m ade t he m co n fi de n t

O f success The O per ati on s O f the thi rd day sh owed th at
.

K ara George could b o t h discipli n e his i n fan try and

m an oe uvre w ith his c av al ry He c on c e al e d his c av alry
.

in a n e i ghb ou ri n g wood s t rictly e nj oi n i n g t h e m t o att ack

,

o n l y w he n th e y he ard fi ri n g f r om t h e Se rbi an e n t re n ch

m e n ts . Th e Tur k ish s oldiers p re sse d o n u n t il they

h ad alm o st r e ached the p ar apets O f t h e t re n ch e s The n .
,
’
at K ar a Ge o rge s sig n al v olleys r oll e d o ut an d hit
“
, all
”
t oge t her in the flesh He ari n g the s ou n d t h e Serbi an
.
,

c av alry ch arged sudde n ly on the fl an k s w hi le the i n fan try ,

cl amberi n g ou t O f the tre n ches att ac k e d the alre ady

s hak e n r an ks Pressed o n all si de s by fi re an d sw or d
.
,

the Tu rks g ave w ay in utter r out th e ir br avest le aders ,

1 90 TH E FIRST I NSURR E C TI O N

their support O f the Turk Sel im ma n aged t o repulse a

.

British n av al attack on Co n st an ti n ople in 1 80 7 b u t w as ,

himself deposed in the same ye ar All w as ch aos at .

C o n st an ti n ople in 1 80 8 Most of moder n Roum an i a w as

.

’
occupied by Russi a an d Selim s puppet succes sor w as
,

deposed in favo ur O f M ahmud 1 1 Tw o Sult an s over

.

tur n ed in two ye ars two gre at provi n ces in hostile h an ds

, ,

Greece on the bri n k of revolt were eve n ts which ,

thre ate n ed exti n ctio n to Turkey But the m arvell ous

.

vit ality of the Turkish E mpire was soo n to re assert

itself an d M ahmud
,
the gre atest sovereig n si n ce the
d ays O f Suleim an w as to prove the o n ly successful
,

reformer th at moder n Turkey has k n ow n .

The Serbi an successes had bee n too gre at t o be

perm an e n t N O army c an co n ti n ue to defe at forc e s
.

three or fo ur times its ow n size whe n the e n emy is ,

appr o xim ately e q u al in br avery an d equipme n t Th e .

am azi n g triumphs had bee n due n ot o n ly to the skill

of the le aders an d the bravery of the m e n but als o t o ,

the Turkish co n tempt for the r ay ah t o the an archy at ,

C o n stan ti n ople an d to the i n depe n de n ce O f the p ash as

, .

These blows to M ussulma n pride the i n terve n tio n ,

Of Russi a the d an ger to the very existe n ce o f the

,

O tt o m an s h ad thoro ughly roused b o th p ash as an d

,

Sultan The Pash as of Widdi n an d O f Bos n i a h ad e ach

.

an ar my fully equ al in n umbers to the Serbi an Th e .

an iz aries i n deed still rem ai n ed to depose Sult an s an d t o o

jn
i j ure e ffi cie n cy but M ahmud had reorg an ised s ome O f
his forces with the aid of Fre n ch o ffi cers an d had armed
them with Fre n ch gu n s Yet duri ng 1 80 8 the Serbi an s
.

still h ad successes an d the revolt exte n ded f ar i n t o

,

Bos n i a .

I n 1 80 9 K ara George tried to execute a still b older

,

desig n t o pe n etr ate through the districts O f N o v ib az ar

,

an d Prisre n d an d j o i n h an ds with the free Serbi an

brethre n of M o n te n egro The proj ect was actu ally
.
 TH E F I R ST IN SU RR E C TI O N 1 91

accomplished but o n ly by a mixture O f dari n g an d go od

,

fortu n e which proved the re al sle n der n ess O f Serbi an

,

resources At the m ome n t of success K ara George w as

.

rec alled by terrible n ews fr o m the M or av a O n e .

divisio n O f the Serbi an army had adv an ced ag ai n st N ish ,

an d e n tre n ch e d themselves on heights n orth O f the

tow n Th e G r an d Vizier moved up agai n st them with
.

a gig an tic army s aid t o n umber eighty thous an d

,
On .

1 9th M a 1 80 after a pitched b attle l asti n g for sever al

y 9 ,

d ays the Serbi an s retre ated le avi n g four thous an d o f

, ,

their d e ad l yi ng amo n g fi ftee n thous an d Turks Peter .

S in dj e l it c h w h o held the key O f the positio n blew up

, ,

the p owder m ag azi n e The few Serbi an survivors an d

.

the m an y Turkish stormers

di d t og t h r “
e e e ,

W h irl d l ft o w i g f fl me a o n n s o a e.

This heroic exploit gave Peter S in dj e lit c h a n ame in

so n g like to th at O f Ki urt sc hia an d K ar a George though
, ,

his w as a p u rer fame Seve n ty ye ars afterw ards the .

Serbi an tro ops e n tered Nish t o fi n d a Turkish tower

g ar n ished wit h the skulls O f the Serbi an s who had die d
in this g re at fi ght A ch apel h ard by n ow c on t ai n s the
.

S kulls an d a moder n powder m ag azi n e m arks

,
appro ,

riat e l e n ough the sce n e of the he roic deed O f Peter

p y ,

S in dj e lit c h .

K ar a George arrived with rei n forceme n ts bu t w as ,

u nable to do m ore th an assist the retre at O f his forces up

the M or av a u n til a diversi on most fortu n ate for the
,

Serbi an s to ok pl ace The Russi an armies were at l ast

.

movi n g i n force o ver the D an ube an d the Gr an d Vizier ,

t ur n ed O ff t o meet them le avi n g a rel atively sm all army

,

in fr o n t O f N ish Th e Serbi an s ag ai n adv an ced an d

.
,

dr ove b ac k the T u rks up on N ish The S itu ati o n eve n t .

u all I e m ain e d m u c h as i t h ad bee n 1 n the begi n n i n g O f

y
the ye ar Th i s w as the fi rst occ asi on on which Russi an
.
1 92 TH E FI RS T I NSU RR EC T I O N

i n terve n tio n s aved the army an d perh aps the existe n ce , ,

O f Serbi a Two other occasio n s may perh aps be n oted

.
,

in 1 87 8 an d in 1 9 1 4 .

The ye ar 1 80 9 w as l ikewise ever memor able to the

J ugo Sl avs owi n g t o N apoleo n s victory over A ustri a at
-
’

W agr am The resultan t peace gave to N ap ole on p arts

.

O f Cro ati a an d D alm ati a which were org an ised u n der the,
”
n ame the I llyri an Provi n ces A very few ye ars o f
“
.

e n lighte n ed admi n istr ati on by the Fre nc h ap o stle O f

re as on an d light made more impressi on 0 11 t hese
regio n s th an ce n t u ries of other rule h ad pr oduced .

F e ud alism w as destr oyed eq uality be fore the l aw pro ,

cl aimed schools built an d educ ati o n e n courag e d an d

, ,

gre at buildi n gs an d r oads proj ected or executed S O .

striki n g w as the m ateri al improveme n t th at the A u stri an

E mperor Fr an cis 1 1 o n visiti n g these districts after the
.

fall O f N ap ol e on n ai vely excl aimed Re ally a pity they

, ,
’ ”
did n t st ay l on ge r ! N apoleo n like the ti tan ic in ,

n ov ator he w as left an impress which h as n ever bee n

,

forgotte n The fi rst re alis atio n of Souther n Sl av u n ity

.

w as re ally achiev e d in this ye ar an d by m eth ods ch ar ,

ac t e rist ic Of the cou n tries co n cer n ed Cro ati a an d .

D alm ati a were u n ited in a civilised and pr ogressive

gover n me n t Serbi a an d M o n te n egro j oi n ed h an ds in
'
,

an arm e d al lian c e The two gre at spo n sors O f J ug o

.

Sl av developme n t assisted in these moveme n ts Fr an ce ,

to whose civilis atio n an d Russi a to whose army the

Souther n Slavs have owed S O much .

The n e w year ope n ed d arkly for K ara Georg e He .

was bl amed f or the defe at before N ish an d sorely ,

h ar assed by th e oppositi o n party Yet the c amp aig n of .

1 8 1 0 i n cluded a Turkish defe at on the Bos n ia n fro n tier ,

an d an other on e in fro n t O f Nish Though Khurshid .

P ash a the n e w T urkish comma n der in fro n t of N ish w as

, ,

defe ated he h ad demo n str ated the right met ho d Of de ali n g

,

With the Serbi an s He had proce e ded to i n vest their

.
1 94 TH E F I RST I N SU RR E C TI O N

Sim ult an e ous attack fr o m the Dri n a from Widdi n an d , ,

fro m N ish : K ara G e orge as usu al pl aced his loc al

levies on the fro n tier s an d himself comm an ded the
,

reserves co n ce n tr at e d in the S humadya The Serbi an s .

at the begi n n i n g O f the ye ar occ u pied n e arly the bou n d

aries O f Serbi a as it w as before 1 87 8 They n umbered

.

about fi fty thous an d o n al l fr o n ts whilst the Turkish ,

m ai n army f rom Nish al on e w as double th at n umber .

I t is doubtful if the b oldest le ader could h ave preve n ted

the co n q uest O f Serbi a but it is mel an choly to record
,

th at the e ff orts of K ar a Ge orge were u n w orthy O f the

occ asi on an d O f his fame After the fi rst e n gageme n ts
.
,

which we n t dis astr ously f or the Serbi an s Kara George ,

br ought up his rei n forceme n ts in support O f the army

’
which w as o pp osi n g Khur shid P ash a s advan ce from
N ish . The n sudde n ly he l ost he art fell b ack on ,

Belgrade le avi n g his c omr ades without war n i n g or ex

,

pl an ati on He hovered mysteri ously about from pl ace to

.

pl ace appe ared o n ce m ore 0 11 the M or av a an d fi n ally in

, ,

O ctober fled o ver the D an u be i n to H u n g ary with a few

followers le avi n g his c ou n try m e n to their fate I t w as
a sad e rid to
, .

a gre at c areer Th e co n duct of K ara

.

George at this cri si s is o n e O f the n umer ous u n solved

mysteries in his ow n life an d in moder n Serbi an
history Some h ave i n s i n u ated th at it w as his desire to
.

secure his buried g old an d tr an sport it u n sc athed to

Hu n gary S O si n g ul ar an expl an atio n is n ot impossible
.

f o r on e who c ombi n ed the c oarse n ess O f a pe as an t with

the ability O f a s oldi e r an d a chief Ye t perh aps a .

simpler c ause w as the desp air of a gl oomy im agi n ative ,

n ature the dec ay O f a str o n g wil l br o ke n an d ago n ised

,

by su ff eri n g This failure O f n erve this almost

.
,

w om anly terror w as sh ow n by Frederic o n ce an d by

N apole on twice at i m p ort an t crises O f their c areer Such .

c oll apse is perh ap s n ot ast on ishi n g in a m an O f ac t io n

re n dered de sp e r at e by o v e rwh e l mi n g re sp on sibility or by
 TH E S E C O N D I N SU RR E C TI O N 1 95

dis aster I t is on e t o w hich si m pl e n at u res are S peci all y

.

pro n e an d the l ast hesit atio n s O f H of e r in the Tyrole se

,

w ar O f Liber atio n bear a si n gul ar p ar allel to those O f

K ar a George .

O n e mystery le ads to an o ther an d the subse q ue n t ,

c areer of Bl ack George w as e q ually str ange He re .

tur n ed to Serbi a in 1 8 1 7 h opi n g t o reg ai n his i n flue n ce

,

an d t o e n l arge the Serbi an borders by co n certi n g a le ague

with the i n surrectio n ists O f Greece M ilosh O b re n o .

v it c h w h o w as the n ruler O f Serbi a

,
fe ared his gre at ,

riv al p os sibly c on trived an d c e rt ai n ly rej o iced at his

, , ,

d e ath Th e tr age dy w as of the dre adful ZEsc h yle an

.

type for K ar a Ge orge is s aid t o h ave murdered the

,

h alf br other O f M ilosh

-
F o r a ce n t u ry the gh astl y
.

struggle w as c o n ti n ued by the p artis an s O f b oth houses ,

u n til the l ast livi n g Ob re n ov it c h w as as sassi n ated in o u r

o w n da Le comb at est fi n i faute de c o mb att an ts l
y .
,

This terrible bl ood feud did m uch evil t o Serbi a an d

-
,

pr oved the str on gest ally O f her e n emies Sultan .

M ahmud must h ave rej oiced whe n he g azed on the

severed bl oody he ad of the m an w h o h ad defe ated so
m an y Turkish armies H is ple as ure w ould n ot h ave
.

bee n the less h ad he k n ow n th at the fi rst Liber ator O f

Serbia died by the order O f her fi rst Pri n ce .

( )
2 THE S EC O N D S ER B I AN I N S U R R EC TI N ( 1 8
O 1 — 1
3 5)
M I LOS H O B R EN O V I TC H AND TH E S EC O N D RE V T OL

N e ar the vill age ch urch o f T ak o v o in Serbi a st an ds

a l arge an d n ow p artly withered o ak tree be n e ath it is
a l arge flat sto n e This is h oly gro u n d for o n this
.
,

sto n e M ilosh O b re n ov it c h s t ood whe n he set up his

st an d ard f or the fi n al rev olt O f the Serbi an s Th at oak .

is a verit able tree o f liberty j u st as is th at withered elm,

n e ar B o st o n be n e ath which W ashi n gt o n t o ok c omm an d

1 96 TH E S E C O N D I NSURR E CT I O N
Of t he a rmy O f the U n ite d St at e s N O on e i n deed c ould .

c omp are the ch ampio n s O f Serbi an an d Americ an i n de

p e n de n c e but
,
it is also well to remember th at n o o n e

c ould comp are the suprem acy O f George with the tyr an n y
O f M ahmud .

I t is recorded O f the Abb é Siey e s that whe n someo n e ,

scor n fully asked him wh at he had do n e f or Fr an ce duri n g

’
the reig n of terror he replied calmly ,
“
J ai v écu , .

M ilosh O b re n ov it c h might have said eve n m o re for he ,

preserved n ot o n ly life but O fli c e duri n g the reig n O f

terr or which n ow O pe n ed in Serbi a M ost O f the le aders .
,

i n cl udi n g J acob N e n adov it c h followed K ar a George i n to ,

exile in Hu n gary M ilosh with calm courage resolved

.

“
to aw ait eve n ts in his ow n home What will my life .

”
pro fi t me in Austri a said he in reply to the e n tre aties
, ,
“
Of J acob N e n adov itc h while in the me an time the
,

e n emy will sell i n to sl avery my wife an d child an d my

aged m o ther ? No the fate O f m y fellow c ou n tryme n
,
-

wh atever it may be sh all be mi n e also

,
M il osh had n ot .

previ ously bee n on e of the m o st i mportan t O f the le aders ,

perh aps bec ause O f his h atred of Kar a George wh om ,

he believed to h ave p oiso n ed his h alf br other Hi s -

.

c our age in rem ai n i n g his e n mity t o K ar a Ge orge an d

, ,

his loc al experie n ce impressed Suleim an the P ash a ,

o f B e lgr ade who h ad bee n wou n ded by him O f Ol d on

,

the b attle fi eld He decided t o u se M ilosh as an in st ru

.

me n t to get the Serbi an s to sub m it an d he m ade him ,

Gr an d K n ez O f three whole districts ( nobies) R ud n ik , ,

Po sdiej a an d Krag uj e v at z
,
Thus a Serbi an bec ame .

Gover n or O f pr actic ally the whole O f the Sh um adya ,

which had bee n the core O f the Serbia n resistan ce in

the previ ous i n surrectio n P ash a Suleim an w as proud .

o f h is n e w co n quest an d whe n he c ame t o Belgr ade

, ,

exte n ded his wou n ded h an d an d said “

There m y , ,
”
adopted so n h ast thou bi t te n me
,
“
N ow an swered .
,

M ilo sh ,
“
I will also gild this ha n d Whether he had .
I 98 TH E S E C O ND IN SU RR E CT I O N
a very e asy process t o arr an ge with imp arti ality I n .

this c ase the sp ahis a n d o ther Turks who h ad pre ,

v io usl
y i n h abit e d Serbi a freq u e n tly cl aimed l an d an d
,

we alth which they had n ever possessed an d fou n d all ,

their cl aims all owed A sys t em at i c policy O f terroris a

.

tio n w as ad opted by pl an ti n g g arris on s O f j an iz aries

an d Alb an i an s n ot o n ly i n the fortresses but O fte n i n

remote c ou n try districts S ometimes in acc ord an ce with

.

the whims of the rur al tyr an t sometimes owi n g to orders ,

fr o m Belgr ade the chie f n o tables in e ach loc ality were

,

sought out pl u n dered t ortured an d executed Tax a

, , ,
.

ti on w as fi xed at a very high level an d house to house ,

- -

visit atio n s took p lac e for the purpose of collecti n g the

t axes an d of dis armi n g the popul atio n Neither O bj ect .

w as e ff ected without terroris ati o n plu n der an d viole n ce , , .

The fi rst risi n g O f an y ki n d which took pl ace w as in

the R ud n ik in M ilosh s ow n district M ilosh hurried
,
’
.

with some armed m e n t o Kraguj e v at z dispersed some ,

Of t he rebels an d i n duced the rest to submit on a

,

promise from P ash a Suleim an th at their lives S hould

be sp ared Subse q ue n tly this promise m ore th an o n ce
.
,

repe ated w as broke n O n e hu n dred an d fi fty rebels

, .

were behe aded an d n e arly forty ri n gl e aders imp aled .

M ilosh whose le n ity h ad re n dered him a suspect w as

, ,

ordered to Belgr ade an d there kept in h on o ur able

c aptivity H e succeeded by a he av y bribe in O bt ai n i n g
.

a rele ase an d retur n ed t o his o w n district

,
H is tre at .

me n t h ad bee n such as to c on vi n ce him th at it was folly

t o trust a T u rk an d th at his o n ly s afety l ay in revolt
, .

The reig n O f terror had begu n agai n with fresh fury an d ,

the Serbi an s were co n vi n ced as in the d ays of the D ahis

, ,

that a ge n er al m ass acre w as bei n g pl an n ed I f it w as .

so it w as better t o die w hile s o me O f them still h ad arm s

,

in their h an ds This w as the co n clusio n t o which m an y

.

h ad alre ady c o m e b u t it w as o n ly after lo n g hesit atio n

,

that M ilosh d e cid e d t o give the S ig n al .

 TH E S EC O ND I N SU R RE C TI O N 1 99

I t w as on P al m S u n d ay 1 8 1 5 th at the decisi on w as
t ake n Service had bee n h e ld in the church O f Tak o v o
.
,

an d crowds l oitered rou n d M il o sh whe n it w as over ,

formi n g on e O f those r u de S ab ors ( or A sse m blies ) ch ar

ac t e rist ic am o n g Serbi an s A ft e r s o m e h e si tatio n M ilosh
.

sto od o n the st on e be n e ath the oak an d sp oke His .

words at fi rst were few an d di she arte n i n g but the cr owd ,

“
overbore his Obj ectio n s : We are r e ady f or an ythi n g .

Dost thou n ot see we perish as it is The n his eyes

gre w very bright an d he sp oke : Here am I there “
,

stan d you so be it ! W ar t o the Turks

,
W ith us is
” 1
God an d H is Right I rrev oc able decisio n s h ad bee n
.

t ake n elsewhere alre ady an d the S ab or at Takovo w as

,

n ot the o n ly meeti n g O f irrec on c il ables But th ough .

revolt had al re ady broke n o u t in sever al pl aces the ,

decisio n O f M ilosh pr od uced a pr o f ou n d impressio n for ,

he was the gre atest Chri sti an O ffi c i al in Serbi a I f his .

w as the gre ate st glory i n the e n d his also w as the ,

largest respo n sibility in the begi n n i n g .

The military S itu ati on seemed almost desper ate from

the begi n n i n g for the O tt om an forces the n in Serbi a
,

were speedily co n ce n t rated A Tu rki sh army of ab out

.

m e n adv an ced alo n g the W e st er n M or av a deep

i n to the R ud n ik an d fi n ally pi t ched their c amp at
Tc hat c hak o n the right b an k o f the river n ow a ,

r ailw ay j u n ctio n for three li n e s M ilosh adv an ced an d.

t ook up a p ositi on t o w atch it e n tre n chi n g himself o n

,

the left river b an k at Lj ub it sc h o p posite the Turkish

c amp Le avi n g the b u lk O f his forces be hi n d in this
.

e n tre n chme n t M ilo sh s udd e n ly m arched n orthw ard to

,

P alesh a sm all tow n in the an gl e formed where the

,

1
p A
i r q r
c t u e s ue de sc ipt ion O f t h e w l h o e inc ide nt by
an e e
y it ne ss
-
w
q
is uo e t d i n L a z a r I I ‘

t b e l i an ov it c h , S e r ‘
v ia n P e l
p ,
o e ii 6
. 6 6 —
7 Th e e is
. r
v
e ide n c e t o sh o w t h at Mil osh h ad c ommit t e d h imse f e se l l w r b r
he e e fo e

l y r
t h e Pa m S unda , and h is appa e n t h e sit at ion w as pe haps a r r use t o

r l g
asc e t ain t he f e e in s of t h e S abo at Tak o or v .
2 00 TH E S E C O ND I N SUR RE C TI O N

K ol ub ara flows i n to the S ave There a n umber O f .

sp ahis had bee n e n tre n chi n g themselves with a V iew to

i n timid ati n g the surrou n di n g district They fled on the .

n ews of the adv an ce of M il o sh but were pursued by ,

h im an d alm o st an n ihil ated Th e success in the milit ary

.
,

se n se trifli n g w as in the p olitic al se n se decisive I n al l

, .

rev ol utio n s there is a mome n t O f ag on isi n g an xiety at

the begi n n i n g whe n the bolder spirits doubt an d the
,

timid desp air A t such mome n ts eve n a sm all success

.

gives an electric shock to p ublic feeli n g M il osh g ai n ed .

m ateri ally by his V ictory for he c aptured a gun morally

,

his advan tage was to sweep aw ay all d oubt an d hesitatio n ,

an d to bri n g the I aggards an d the w averers hot foot to -

his ba n n er.

The tow n O f Palesh w as well pl aced for his success ,

because it w as n e ar to the Da n ube The Hu n gari an .

Serbs over the w ater he ard of the victory an d the ,

Serbi an exiles h aste n ed to retur n with arms mo n ey an d , ,

ammu n itio n From o ver the D an ube Ol d heydukes old

.
,

k n e z e s an d m e n with ki n dred to ave n ge flocked to

, ,

M ilosh s stan d ard Th e whol e O f the Serbi an district

’
.

west of the Kol ub ara ro se in revolt The decisive .

ch aracter O f this str oke is m arked by the fact that the

tow n O f P alesh h as si n ce bee n re n amed Ob re n ov atz ,

in ho n our O f this milit ary s u ccess O f O b re n ov it c h He .

retur n ed in triumph c arryi n g with him two gu n s on e

, ,

c aptured an d on e imported from Hu n g ary an d bri n gi n g ,

m an y veter an s of K ar a George I n his trai n .

At Lj ubit sc h he fou n d the Turks prep ari n g to attack .

Withi n a few d ays they adv an ced t o the ass ault an d ,

c arried som e O f the foremost tre n che s But their losses .

were he avy an d for some i n explic able re aso n the Turkish

,

c omm an der sudde n ly withdrew his army an d retre ated

i n the directio n O f N ish M ilosh purs u ed him in flic t
.
,

i n g he avy l o sses an d wh at was more import an t c ap t ur

, , ,
~

in g his artillery an d ammu n itio n colum n Kraguj e v at z .

202 E N GLA N D A N D TH E S E RB I A N R E V O LT
r lvl
h ist o ic a a ue f or Mac e donia b
H e de sc ri e d “ t h e d e adfu opp e ssions
. r l r
to w C r
h ic h t h e ( h ist ian ) R ayah s are su e c t e d,
”
bj
an d e st imate d t he

l fi
Mac e don ian popu at ion sout h of S o a and S opia as a out e ua e t e e n k b q lb w
Cr h ist ians an d Mussu mans l ll
H e a ude d t o t h e S e ian e o t as
. rb r v l
ll w rv r r r
f o o s : “ Th e S e ians unde t h e i P in c e C z e rin [sic ] G e o e h a e e e n rg v b
l r
a b e t o sust ain t h e c ombin e d e ff o t s on e it h e r
side of t h e i t e r it o , an d r r ry
v v g j
h a e e e n suc c e e de d in e ffe c t in a unc t ion w
it h t he R ussians on t h e
D b b w
an u e et r v
e e n O so a an d W iddin , b r r g
e f o e t h e a mist ic e w as si n e d

b w
et g
e e n t h e c ont e n din Po e s wr r rk v
S in c e t h at pe iod t h e Tu s h a e
.

p r l g
ose c ut e d h ost i it ie s a ain st t h e m, but t h e S e rvians st ill c ont inue d t o

g gr
ain oun d on t h e side of B u a ia lg r
” 1
.

S ir A g wr
Pa e t
. r
ot e t o L e ak e f om H M S The tis Off t h e D ar
. . .

ll
dane e s : r x
Th e e e ist s t h e gr
e at e st
p r b bl y
o a i it t h at the O t t oman
vr
G o e nme nt w ll r r x ll r
i in t h e c ou se of a sh o t t ime be e pe e d f om t h e i r
q r w
Eum pe an posse ssion s, in c onse ue n c e of t h e c onc e t h ic h appe a s t o be r
bl
e st a ish e db w et r
e e n F an c e an d R ussia r
L e ak e w as t h e n inst uc t e d t o
.

r r l r
e o t “ on t h e inc inat ion or me ans t o asse t and main tain t h e i
p r ow n

g r r
inde pe nde n c e a ainst t h e e ffo t s of R ussia and F anc e , se pa at e or c omr
b ”
vr rb l g
ine d, of t h e a ious e e s a ainst Tu k ish aut h o it 2 r r y .

w l w r lg
Th e h o e inc ide nt sh o s t h at t h e of t e pe at e d e e nd of t h e e a
-
br k
u
p r p r
Of t h e Tu k ish E m i e w as e e c isin xr g a
p r l fl
ow e f u in ue n c e on

gl l y v
E n ish po ic e e n i n 1 80 7 .

5 T k g r r
i n f o m at ion i n
1
F O . .
7 ur y , 2 8 O c t 1 80 7 , L e ak e t o C an n i n
e .
; p e v i ous

L k
ea e Hto k aw 5 J
e sb u ry, 2 an 1 80
7
P g
. .

2
k
a e t to Le a e , 1
9 O c t 1 80 7
. .
 TH E PE RI OD OF PA TR I A R C I I AL M ONA R C H Y

( )
1 TH E F I R S T R EI G N OF M I LO S H O B R E N O V I TC H
( 1 8 1 5 — 34)

( )
a Th e D i l oma t i c R e co n it ion
p g
IN six m o n ths M ilo sh O b re n o v itc h had d rive n the
Turks fr om Serbi a it t ook thrice th at n umb e r O f ye ars
t o set her i n depe n de n ce u p o n a fi rm fo u n d ati on In .

the diplom atic game he h ad few e q u als A st u te an d .

p atie n t restr ai n ed an d te n aci ous he w as w e ll fi tted t o

, ,

we ar dow n the obsti n ate resi st an ce of M ah mud 1 1 .

Turkish diplom acy w as summed up by L o rd S t r an gfo r d ,

a c o n temp o r ary British A mb as sad o r a t C o n s t an ti n o pl e ,

”
as c off ee pipes an d prelimi n ary d e l ib e rati o n s an d h e
, , ,

might h ave added prelimi n ary deliber at i on s pipes an d

“
, , ,

c off ee . Ge orge C an n i n g n ot the m ost p atie n t O f o u r

,

foreig n M i n isters o n ce se n t a di sp atch t o C o n s t an ti n op le

, ,

s ayi n g The E n glish Gover n me n t m u st n o l on ger be

“
,

amused by u n me an i n g pr omis e s We app e al t o the .

”
ho n o ur O f the S ult an f or facts B u t t h e sn ail p ac e .
1

an d the fi ctio n s O f Tu rkish dipl o macy th o ugh m add e n ,

in g to foreig n diplom ats are by n o m e an s fu t il e an d

,

ridicul ous The aim O f Turki sh p ol ic y w h ic h h as

.
,

alw ays bee n the s am e f or a ce n t ury i s ad m i rab ly ,

suited to Turkish i n t e r e sts C o n sc i ou s O f w e ak n e ss .

,

the Turki sh Foreig n O fli c e has se l do m d are d O p e n ly

1 V iefe my L if e f
O Ca rr/rirg , r x 11 .
33.

203
1 94 P AT R IARCHAL M O NA R CH Y

to defy a gre at P ower The p olicy has alw ays aimed

.

at o n e O f two thi n gs : either by i n fi n ite t e rgivers ati on

an d del ays to pr olo n g a n eg oti atio n u n til the gre at

Powers q u arrel with on e an other ; or to m ake p aper
co n cessi on s an d the n i n termi n ably to del ay their applic a
tio n in practice M ilosh O b re n ov it c h w as to h ave gre at
.

experie n ce of both meth ods an d o n ly his i n fi n ite re

,

source e n abled him to we ar d ow n the c on ti n ued resistan ce

of the Sul tan t o the i n depe n de n ce O f Serbi a .

I n the au t um n of 1 8 1 5 two gre at armies were

prep ari n g to adv an ce i n to Serbi a— on e u n der Khurshid
P ash a across the Dri n a on e u n der M arasc hl i Ali P asha
,

from Widdi n Kh u rshid was an able m an ; he had

.

show n the right w ay O f co n queri n g Serbi a an d h ad ,

actu ally achieved his aim in 1 81 3 H e w as a man O f

.

u n yieldi n g fi rm n ess an d decli n ed to trust the Serbi an s

,

with arms i n their h an ds M ilosh gre atly d ari n g pro

.
, ,

c e e de d to his c amp at L osn itz a u n der a s afe co n duct -

.

Khurshid decli n ed all terms an d i n sisted on dis armame n t .

M ilosh m ade h aste to be go n e an d s ought out M arasc hli

,

A li P asha The l atter w as the supreme n egoti ato r an d

.
,
’
soo n proved to be much more yieldi n g Ali s view w as .

th at dis arm ame n t did n ot matter but th at submissio n t o

,
“
the Sult an did O n ly be submissive to the Gr an d
.

” “
Sig n ior s aid he an d you m ay c arry in your belts as
, ,

m an y pist ols as you ple ase — addi n g with bro ad Turkish ,

humour c an n o n s e ve n f or all I c are

,
“
,
Ali w as n ot ,

however S O S imple as to believe in submissive w ords

, ,

an d i n sisted o n a g arriso n i n g O f the chief fortresses by

the s ol diers O f his army 0 11 the border M il osh w as .

o bliged to s u bmit to these terms A li m arched with an

.

army to Belgr ade an d rei n fo rced the g arris o n an d there ,

received M ilosh an d the Serbi an chiefs in the prese n ce

O f fi fty Begs As so on as they were se ated M arasc hli
.

A li r o se an d s aid Are ye S e rbi an s subj ect t o the Gr an d

“
,

Sig n i or We are subj ect to him an swered M ilosh

”
, .
2 06 PATR I A R CH AL M O NA R CHY
M ilosh
’
sth at he could n ot at fi rst assert
dififl c ul t y w as
th at the art i c l e s w e re still in force .

Th e fi r st c o n ce ssi on M ilosh m an aged to extr act w as

th at the M use /Zims w h o were n ow the Turkish district ,

j u dges sh ould n ot pu n ish a Christi an without co n se n t

,

of the loc al O bor K n ez I n ste ad o f a fi n al Turkish

-
.
1

c ourt of appe al I n e ach n ati on there w as n ow t o be a ,

system o f j oi n t courts in which Christi an an d Turkish

O ff i ci als sat side by side At Belgr ade P ash a M arasc hli .
,

A li held his st ate an d M ilo sh also resided in the c apit al ,

as chief represe n t ative of the Christi an s Th e two were .

t o h ave j o i n t c o n tr ol of a n ati o n al C o urt of Ch an cery .

Th e fi rst preside n t w as a Serbi an Peter M oler a m an of , ,

r an k an d ability A N ati on al Assembly or Sk up tc h in a .

, ,

w as also to be held at Belgr ade I t s meeti n g w as .

marred by a tr agic i n cide n t At a prelimi n ary c on fer .

e n ce held before the Assembly met M ilosh fell i n to a

, ,

dispute with M oler an d had him arrested Th e k n e z e s .

prese n t o ver awed by M ilosh sig n ed a petitio n for

, ,

M ol e r s executio n an d the Turkish P ash a reluct an tly

’
,

executed the se n te n ce Thus M ilosh proved to the .

Serbi an s th at he c ould use the Turkish power t o

support his ow n He h ad alre ady dismissed an u n ruly .

k n ez S oon afterw ards a bishop who w as his O pp on e n t

.
,

w as my sterio usly m urdered K ar a George perished .

u n der e q u ally suspicio u s circumst an ces in 1 8 M ilosh

Th M llim w r Tur k i h r l ig i u ffi i l w h o dmi i t r d
1 e use s e e s e o s o c a s a n s e e

j u ti b y t h id f t h k di i
s ce e hs hie W h t h Tur ki h
o e a n e ac na e . en e s

G ov r m t w
e n r t r d i 8 3 t h k di w r b l i h d d t h
en as es o e n 1 1 , e a s e e a o s e an e

M /lim use t bl i h d s h l j udg i

re - e s a s h h i of di put
e as t e so e es n e ac na e s es

b t w Mu ul m
e een d C hr i t i ss an an s an .

It i
2 ly f ir t t t t h t t h r p ibilit y f K r ’G or g
s on a o s a e a e e s ons or a a e e s
’

d th h
ea t b br ug ht h m t o Mil h t h ug h t h l t t r r ord
as n o een o o e os , o e a e s ec

d oe s t ugg t th t h
no w l d h v h it t d t put
s es a
pp t e ou a e es a e o an O one n

out Of t he w a
y . R an ke
( 6 —
7 ) is f ar 2 1 t oo p r e c ise in h is r
pe t it ion
e

O r y
f he a sa . r
The p e se nc e of a a G eo K r rg e w as, wvrho e e , dist in c t ly
d g r
an e ous t o M rlosh f om a nat iona as r l w lle as fr mo
p r a e sona
p l
oint
of vi w e .
 M I LO S H O B RE N O V I TC H 207

w as one w h ose v e n ge an c e w as n on e the le ss terribl e

bec ause his p e r so n al g u ilt w as n ot al w ay s cle arly rev e aled .

The k n e z e s were so th oroughly cow e d th at they eve n

i n cre ased his power an d met in cou n cil an d appoi n ted
,

him Supreme K n ez — th at is Supreme Christi an Ruler of

,

the cou n try — in N ovember 1 81 7 .

By ruthless cruelty M ilo sh h ad imposed his will 0 11

the Serbi an n atio n bu t from the purely diplom atic p oi n t
,

of V iew his arbitr ary rule w as an adv an t age C on .

c e n t rat e d authority w as n ecess ary f o r a skilful foreig n

.

policy . The trump c ard which M ilosh held w as the

fe ar the Porte had of R u ssi a But he perfectly u n der
.

st ood th at the army o f R ussi a c ou ld n ot e asily c ome t o

the aid o f S c i b ra Co n seque n tly his p olicy w as to keep,

Serbi a cle ar o f all e n tan gli n g c o n n ect i o n s with disco n

te n ted Christi an subj ects O f Turkey in Greece or
Roum an i a . I f Serbi a rem ai n ed free of such i n trigues ,

he c alcul ated th at the n umer ous ambiguities of her

situ atio n would gr adu ally be cle ared u p an d Turkish ,

suspici on s would be averted O n e day the Sult an

.

would be fou n d in a good mood or the Gr an d Vizier ,

would be frighte n ed or p ash as bribed an d the n c o n

, ,

cessio n s w ould be m ade This attitude expl ai n s his

.

’
h ostility to K ar a George an d his delight at th at hero s
de ath K ar a George h ad retur n ed t o Serb ia with the
.

obj ect O f allyi n g the Serbi an s with the dis aff ected Greeks ,

an d O f m aki n g a j oi n t att ack o n the S u lt an M ilo sh .

j udged this p olicy d an gero u s an d op p o sed it an d seems ,

to h ave bee n j usti fi ed by e v e n ts I n 1 82 0 the Porte .

O ff ered wh at they c o n sidered gre at c o n ce ssi o n s t o Serbi a

bec ause they were begi n n i n g t o fe ar a risi n g in Greece

an d an i n v asi o n fr o m R ussi a They off ered t o recog n ise
.

M il osh as Gr an d K n ez t o restrict t he p ower of the

,

M usel/ims t o the fortre sses an d to p u t the collectio n of

,

the trib u t e e n tirely i n to the h an ds o f l oc al O ffi ci als .

The t w o poi n s u n t o uch e d were t he cl ai m s o f the sp ahis

t
2 08 PATRI ARCHAL M O N A RCHY
an d the st atus of the Serbi an s The sp ahis were n ow .

to live in the fortresses b u t they still retai n ed j uris

,

dictio n over the l an ds an d pr operty belo n gi n g to

them in the villages an d the right to certai n tax e s in
,

additio n .

The Serbia n s were still co n sidered rayahs under th e

Turk an d the claim of R ussia to support the Serbia n s as
, ,

de fi n ed in the Tre aty of B uch are st was wholly ig n ored , .

A n ofli c ial c arried the I mperial fi rm an a n n ounci n g these

terms to Belgrade M il osh who n ow resided at Kraguj e
.
,

v at z ,
w as o rdered to atte n d at Belgrade to h e ar th e
fi rm an read He se e ms to h ave feared for his life an d ,

refused to e n ter the city without a co n siderable e scort of

Serbi an s M utu al suspicio n s were so aroused that th e
.

Turkish o ffi cials fi n ally met M ilosh on t he Top tc hide r ,

the wooded hill outside the gates of Belgrad e : e ach

p arty brought armed retai n ers with them Th e co n fer .

e n ce was brief M ilosh bega n by dema n di n g further

.

co n cessi on s Wh at ?
. s aid the Turkish o ffi cial .

“
O ur rights as gu ar an teed by the Pe ace of Bucharest .

M y horse l yelled the horri fi ed Turk tur n i n g rou n d ,

to his atte n d an ts He mou n ted an d rode aw ay at o n ce

.
,

t e rribly sc an d alised at the me n tio n of rights guara n teed

to Serbi a by R ussi a a foreig n Power an d the deadly
,

f oe of the Turk H e crossed the Da n ub e i n to

.

Hu n gary an d we n t b ack to Co n sta n ti n ople via

,
‘

R oum an ia in order to S how th at his life was u n safe in

,

Serbi a I n spite or perhaps bec ause of this demo n stra

.
, ,

ti on the fi rst n e w s from Co n sta n ti n ople was favourabl e

, .

The Serbi an s were asked to state their terms explicitly

an d se n d deleg ates with their petitio n to the R eis E ff e n di

Foreig Secret ary Six deleg ates w e re the n se n t t o

( n
) .

C on stan ti n ople wit h dem an d b ased on the Treaty of

B ucharest Shortly after their arr i v al they were arrested
.

an d the n egoti atio n s abruptly br o ke n off

“
E ve n pre .

limi n ary deliber ati on s had n ow ceased an d th e Serbi an ,

 P AT R I AR C HA L M O NA RCH Y

thi n gs th e right of the Turks to garriso n the Serbi an

fortresses This provisio n was q uite mea n i n gless if
.

Serbi a possessed a real i n depe n de n ce an d was the cause ,

of e n dless frictio n in the future But the true di ffi culty.

w as to co n struct a system by which the Sulta n could

gran t re al rights to his Christi an subj ects A ck n ow .

ledged i n depe n de n ce such as Greece O btai n ed w as a

, ,

f ar S impler thi n g in the O ttoma n eyes th an an arr an ge

me n t by which Christi an s rem ai n ed subj ects of the
Turk an d yet had rights of their ow n I n the e n d the .

whole i n ter n al admi n istr atio n w as h an ded over to M il osh ,

re n amed the K n i az ( Pri n ce) an d to his Cou n cil of E lders

, .

Th e M use llims were abolished The tribute mo n ey

.
-

w as to be h an ded over in o n e lump sum by the K n i az

w ithout an y i n terfere n ce from Turkish tax collectors -

.

The cl aims of the sp ahis were reduced withi n re aso n able

limits an d the amou n ts due to them were to be p aid
,

at the same time as the tribute There was to be a .

”
“
b ag an d b aggage deport atio n of all Turks in the
cou n try who lived outside the w alls of the Serbi an
fortresses The Serbi an s were to be give n complete
.

co n tr ol of their ow n Church with power to elect their

,

ow n bishops an d fi x all q uestio n s of ecclesiastic al tithes

i n other words to e n d the abuses O f the P h an ariot

,

re im e
g . L astly the Sult
,
an recog n i s ed M il osh as

Heredit ary Pri n ce of Serbia There rem ai n ed o n ly .

the questio n of bou n d aries which had bee n r aised in

,

1 82 0 an d ag ai n in 1 82 6 M ilosh on e ach occasio n

,

dem an di n g that Serbia n territory should coi n cide with

that of the S ix n ahie s or districts which K ar a George
h ad occupied Sulta n M ahmud refused this co n cessio n
.
,

an d v arious outlyi n g parts of these districts rem ai n ed

Turkish M il osh bidi n g his time e n couraged risi n gs
.
, ,

an d dist u rba n ces in the p arts still u n der Turkish r u le ,

an d used the excuse to occupy the disputed territory .

Fi n ally in 1 833 whe n the Turks were particul arly

, ,
 M I LO S H O B RENO V I TC H 21 1

despo n de n t M ilosh u sed the pressure of Russi a to

,

force a form al ack n owledgme n t from the Sult an of his

.

j urisdictio n over the districts

( 5
2 t h M a
y The
Serbi an b ou n d ary i n cluded Ale x in at s an d foll owed a
li n e dr aw n e ast to the Timok an d west to the Dri n a .

”
Th e “
prelimi n ary deliber ations were at l ast over ,

th ough they had t ake n eightee n ye ars to be c on cluded .

The fi rm n ess of M ilosh his c areful n ess in O b servi n g

,

n eutr ality tow ards the Turks whe n they were in d an ger ,

an d his bold re adi n ess to t ake adv an t age O f their em

b arrassme n t s had at l ast produced the desired result

, .

Serbia w as an aut on omous pri n cipality withi n fi xed an d

de fi n ite bou n d aries .

o
( ) l e Polit ica l R e c onstruction
f o S e r oia

I t is e asy to V ie w the hist ory of Serbi an freed om

as a picture of d ark tr agedies or u n relieved gl oo m A .

super fi ci al gl an ce is i n deed r ather al armi n g O f the .

nine N e m an yid rulers in medi ae v al times six were ,

deposed an d on e murdered ; of the t e n m oder n rulers

of Serbi a four were deposed an d three murdered Th e
,
.

i n fere n ce is obvious yet the co n clusio n as to a n archy

,

is n ot altogether u nj ust I t is well to re member th at

.

both Rom an s an d Byz an ti n es freque n tly deposed or

m urdered their rulers but th at e ach empire h ad a high
,

co n ceptio n O f l aw an d civilis atio n an d preserved the

,

st abilit y of their fabric for m an y ce n turies Th e u n e asi .

n ess of the se at on which moder n Serbi an rulers h ave

sat w as due n ot so much to l awless n ess as to p ar ochi alism ,

less to r adic ali sm th an t o i n er adic able c on serv atism I t .

is the i n te n se stre n gth o f the l oc al feeli n g of the vill age

p atriotism of Serbi a which has pr oduced stag n ati on
an d u n rest at the ce n tre O f thi n gs Th e Serbi an pe asan t
.

is fi e ry in temper ame n t an d att ached t o h is l oc al

li b e r t i e s n either u n derst an di n g n or revere n ci n g bu re au
,
2 12 PAT RI ARCHAL M O NARCHY
cr atic or ce n tr al co n trol Sm all l an d ow n ers c an n ot
.

become we althy o r pr oduce we alth r apidly bec ause they ,

do n ot p ossess the c apit al th at all m oder n e n t e rprises

n eed . He n ce eve n sm all t axes m ay be a gre at b u rde n
to a n atio n of vill agers who in q uiet times pl ace their
,

ow n p arish pump before the i n terests of the St ate as

a whole an d thus c ause gre at u n rest an d an xiety to the

,

n atio n al G o ver n me n t .Wh at the Serbi an s had fought

f or w as freedom to live as a free people n ot freedom to
,

live in a free st ate .

Th e i n depe n de n ce O f Serbi a h ad bee n m ade possible

by the mor al u n ity O f feeli n g which the pe ople possessed ,

by the w arlike po w ers O f the ch iefs an d their mom k e s ,

an d by the stre n gth of loc al gover n me n t But the l ast

.

t w o i n flue n ces were u n fav o ur able to good ce n tr al gover n

me n t Serbi a had the fou n datio n s O f self gover n me n t
.
-

in the democr atic commu n es of e ach v ill age an d in ,

the popularly elected k n ez of e ach district but the ,

Turks had sm ashed all the upper org an s of gover n me n t

S O that n o tr ace or sh adow of them rem ai n ed Serbia .

w as a natio n of vill agers all poor all occupyi n g sm all

, ,

holdi n gs an d all i n te n sely attached to their l an d They

,
.

were at o n ce democr atic an d co n serv ative in se n time n t ,

an d for both reaso n s u n willi n g to submit t o the c on trol

o r tax atio n of a Ce n tr al Gover n me n t O n e of their

.

chief re aso n s for fi ghti n g the Turk w as to destr oy the

mo strous
”
n octopus which stretched forth feelers of
i n terfere n ce from Belgrade Whe n o n ce the fi ghti n g
.

w as over the Serbi an peas an t wished to sit at e ase

,

be n eath the sh ade of the vill age trees dri n ki n g plum

,

br an dy an d telli n g t ales of M arko Kralj e v it c h Yet .

the obligatio n s an d expe n ses O f the n e w State at o n ce

m ade him bitterly rese n t the n e w co n diti on s I t was .

n ot o n ly the pe asan t w h o w as disill u si o n ed ; the wild

chiefs with their m om k e s an d heydukes f ou n d the

time h an g h e avy w i t h n o Tu rks to plu n der They .
2 14 PATRIA R CHAL M O NARCHY
ne eds S O str on g w as the dem ocr atic spirit th at o n e o f
.
,

the fi rst dem an ds O f the cou n try w as f or a popul ar

Assembly or S k up tc h in a so stro n g were the Voi vodes
,

th at they an d their followers were the popul ar re p re

se n t at iv e s Yet a tum ultuous Assembly O f w arriors
.

w as n ot helpful f or org an isi n g an E xecutive an d it is ,

gre atly to the credit of Kara George th at he at o n ce set

ab o ut the t ask of produci n g o n e Curi ously e n ough
.
,

it w as the turbule n t N e n adov itc h who fi rst pr op osed t o

the Sk u p t c hin a th at a Se n ate should be cre ated an d ,

K ar a Ge org e w ho supp orted the prop os al an d c arried

i t i n to e ff ect The Se n ate which w as cre ated in 1 80 5
.
, ,

w as m ou lded in accord an ce with the ide as O f Phil ipp o

v itc h. He w as a Hu n gari an Serb an d a doctor j u ris ,

w h o proved an e n erget i c an d c ap able secret ary to the

b ody Th e Se n ate w as at fi rst a j udici al body which
.

sat t o adj u st cl ai ms o n Turkish property an d to assess

the amou n ts of t ax ati o n for e ach district I t co n sisted of

.

t w elve members o n e draw n from each of twelve districts

, .

I t s fi rst t ask was to supply the place of the k adi the ,

chief Turkish j udge in e ach district tow n So me j uris .

dicti on w as left to the k n ez of e ach vill age an d a j udici al,

b ody c o n sisti n g of preside n t an d assessors was elected

, ,

in e ach district tow n With them was ass oci ated a

.

secret ary or perm an e n t leg al ofli c ial appoi n ted directly

by the Se n ate Thus the Se n ate w as the supreme C ourt
.

t o which appeals from district an d vill age courts could

be m ade an d a cert ai n amou n t of u n iformity O f p roc e
,
’
d ure w as secured through the Se n ate s co n trol of a
perm an e n t O ffi ci al i n each district court .

I t w as impossible eve n had it bee n desir able f o r the

, ,

Se n at e t o h ave fu n ctio n s th at were excl usively j udici al .

A dmi n istrative an d executive duties of all sorts n atural ly

fell upo n this body I t is to its eter n al ho n our that it
.

pr oceeded to organ ise a system of educati on at the very

m ome n t whe n the cou n try w as in the ago n ies of w ar .
 M I LOS H O B RE N OV I TC H 21 5

Hitherto educ atio n h ad bee n co n ducted purely by

mo n astic sch ools p oo r in res ources sc an ty in n umbers
, , ,

an d ofte n ill pl aced for

-
the n eeds O f a district A 11 .

eleme n tary school w as fi xed in every district tow n an d ,

a seco n d ary sch o ol est ablished at Belgr ade B oth were .

devised on the pl an s of J ugovitc h a Hu n g ari an Serb an d

, ,

the work w as improved by the famous Serb O b radov itc h

whom K ar a George i n vited to Serbi a to be the fi rst
o rg an iser of n ati o n al educ atio n The High School t aught
.

history m athematics an d j urisprude n ce an d had an im

, ,

porta n t i n flue n ce on the future of the r ace I t is easy .

for a gr e at cou n try to laugh at the rude an d imperfect

attempts of this poor little people to better itself .

But in fact Serbia an ticip at e d E n gla n d by two ge n era

, ,

tio n s in providi n g a system of n atio n al educ atio n .

The chief members of the Se nate were M l ade n an d

M ilori both partisa n s O f K ar a George but there were
, ,

others who supported his oppo n e n ts the Voivodes As ,

.

alw ays happ e ns a civili an bo dy soo n displ ays imp atie n ce

,

of military co n trol an d develops a co n scie n ce an d will of

its ow n The tr an s actio n s of the Se nate were sometimes
.

u nj ust an d corrupt on other occ asio n s they flouted the

,

supreme authority Kara George soo n m ade it c l e ar

.

th at he would n ot yield to the Se n ate 0 11 on e occ asio n .

he threate n ed it with c an n o n on an other he dismissed

,

t w o Russia n age n ts wh o m he reg arded as i n trigui n g with

members of the Se n ate ag ai n st his authority I n I 80 9 a .

still more viole n t q u arrel broke ou t N e n ado v itc h sup ,

porti n g a policy of c omplete subservie n ce to the R ussi an

Cz ar Kar a George an d his p artis an s in the Se n ate sup
,

porti n g a more i n depe n de n t attitude A n other Voivode.

co n stituted himself an A mb ass ador to Russi a to compl ai n

of the misdeeds of K ar a George N e n adov itc h we n t ab out
.

s ayi n g th at M l ade n an d M ilori ( K ar a George s supporters )

’

wished to be cz ars but th at he wished for a gr aci ou s

,

Czar of Russi a For a mome n t he prev ailed an d the

.
,
2 1 6 PATRI A R CHAL M O NA R CHY
s upp orters of K ar a Ge orge were di sm i ssed from the Se n ate .

Th e S k u p t c h in a an d Se n ate seemed both for N e n adov it c h

in 1 8 1 0 But K ar a Ge orge w as n ot so e asily be ate n ; he
.

held n eg oti atio n s with the chief R ussi an age ht Ge n er al ,

K ame n sky an d i n duced him to i ssue a procl am atio n on

,

3 o t h M a
y 1 8 1 0 which addressed the Serbi an s as
,
“
brothers
”
by faith to n g ue an d blood pr omised Russi an aid an d
, , , ,

urged them t o rec og n ise K ar a Ge orge as Supreme Chief ,

an d S h ow a u n ited fro n t to the e n emy This bombshell .

broke up the O pp ositi on p arty an d brought complete suc

cess to K ar a George I n the foll owi n g year ( 1 8 1 1 ) he
.

fi lled both Se n ate an d Sk u p t c h in a with his partis an s an d ,

p assed two m ost importan t resolutio n s in the legisl ative

Assembly The fi rst res oluti on pl aced other c omm an ders
.

u n der the complete co n trol of t h e C omm an der in Chief - -

an d the Se n ate empoweri n g them to dismiss or appoi n t

,

whomsoever they wished Thus Kar a Ge orge for the .

fi rst time g ai n ed complete milit ary an d civil co n trol

o ver the districts o utside the S h u m ad a The seco nd
y .

resol u tio n completely rem odelled the Se n ate I t s j udici al .

fu n cti on s were e n tirely rem oved t o a n e w body k n ow n

as the Supreme Co u rt O f Justice I n future the Se n ate .

w as t o co n cer n itself o n ly w ith admi n istr ative an d e x e c u

tive fu n ctio n s an d for th at purpose M i n istries of the
,

u su al ki n d were formed f or w ar foreig n aff airs fi n an ce

, , , ,

j u stice for home aff airs an d religio n Curiously e n ough

,
.
,

K ar a Ge orge after app oi n ti n g M l ade n his s upporter to

the W ar O fli c e w as willi n g to compe n s ate N e n adov itc h
, ,

M ile n k o an d o thers with O ffi ce in the Se n ate But he

, .

i n sisted th at these m alc on te n ts S hould re sig n their

military comm an ds an d m ade sure of the support of
,

the R u ssi an c ol on els an d regime n ts After s ome hesi .

t at ion N e n ado v it c h an d M rl e n k o complied an d were

, ,

drive n i n to exile in R ussi a The victory of K ara .

Ge orge w as c omplete an d importan t I t me an t the .

decisive r out of a 11 asce n t military fe ud alism which

~

,
2 1 8 PATRI A R CHAL M O NARCHY
P ash a decli n ed t o receive o rders fr om M ilosh By a
,
.

mixture o f cu n n i n g an d force the Serbia n ruler flo ut e d

,

the pash a an d forced the rebel k n e z e s to submit I n

, .

—
1 82 4 2 5 he h ad to face a more serious disturba n ce a ,

revolt of peasa n ts which might have had grave co use

,

u e n c e s h ad it n ot bee n speedily suppressed I t is

q .

possible that M il osh w as j usti fi ed in an arbitrary use

of his power while fe ar of w ar an d O f the Turks was
,

still re al But there c an be n o doubt th at his despotic

.

te n de n cies bec ame more an d more u n popul ar as the ,

cou n try settled dow n an d as the democr atic ideas of

,

the co m mu n ity became more an d more pro n ou n ced .

M ilosh had st arted in 1 81 5 by revivi n g the Supreme

Court of J u stice an d re n ami n g it the Natio nal Court
,

of Ch an cery This re form c arried with it a r e vival

.

of the district courts over which the ober—k n e z e s

,

presided Th e vill age courts of the k n e z e s had re

.

m ai n ed i n tact throughout But M ilosh refused to .

revive the Se n ate or to e n d ow the Cha n cery Court

,

with an y executive or admi n istr ative fu n ctio n s All .

ce n tr al executiv e power he co n ce n trated in himself an d ,

appoi n ted his ow n o ffi ci als for the purpose of collecti n g

taxes an d for ge n er al admi n istr ative work The ober .

k n e z e s soo n fou n d out th at it was u n s afe to disreg ard

or defy him an d he cl aimed the power O f dismissi n g
,

a k n ez an d of i n terferi n g in the aff airs of a district or

eve n of a vill age M a n y O f the ober k n e z e s or the vill age
.

k n e z e s were milit ary chiefs or their n omi n ees an d a

, ,

stro n g ha n d w as n eedful to keep the m in order Bu t .

the disco n te n t at M ilosh s refus al to be guided or

’

gover n ed by a Cou n cil w as n ot co n fi n ed to Voivodes

an d their puppets His methods of gover n me n t were
.

irregular an d eve n his attempts at assessi n g an d system a

,

t isin g t ax atio n were co n ducted in so awk w ard a m an n er

as n ot to remedy the existi n g evils I n additio n he .

r an ted m o n o p ol ies an d i n dul ed in arbitrary c on fi sca

g g
 M I L O SH O B R EN O V I TC H 2 1 9

ti on s of pr o pe rty T he rev olt o f 1 82 4— 2 5 had its origi n

.

in the disc o n t e n t of pe asan ts n ot o f Voivodes an d it s , ,

widespread ch ar acter m ight h ave t aught M il osh a lesso n .

A s i t w as he c on se n ted to dep ose two k n e z e s but

, ,

m ade n o e ff ort t o alter his syst e m O f gover n me n t .

His re —electio n as Gr an d K n ez w as co n fi rmed at

the Sk up t c hin a O f 1 82 7 Perh aps with the view o f .

securi n g re electi o n he m ade s ome v ague promises of

-

liber al reform But the o n ly re al result of this promise

.

w as the c o mpil ati o n O f a Serbi an Code b ased on the ,

Code N ap ol eon w hich w as ad apted by Vuk Karadj i t c h

,

an d accepted in 1 8 0
3 U n fortu n ately M ilo sh i n n o
.
,

w ay O bse rved the precepts of the code himself ; he t ook

’
a m an s house o r fi elds from him or forced peas an ts
to l ab ou r for him at will without an y ki n d of restr ai n t , .

A fter the Tre aty of Adri an ople the Serbi an s 11 0 l o n ger ,

fe ared the Turks an d therefore beg an to h ate M ilosh

,
.

Th e o n e thi n g t o be s aid in his favour at this t ime is

t h at he m ade n o atte m pt to retai n for his o w n pers o n al
use the crow n l an ds n ow gr an ted t o Serbi a He might
-
.

have p arc e lled them o ut in l arge qu an tities t o his

immedi ate followers an d thus cre ated a cl ass of big
,

la n dow n ers in the s ame w ay as the Sultan h ad cre ated

sp ahis But agai n st this spuri o us feud alism M il osh
.

set his face he would h ave n o more l an dl ords with

,

j udici al an d fi sc al p owers The reve n u e from the crow n .

l an ds bec ame the reve n ue of the St ate an d this p ol icy ,

n o t o n ly lighte n ed t ax ati o n but preserved Serbi a as a ,

pe as an t state of sm all holders — e q u al in their p ov e rty

-
,

their st atus an d their freed om eq ual also in their h atred

, ,

Of despotism .

The esse n ti al service th at M ilosh w as re n deri n g

Serbi a by refusi n g t o re —ad opt the old Turkish l an d
,

p olicy w as wholly forgotte n in the m ass O f his other

,

misdeeds I t w as impo ssible to expect the Serbi an s

.

to acq u ie sce in a de sp o tis m which w as i n de fi n itely p ro

2 20 PAT RI ARCHAL M O N A RCHY
’
l onged The S ult an s fi rm an which had bo un d M ilosh
.

t o go v er n by a C o u n cil of E lders w as still disreg arded ,

an d the S k u t c h in a which o cc asio n ally met grew tired

p , ,

o f c o n do n i n g his irregul arities Th e rumo ur that he .

i n te n ded t o give over sum m o n i n g th at body w as the

l ast drop which overbri mmed the c up of his i n iquities .

I n the fi rst d ays of 1 835 his oppo n e n ts determi n ed

t o atte n d the A ssembly in gre at force an d to c ompel
M ilosh t o m ake c o n cessi on s M an y of them actu ally .

as se m bl e d in arms an d m arched o n Kraguj e vat z .

M ilo sh at le n gth rec og n ised the i n evitable an d agreed ,

t o limit his g o ver n me n t His ope n i n g speech to the.

Sk u p t c h in a in Febru ary 1 835 w as most co n stitutio n al .

He w ould sub m it to be respo n sible himself he would ,

app o i n t an executive M i n istry O f six w h o should also

be respo n sible to a C ou n cil O f State ( or Se n ate ) The .

Pri n ce w as o n ly t o ret ai n for himsel f a veto on legisl a

tio n Fi n ally a writte n code w as to g over n the decisio n s
.
,

of j udges All these pri n ciples were to be embodied

.

in a fresh Serbi an Code .

For the time bei n g M ilosh had removed all diffi ,

c ul t ie s by his liber al outp o uri n gs I f he h ad ever an y .

i n te n tio n of abidi n g by them this w as removed by a ,

visit t o Sult an M ahmud in the autum n of 1 835 O n .

his retur n he put off all questio n s of co n stitutio n al

reform an d used l an gu age w hich showed th at he
,

i n te n ded to be as arbitr ary as ever He still further .

aggr av ated his subj ects by est ablishi n g a mo n opoly on

s alt the bulk o f which w as imported from W all ac hia

, .

The pro fi ts f rom this privilege he i n vested in pr operty

i n W all achi a in est ates to which he could retire i f
, ,

deposed I n additio n he imposed forced l abour on

.
,

pe as an ts an d e n closed w oods to m ai n tai n hi s o w n swi n e

, ,

th ough the pig tr ade w as the chief i n dustry O f the

-

c ou n try E ve n h is wife an d his br o ther t u r n ed ag ai n st

.

him while V ut c hitc h who h ad s acri fi ced everythi n g

, ,
2 22 P ATRI A RC H AL M O NARCH Y

pr actic ally re n dered him a Russi an v ass al F or the .

time bei n g E n gl i sh an d Fre n ch i n flue n ce withered aw ay

at Co n st an ti n ople an d the R u ssi an domi n ated Turkish
,

p olicies Co n se q ue n tly it w as in a state like Serbi a

.
,

subj ect to the Turk an d yet h alf i n depe n de n t th at ,

E n gl an d an d Fr an ce s ought to re —est ablish their in

flu e n c e . The opportu n ity O ff ered itself in 1 835 whe n ,

M il osh promised a Co n stitutio n Lord P almersto n an d

.

Louis Philippe viewi n g both Turkish an d Russi an

i n fl ue n ce as e q u ally obj ectio n able in Serbi a sought t o ,

get rid of both by maki n g M ilosh an irrespo n sible

desp ot I t was a form O f the theory th at free Sl avo n ic
.

st ates were the best b arrier agai n st R ussi an aggressio n O

.

This theory was also held in l ater d ays by Sir W ill iam
W hite the greatest of E n gl an d s more rece n t A m
’
,
’
b assadors in Turkey But Pal me rs ton s form of freed om
.

f or Serbia w as an absolute despotism which outr aged ,

the feeli n gs O f the cou n try though it did n ot perm it

the i n terfere n ce of Turkey or R ussi a The British .

Co n sul Colo n el Hodges who w as se n t out in 1 837

, , ,

was i n structed to use all his i n flue n ce in favour of the

arbitr ary rule of M ilosh The British missi on ary of
.

absolutism m ade himself popul ar an d did much to all ay

th e co n stit utio n al agitatio n .

The Co n stituti on of 1 835 h ad al armed both Austr i a

an d Russia . Th e former u n der M etter n ich pr o tested
, ,

ag ai n st its bei n g put i n to oper atio n but the policy of

,

R ussia was di ff ere n t an d more subtle The mystery

.

which is supposed to accompa n y the Slavo n ic character

is cert ai nly prese n t in her dipl omacy Two voices some
.

times sou n d on e from the c apital an d on e from an

,

E mb assy abroad an d they do n ot sou n d I n u n iso n

,
The .

policy of Cz ar Alex an der w as p articul arly mysterious

his A mb ass adors pre ached de mocr acy I n foreig n c apitals
at the m ome n t he w as pract i si n g despotism i n his ow n .

The expla natio n of this extraordi n ary d ualism of policy ,

 MI LO S H O BRENOV I TC H 1 1 3

whether in these or more rec e n t i n st an ces varies with ,

the S overeig n the Court an d the ch aracter of the A m

, ,

b assadors themselves But the reig n of Nic holas 1 is

. .

freer from ambiguity th an an y other bec ause of the ,

gigan tic e n ergy of his ch ar acter which imposed his will

,

on his subordi n ates H e had alre ady S how n his dis

.

i n terested n ess whe n he had advised M ilosh n ot to e n g age

in the war in 1 82 8 an d he h ad see n that Serbi a pro fi ted by
,

th e tr e aty at the close His idea n ow seems to have

.

bee n th at if the Sultan gran ted a Co n stitutio n to Serbi a ,

Russia would in practice i n terpret an d gu ar an tee it .

Curiously e n ough Sult an M ahmud th at iro n —wille d

, , ,

ce n tralisi n g despot w as also willi n g for his ow n re aso n s

,

to gr an t Serbi a a Co n stituti on bec ause he saw in it

,

a me an s to re assert Turkish auth ority over Serbi a .

Thus it came about th at Nich ol as an d M ahmud two ,

avowed despots sto od f or Co n stitutio n alism in Serbi a

, ,

while P almersto n an d Louis Philippe the two devotees ,

of Liber alis m an d Parli ame n t ary rul e were viole n tly ,

opposed to it .

The struggle was fairly ope n ed in 1 837 H odges .

c ame to Serbi a to persu ade M il osh to rem ai n a despot ,

about the same time as a Russi an e n voy c ame to

te ach him to b e a co n stitutio n al ruler Shortly after .

wards the Sult an u n der R ussi an i n flue n ce i n formed

, , ,

M ilosh th at he h ad he ard with regret th at he had

not i n stituted the Cou n cil of E lders as promised
in the Tre aty O f Adria n ople Co n s e que n tly h e w as
.

to se n d a deputatio n to Co n sta n ti n ople to discuss this

matter an d i n clude in it Abr ah am Pe t ron ie v itc h As .

the l ast n amed h ad bee n of the O ppositio n si n ce 1 835

-

M ilosh k n e w wh at t o expect A Serbi an Ch arter

.

was draw n up u n der the i n flue n ce of R ussi a an d ,

ultim ately published in December 1 838 I t s chief aim .

w as to c o mpel t h e Pri n ce t o sub m i t t o the restr ai n t o f

a Se n ate or Cou n cil This body w as to co n si st of S eve n
.
2 24 PATRIARCHAL M O NA R CHY
tee n members t o be ch ose n by the Pri n ce o n e for e ach
, ,

of the seve n tee n n ahie s i n to which Serbi a w as n ow

divided To be q u ali fi ed f or the oflrc e of se nat or a
.
i
,

c an did ate must be at le ast thirty fi v e ye ars old an d hold -

re al property Th e powers of the Se n ate were gre at

.
,

for n o n e w l aw or t ax w as to h ave force with out their

co n se n t The Se n ate w as to be the w atchdog of the
.

Co n stitutio n an d for th at purpose w as protected agai n st

,

i nj ury N o se n at or w as to be dismissed u n less i t w as

.

m ade evide n t t o the Sult an th at he had i n fri n ged the

l aws o f the cou n try Three M i n isters — f or fi n an ce
.
,

home aff airs an d j ustice were t o form the E x e cutive

,
—
,

an d were als o t o be m embers of the Se n ate All offi ci als .

were to be n ative Serbi an s Forced l abour of pe as an ts.

w as ab olishe d an d the procl amatio n of freedom of in

,

ter n al tr ade destroyed the s ystem of mo n op olies Fi n ally .

it w as decl ared illegal to i mpr i so n an y m an f or more

th an t w e n ty four h ours with o ut bri n gi n g him before a
-

co u rt o f l aw The j udges could n ot be dismissed

.

sep ar atio n w as to be m ade b e tw e e ri

,

an d a c omplete

j udici al an d executive fu n ctio n s The ge n er al result .

w as th at the Se n ate o n ce appoi n ted

, w as superior to ,

the Pri n ce There w as a further d an g e r th at the Turkish

.

Pash a at Belgr ade w h o had lo n g bee n a powerless o ffi ci al

,

cooped up in the Citadel might n ow i n terfere directly in

,

Serbi an i n ter n al affairs The Sultan ret ai n ed a power of

.

i n terpreti n g the Co n stitutio n an d of decidi n g whether or

n o se n ators S hould be dismissed or W hether j ustice w as ,

bei n g admi n istered in accord an ce with his n e w formed -

I mperi al ze al for its strict admi n istr atio n The power .

thus allowed to Turkey c an o n ly be expl ai n ed on the

assumptio n th at the Cz ar felt cert ai n of his co n tr ol .

N ich ol as h ad gai n ed by the Co n stitutio n in so f ar as he

h ad tr an sformed the dem ocr atic Co n stit uti o n of 1 835 i n to
a n arr ow olig archic regim e .

The n e w Co n stituti o n w as issued in a Turkish d e cree

2 26 PAT RIARC H AL M O NA RCHY
disordered aspect approached V utc hitc h c ryI n g for ven
e an c e 0 11 M il osh who h ad co n dem n ed her son to death
g ,
.

M ilosh himself sat helplessly in his house in Belgrade ,

from whe n ce he had o n ce gover n ed all Serbi a Gradu .

ally the sig n s o f defeat bec ame evide n t O n e mor n i n g .

’
the n oise of shouti n g an d the tr amp of horses hooves
was heard be n eath his wi n dows ; he looked out an d saw ,

the mob le adi n g I n triumph the c aptured horses of his

followers A few days l ater he told his weepi n g pr i n c e ss
.

th at the gu ard of ho n o ur which e n circled their reside n ce

had bee n removed Fi n ally V u tc hit c h appeared fully
.
,

armed followed by a bodyguard of m om k e s an d roughly

, ,

told the former dictator that the n atio n n o lo n g e r recog

n ise d him as its ruler M ilosh a n swered .
“
I f th e y n o
lo n ger desire to have me it I s well I will n o lo n ger in ,

trude myself upo n them ”

After th at l aco n ic se n t e nce he
.

sig n ed an i n str ume n t abdicati n g I n favour of his e ldest

,

son M ila n
( 1 3t h J u n e
) Two days l ater he left Belgr ade
.

in sil e n ce an d with dig n ity Some of his oppo n e n ts .

wept as they bade him farewell on the Save shore .

Me n say th at V ut c hit c h fl u n g a sto n e i n to the river ,

“
cryi n g Whe n this sto n e flo ats you will retur n to
, ,
’
Serbia ”
.
“
I sh all die as Serbi a s ruler
”
said M ilosh , ,

tur n i n g his he ad an d bre aki n g sile n ce for the last time .

Lege n d grows quickly in a l an d where bards co n vert

p olitics i n to poetry an d m an y s on gs soo n told of the
,

prophecy of V u tc h itc h an d of the a n s w e r of M ilosh 1

.

TH E C O N FL I C T TW N O B REN O V I TC H
( )
2 BE EE A ND

KA RA G EO R O EV I TC H ( 34 )
1 8 —60

M ila n , the whose favour M il osh had abdi

son in
c at e d w as a helpless
,
i n valid who died without bei n g
co n sciou s of his elev atio n M ich ael the sec o n d son of .
,

1 Pe t r vi
o tc h,S e rbia , 1 02 . R an k e
( pp . 2 70 —1
) has anot he rvri
e s on,

y
an d sa s t h at V ut c h it c h w e t
p .
OB REN OV I TC H AND KARA G E O RG EV I TC H 227

the old Pri n ce w as n ext chosen by the Se n ate The

, .

evils of the T urkish i n fl ue n ce the n speedily appe ared ,

for the Porte decl ared M ich ael of age but associ ated ,

V u tc hit c h an d Pe t ron ie v it c h with him as speci al

cou n cillors . P e as an t disturb an ces soo n beg an as a
protest ag ai n st this policy M ich ael s Go v er n me n t acted
’
.

with e n ergy rebu ff ed the Turkish Commiss ary an d

, ,

h aste n ed his dep artur e with threats M ich ael s Gover n

’
.

me n t w as well i n te n tio n ed an d had great educ atio n al

-

schemes but it was h amper e d by the u n popul arity of

,

M ilosh an d by disco n te n t at i n creased t ax ati on .

Russia n i n terfere n ce forced the retur n of a n e w

Turkish Commiss ary an d of V u tc hit c h an d Petro n i o
,

v it c h w h o had bee n drive n i n to exile

,
The disco n te n t .

i n cre ased an d V utc hitc h armed his followers an d f orti

,

fi e d a hill n ear Kraguj e v atz He gave out th at he.

wished n ot to dethro n e M ich ael but merely to i n sist on ,

a ch an ge of M i n istry an d professed himself willi n g to

,

refer all di ff ere n ces to the j udgme n t of the Turkish

C ommiss ary .Such l an gu age w as h ardly i n ge n u ous ,

b ut it served the purpose of c o n ceali n g the fact th at

V ut c h it c h w as headi n g a rebelli o n Pri n ce M ich ael .

m arched ou t agai n st him in A ugust 1 842 with a l arge

body of m e n But his dispositio n s were i nj udici ous
.
,

an d the popul arity of V u t c hit c h w as too str o n g for him .

Yet he showed ch ar acter in decidi n g t o resig n his o ffi ce

r ather th an submit to be a puppet Before the e n d O f .

August V ut c hitc h after h avi n g drive n the son like the

,

father from Serbia e n tered Belgr ade in triumph an d

,
”
w as recog n ised as Leader of the N atio n .

A pr o visio n al Gover n me n t w as h astily formed of ,

which V utc hitc h was the he ad an d u n der the i n flue n ce ,

of the Turkish Commiss ary the S k up tc h in a w as sum

m o n e d to choose a n e w Pri n ce Th e Assembly met .

o n the 1 4th September deposed the O b re n ov itc h an d

, ,

elected Alexa n der Karage orge v itc h The n e w ruler .

228 PATRIA R CHAL M O NARCHY
w as a son of the great K ar a Ge orge bor n in the y e ar ,
'

’
1 80 6,
in the period o f his father s greatest triumphs .

U n fortu n ately Pri n ce Alex an der though well in t e n

, ,
-

t ion e d an d mor al w as we ak an d u n fi tt e d to guide the

,

S hip o f Serbi a through the stormy w aters she w as to

e n cou n ter The most striki n g immedi ate result o f the
.

dethro n eme n t of the O b re n ov itc h w as a q u arrel betwee n

Turkey an d R ussi a Cz ar Nichol as co n sidered th at he
.

should h ave bee n co n sulted before an y such step w as

t ake n the n e w Sultan Abdul M ej id feeli n g more secure
, ,

o n his thr o n e rese n ted this i n terfere n ce an d asserted

, ,

his rights o ver Serbi a I n recog n isi n g Karage orge vit c h

.

the Porte gave u n mistakable sig n s of its i n te n tio n to

stre n gthe n its authority I n spite of the Co n stit utio n .

of 1 838 which m ade the Pri n cip ality hereditary in the

,

fam ily of O b re n ov itc h the Turkish decree recog n isi n g

,

K ar a George did n ot eve n admit th at his o ffi ce was

gr an ted for life The Turk mea n t him to be an ofli c ial
.
'

like a p ash a to be dismissed at the imperious ple asure

,

o f the Sult an Cz ar Nicholas n ow bec ame the ch ampio n

.

o f Serbi an freedom an d i n sisted on a free electio n by

, ,

which he me an t to pre ve n t V ut c hitc h an d the Turkish

C ommissary from i n flue n ci n g the S k up tc hin a He .

perso n ally favoured the O b re n ovitc h li n e but the ,

S ublime Porte c ou n tered this move by i n sisti n g on the

exclusio n of M ich ael as you n g an d i n experie n ced
, .

He n ce there were o n ly two c an did ates — Alex an der K ar a

e or e v it c h an d old M il osh Whether V u t c h it ch an d
g g .

the Turkish P ash a i n terfered or n ot the issue could n ot ,

be doubtful betwee n the two O n 1 5 th Ju n e 1 843 a .

free electio n w as held in the prese n ce of the Turkish

,

P ash a an d the Russi an Ple n ipote n tiary The S k up tc h in a .

v o ted by n ah ie s— that is by the m aj ority of v o tes in each

,

district — an d the seve n tee n n ahie s all voted for K ar a

g e o r e v it c h
g . Russi a i n sisted on the exile of V u t c h it c h

an d Pe t ron ie v it c h an d this dem an d h ad to be gr an ted

, .
 2 30 PA TR I A RC HA L M O NA RC H Y

S hortly a Serb who decl ared himself a M agyar was

,

well tre ated a Serb w ho refused to do so w as n ot

, .

The n in the year 1 848 c ame the gre at uprisi n g whe n ,

revoluti on an d freedom were everywhere an d every

ki n g in E urope trembled o n his thro n e He aded by .

Kossuth the M agy ars haste n ed to extort a pledge of

,

complete sel f gover n me n t fro m the Austri an E mperor

-
.

’
Liberatio n an d politic al rights were in everyo n e s m o uth .

I t w as n atur al th at the Hu n g ari an Serbs S h ould thi n k

th at the M agy ars who spoke so l oudly of liberty would
, ,

be willi n g to gr an t some co n cessio n s to them A depu .

t at ion of Hu n g ari an Serbs w aited o n Kossuth in April

1 848 an d held an i n terview which h as become famous
, .

They dem an ded the rec og n itio n of their la n gu age in

public docume n ts an d of their rights as a n atio n , .

” “
What said Kossuth
,
do you u n dersta n d by ,
“
A r ace s aid the head of the deput a ,
“
tio n which possesses its ow n l an guage customs an d
, , ,

culture an d self co n sci ous n ess e n ough to preserve them

,
-
.

“ “
A n atio n s aid Kossuth must h ave its ow n G over n
, ,
” “
me n t . We do n ot go so far s aid the he ad of the ,

deputatio n O n e n atio n c an live u n der sever al di ff ere n t

.

Gover n me n ts an d ag ai n sever al n atio n s c an form a S i n gle

,

State The disc ussio n outli n ed cle arly the two views
— the M agy ar u n able to co n ceive a n ati o n u n less as a
unified gover n me n t the Serb co n ceivi n g a n atio n as a ,

li n guistic u n ity The views w e re irreco n cil able an d

.
,

Kossuth recog n ising the fact dismissed the deput atio n

, ,
“
with the famous words I n that c ase the sword will , ,
” 1
decide I t did though n ot in the w ay a n ticip ated
,

either by M agy ar or by Serb .

1 V ide S ow /t e rn Sla o Que st ion , S e t on W at son

f
p 47 At -
. .

t h e ast mome nt of t h e H un a ian W ar of I nde pe n de n c e K ossut h made

l gr
an offe r lv
t o t h e S a n at iona it ie s of H un a l
in e t u n f or c o ope at ion g ry r r -
r
a ainst A ust ia
g r
B ut t h e off e , if se ious
. r
me ant, w as n ot se ious r ly r ly
r
e nt e taine d .
O B R EN O V I TC H A N D KA RAG EO RG EV I TC H 2 31

The S itu atio n bec ame critic al for in the autum n of ,

1 848 the M agy ar G o ver n me n t of Hu n g ary broke ou t

i n to ope n revolt agai n st A ustri a The Sl avs of Hu n gary

.

ge n er ally sided with the Austri an Gover n me n t ag ai n st

the M agy ars The o pp on e n t most formid able t o the
.

M agy ars was J e llac h itc h Gover n or o r B an of Cro ati a a

, ,

popul ar colo n el who c on trived t o ar o u se the Cro ats an d

at the same time to i n gr ati ate himself with the Austri an
Gover n me n t J e llac hitc h adv an ced i n to South Hu n gary
.

c alli n g on all Sl avs to revolt agai n st the M agyars He .

was j oi n ed by m an y Serbs of South Hu n g ary who were ,

alre ady 1 11 rev olt an d h ad se n t urge n t mess ages to their

,

Serbia n brethre n to j oi n them Pri n ce Alex an der w as .

placed in a serious di ffi culty The gre at Serbo Cro at .

-

co alitio n the J ugo Sl av n ati on had at l ast formul ated

,
-

its dema n ds Sl av on i a an d South Hu n gary were to be

.

formed i n to a V oiv odat e an d like Cro ati a were t o h ave

,

Home Rule The Serbi an s of Serbia were s u bj ect to

.

the Turk an d i n flue n ced by Russi a A decisive i n ter

,
.

v e n t ion by the Ser b i a n s might lead to a de fi n ite u n io n

of all three br an ches of the Serbo Cro at r ace u n der -

the Austri an E mperor The Au stri an yoke would

.

perhaps be light an d in an y c ase o ff ered the o nly

,

possibility of u n iti n g the three lo n g severed pe oples .

I t w as a mome n t of crisis whe n a m an of ge n ius in

Serbia might h ave ch an ged the curre n t of Austria n
history an d altered the m ap of the B alk an s .

H ad M ilo sh still w or n the pri n cely di adem it is ,

re aso n ably certai n th at he would h ave throw n in his lot

wi th the Serbs of S outh Hu ng ary But Pri n ce A lex .

an der was n ot the m an for heroic decisi on s an d the ,

weak n ess of his ch ar act e r w as n ot supp orted by an y

particul ar stre n gth in his p ositio n C on se q u e n tly he .

was bou n d to liste n to the remo n str an ces o f the Sultan

a n d the Czar The l atter w as prep ari n g to i n v ade
.

Hu n g ary from the n orth an d w as cert ai n of subdui ng

,
2 32 P A TRIAR C H AL MO NA RC H Y

the M agy ar rev olt Ru ssi a w as n ot there fore a n xious

.
, ,

for Serbi a to be embroiled as an y e n tan gleme n t might ,

le ad t o her an n exatio n by Austri a The Serbi an S k up .

tchi n a w as summo n ed an d appare n tly u n der Russi an , ,

pressure voted agai n st an y overt acts of hostility to the

,

M agy ars Alex an der could n ot preve n t an d did n ot

.
,

desire to preve n t supplies an d arms ammu n itio n an d

, ,

volu n teers bei n g se n t to the Serbs of South Hu n gary .

M ilosh an d M ichael O b re n ov itc h from their exile in ,

W all achi a w armly supported the revolt an d still furt h er

, ,

discredited the u n h appy A lex an der The fact th at .

Austri an an d Russi an E mperors both lo aded him with

decor atio n s on accou n t of his n eutr ality did n ot i n cre ase
his popul arity M an y Serbia n s thought that he should
.

have risked all recklessly an d ge n erously to free thos e

brethre n over the river who had do n e so much to free
Serbi a in bygo n e d ays I n the e n d n either Croats n or
.

Serbs gai n ed by their support of Austri a agai n st the

M agy ars The Austria n E mperor took the title o f Gr an d
.

Serbi an Voivode but ultim ately h an ded the Serbs an d

,

Cro ats b ack to their M agy ar m asters I n the settleme n t .

of 1 86 7— 6 8 the Cro ats gai n ed a species of self g over n m e n t -

an d the Serbs cert ai n rights of l an gu age an d n atio n ality .

But n either in on e c ase n or the other has the re al co n ces sio n

ever correspo n ded to the legal on e The extr aordi n ary .

te n acity of the Croats has e n abled them to m ai n tai n a

semi—i n depe n de n t co n ditio n b ut the Serbs h ave ste adily ,

lost grou n d in Hu n g ary Some of them h ave bee n .

forcibly M agyarise d an d the rest have slowly d w i n dled

,

in n umb e rs an d seem to be losi n g their vit ality an d self

su ffi c ie n c There are still some S ix hu n dred thous an d
y .

Serbs in So uth Hu ngary but they are n o lo n ger of the ,

s ame importa n ce as in the e arly n i n etee n th ce n tury ,

whe n they g ave v olu n teers priests mi n isters bish ops , , , ,

m o n ey arms br ai n s an d i n spir atio n to the Serbi an s Th e

, , , .

result of the eve n ts of 1 848 has bee n to ex alt the im

2 34 PAT RI ARC H AL M O NA RC H Y
has bee n ski n g the s ame questio n an d an sweri n g it in
a

di ff ere n tw ays ever si nce that time .

Th ough M i n istry an d people sympathised with

Russi a Pri n ce Alexa n der co n fessed himself excessively
,

pressed an d i n tolerably importu n ed by her atte n tio n s .

F on b lan q ue gra n diloqu e n tly i n formed him that “

in
followi n g the disti n ct li n e of his duty the Pri n ce of
Servi a had n othi n g to fear as the Greatest P ower in the
,

World had resolved on mai n t ai n i n g the i n tegrity of the

”
O ttom an E mpire He suggested possible adv an tages
.

to Serbi a from commerci al i n tercourse with E n gla n d an d ,

m ade suggestio n s for the aggra n diseme n t of Serbi a by

diplom atic co n c e ssio n s from Turkey These were the in .

duc e m e n t s to preve n t the Russia n o ff ers from havi n g too

m uch w e ight The re al pressur e on Alexa n der was from
.

the popular feeli n g in Serbia as expressed in M i n istry

an d S k up t c hin a F on blan q ue co n siste n tly with the
.
,

view th at the i n tegrity of Turkey me an t absolutism

in S erbia suggested th at h e might de al with Turkey
,

on his o w n respo n sibility p assi n g ov e r the Se n ate an d

“
,

disreg ardi n g M i n isterial advice at varia n ce with his ow n

”
duty as a reig n i n g v ass al of the Sultan The Prince .

did n ot accept this b old advice but temporised for h e ,

d ared n ot summo n the S k up tc hin a bec ause of the

”
dy n astic d anger Fi n ally he i n formed F on blan q ue
.

th at he wished to rem ai n n eutral but would decl are for ,

1
Russi a i f forced to do so As it tur n ed out the .
,

force dict ated a n other decisio n An Austri an army was .

co n ce n trated opposite B e lgrade and a Turkish forc e ,

appr oached Serbia from the south The Sulta n de .

m an de d a pledge of armed n eutr ality but off ered o n ce ,

m ore to guar an tee the i n ter n al auto n omy of Serbia .

This w as n egotiating with the sword in on e ha n d an d

1F O 1 00 8 Tu e , Re c o d O fli c e
. . . rk y r
F onblanq ue . to St r at f o rd d e

l
R e dc iff e , D e c 31 , 1 85 3, J an 9, 1 1 , 1 6 , 31 , F e b 8,
. . . Mar c h 5, 10 ;

F onblanq ue t o Cl r
a e ndon, J an 2 6 , 1 8 4
5 . .
O B RENO VI TC H AN D KARAG EORG EV I TC H 5
23

the Olive br an ch in the other an d it w as well to choose

,

the pe acefu l solutio n Whe n Austri an forces m oved

.

i n to R oum an i a an d cut off all hope of a R u ssi an c o

oper ati on n eutr ality bec ame n ot simply the best b u t the
,

o n ly policy I n the e n d it produced useful results to

.

Serbi a in the Tr e aty of Paris which e n ded the w ar ,

in 1 85 6 .

This greeme n t m ade the sig n atory Powers g uar an t ors

a

of the Pri n cipality of Serbi a in additio n t o R u s si a an d

,

Turkey thus stre ngthe n i n g her i n depe n de n ce th ough

,
’
still preservi n g the Sultan s suzer ai n ty A m ore im .

p ort an t result was a perm an e n t estr an geme n t betw e e n O

Ru ssi a an d A ustri a an d th at f act w as n ot t o the dis
,

adv an t age of Serbi a I t w as still more in her favo ur

.

th at she could appe al in future to Fr an ce an d E n gl an d

in c ase of Turkish e n croachme n ts But the pe asan ts of
.

S erbi a had n ot an y profou n d i n sight i n to the mysteries

of high policy ; they saw o n ly the humili atio n of their
Pri n ce before the Great Powers an d his evide n t sub ,

se rv ie n ce to Austria w hich had betr ayed the Serbs of

,

Hu n gary .

The u n popul arity of Pri n ce Alex an der grew r apidly ,

an d the proj ect of restori n g the O b re n ov itc he s was

seriously discussed The m ai n curre n t w as an ti Austri an
.
-
,

an d w as so stro n g as to u n ite the old oppo n e n ts V u t c h it c h

an d G arashan in The Co aliti o n thereby secur e d a

.

m aj o rity in the Se nate hostile to the Pri n ce A pl ot .

for the remov al of Alexa n der w as h atched in the Se n ate

itself Alex an der on discoveri n g it arrested the c on
.
, ,

s irat ors
p an d se n te n ced them to de ath afterw ards ,

c ommut i n g their se n te n ce to impris on me n t f or life

.

This ac t w as a bre ach of the Co n stituti o n of 1 838 which ,

forb ade the Pri n ce to i n terfere with se n at ors an d pl ac e d

their pu n ishme n t or remov al in the h an ds of the Sult an .

Th at te n der gu ar di an of c o n stitutio n al liberties at o n c e

i n ter f ered an d se n t a Turkish Commiss ary to i n q u ir e
,
2 36 P AT R I AR C H A L MO NA RCH Y

i n to this m atter Alex an der succu m be d rele ase d th e

.
,

priso n ers an d restored such as were se n ators to thei r

positio n s an d i n cluded both V utc h itc h an d G arashan in
,

in his M i n istry The Se n ate n ow proceeded to acts of

.

retali atio n agai n st the Pri n ce I t made the proposal th at

.

a resolutio n three times passed by the S e n ate should

h ave the force of l aw Al most the o n ly prerog ative
.

left to the Pri n ce whe n the Se n ate w as hostile w as his

, ,

v eto . He n ce its remov al would h ave tur n ed the Se n ate

i n to an olig archy an d the Pri n ce i n to a Doge an d m ade ,

the whole Co n stituti on of that W higgish an d V e n eti an

type so h ateful to the soul of Disraeli But wh atever .

w as proposed a n e w factor was to dispose of both Se n ate

an d Pri n ce Th at factor was the people of Serbia
. .

At this time Sir He n ry B ulwer ( Lord D alli n g) was

Amb ass ador at Co n st an ti n ople an d he visited Belgr ade ,

in the autum n of 1 85 8 I t is s aid th at he advised some

.

of t he Serbia n leaders to e lect a regular Ass e mbly an d

set tle their di ff ere n ces in a properly co n stitutio n al
m an n er This advice was quite in th e style of the
.

P almersto n i an diplom ats of that d ate tho ugh P almersto n ,

h imself had favoured the absolutism of M ilosh in d ays

go n e by an d F on bl an q ue had rece n tly e n couraged
,

A lex an der in the same course But it is n ot certai n th at .

this advice was ever give n or at le ast the advice may n ot

,
1
h ave bee n respo n sible for the desired result I n an y c ase .
,

aff airs had re ached such a de adlock th at som e such step was

i n evit able The p opul ar opi n io n was th at the Pri n ce w as

.

the flun k e y of Turkey an d Austria an d th at the se n ators ,

were self seekers an d i n triguers The former must be

-
.

deposed an d the l atter restr ai n ed by a Sk up tc hin a

, , .

The latter body had n ot met for t e n years but it w as ,

n o t a moribu n d body n or ever will be u n til democr acy

,

is de ad in the he art of a Serbia n Th e S k up t c hin a .

d ated b ack t o the d ays of K ara Ge orge I t had .

1 V ide IVI ille r, Ott oman E mp ire , p . 2

50 .
2 3s PATRIARCHAL M O NA RCHY
a rmy an d the S k up tc hin a solemnly deposed him ap
, ,

p oi n ti ng a provisio n al Gover n me n t u n til M il osh should

retur n .

The Cz ar had bee n angry with Alex ander bec ause of

his attitude in the Crim e a n War an d n ow rej oiced at
,

his fall Thus E n gla n d and Russia found themselv e s

.

at on e in supporti n g the demo c ratic moveme n t — a

much h appier result than whe n E n gla n d supported
absolutism in Serbi a an d Russia guara n te e d the C on
st it ut ion Fr an ce immedi ately recog n ised M ilosh an d
.
,

Austri a m ost relucta n tly followed suit There r e m ai n ed .

o n ly Turkey an d Turkey was pleased b e cause the wily

,

M ilosh refus e d to accept the pri n cely o ffi c e without the

co n se n t of the S ulta n Th e Porte ac q ui e sced in his
.

retur n to Serbia but o n ce more showed her desire to

,

i n terfere by refusi n g to a ffi rm that the pri n cely o ffi ce was

to be hereditary in the O b re n ov itc h li n e Thereby the .

S ultan violated on e articl e of the Co n stitutio n of 1 838 ,

which he had j ust forced Al e xa n der by threats to uphold

in an other Th e omissio n showed that the P o rte still
.

co n sidered the Serbia n Pri n ce as a Tu rkish ofli c ial whom ,

it retai n ed the right of deposi n g However Turkey .

,

was h ampered by the Treaty of 1 85 6 an d it w as a h appy,

circumstan ce for Serbia that n o great Power sought to

settle her i n ter n al aff airs by the thr e at or force of arms .

O n 3rd J an uary 1 85 9 Alexa n der leg ally abdic ated He .

l aid dow n n ot perhaps with sorro w a burde n already

, ,

too heavy for him The ami able character of the man
.

sho uld n ot obscure his weak n ess as a Pri n ce The .

Serbi an pe asa n t e ve n in those d ays was prim arily a

democrat but he was capable of forgetti n g his dem ocr atic
,

i n sti n cts in the sight of a man There are three requisites

.

f o r bei n g a B alk an r uler : the fi rst is P e rso n ality the ,

seco n d is Perso n ality an d the third is Perso n ality

, .

A lex an der possessed n o n e an d M ilosh all of these

thi n gs .
O BR E N OV I TC H AND KARAG EO RG EV I TC H 2 39

At the begin n i n g of 1 85 9 M ilosh o n ce more

retur n ed to Serbi a as Pri n ce after an abse n ce of twe n ty
,

years He was received with a w elcome an d a g aiety

.

which is still remembered in Serbi a an d his popul arity ,

was o n ly i n creased by the fact th at Austri a had refused

to allow on e of her st e am e rs to fe rry him across the
”
Da n ube . My o n ly care said h e to th e p e ople will
, ,

be to make you h appy you an d your childre n whom I

, ,

love as well as my o n ly son the Ize ir to your t/zrone , ,

Pri n ce M ichael I 1
This uttera n ce showed co n clusively
that he paid n o h e ed to th e Turkish refusal to recog n ise
his dig n ity as hereditary At the very outset he sh owed
.

himself a n ti Austria n and a n ti O ttoma n an d n either

- -
,

aspect was i nj urious to his popularity But a calm .

observ e r might hav e wo n dered whether he was goi ng

to be a n ti Co n stitutional as w e ll M ilosh u n like some
-
.
,

return e d sov e reigns had learn e d somethi n g though n ot

, ,

very much from exp e rie n c e He r e m e mbered the d ays

,
.

whe n V utc hitch an d his arm e d follow e rs had forced him

to resig n an d told him h e should n ot retur n to Serbi a
,

till the sto n e floated o n the wat e rs of the S ave He .

dismissed the S k up tc hin a exiled some of his e n emies

, ,

an d threw V u t c h itc h i n to priso n There his old e n e m y

.

died under stra n ge circumsta n ces though the fact that ,

M ilo sh refused the Turkish r e quest to exami n e

the body throws som e light upo n the mystery His .

domestic policy w as as arbitrary as ev e r though his ,

methods were more carefully disguis e d H e repelled .

all attempts of foreig n Powers to meddle in Serbi an in

ter n al a ff airs with the cool e st i n sole n ce an d showed all ,

his old astute n ess in diplomacy Wh e n Austri a went to .

war with Fra n ce an d S ardi n ia in 1 85 9 M ilosh m ai n ,

t ain e d a strictly correct attitud e an d refused to allow his

subj ects an y opportu n ity of hostility towards Austri a .

He also fou n d an opportu n ity of n egoti ati n g with

Q u t d1b y P
o et r ov it heS bi p 0 c ,
er a, . 12 .
2 49 PATR I A R CHAL M O N A R CHY
Turkey Some rebellious Bos n i an s had fou n d refuge
.

in Serbi a an d he could o ff er to deliver them u p in

,

ret ur n for further co n cessio n s The S k up tc hin a had

.

already flu n g dow n the gau n tlet by procl aimi n g the

pri n cely dig n ity to be hereditary in the O bre n ovit c h
li n e The Porte in gre at i n dig n atio n refused to ratify
.

this proposal M ilosh who k n ew the Turk of old was

.
, ,

e n tirely u n moved and on 7t h M ay 1 86 0 he se n t a

,

Serbi an deput atio n to Co n st an ti n ople with two c at e gori

c al dema n ds He dem an ded fi rst the f ulfi me n t of the
.

Tr e aty of 1 830 by which it h ad bee n agr e ed that all

,

Turks in Serbi a S hould reside withi n the fortr e ss bou n ds .

Seco n dly he i n sisted th at the Port e should con fi rm his

,

title as heredit ary The Porte as usual b egan to

.
, ,
“
e n g age in prelimi n ary deliberatio n s M ilosh put a .

sh arp stop to these proceedi n gs appare n tly on th e ,

assumption th at if he had a S k up tc h ina he might as

, ,

well m ake use of it O n 2 2 n d August 1 86 0 h e .

publicly a n n ou n ced to the Sk up tc h in a th at th e Serbia n

’
pe ople could n o lo nger regard their Turkish suzerai n s
will in the two dem an ds rej ected by Co n sta n ti n ople .

The delighted Assembly h aste n ed to declare th at thes e

me asures should have the force of law Withi n a .

mo n th of this stroke the aged ruler n ow in his eightieth ,

year w as dead
,
.

The l ast years of M ilosh e n ded an epoch for with ,

him perished the old patriarchal society of which h e

h ad bee n the le ader an d the most striki n g repres e n tative .

His abilities were u n doubtedly great an d despite his ,

a e
g,
his l ast years show the s ame e n ergy an d self

c on fi de n c e which had alw ays disti n guished him But .

they S how also that he w as to the e n d arbitrary in tem

p e rame n t a,
law u n to himself a m e dimv al cla
, n

chief struggli n g with a n ewer age I n de ali n g with .

oppo n e n ts he S pared n o me an s to attai n his e n d an d ,

murder had som e tim e s b ee n the ro ad to tyra n n y Suc h .

MI C H A E L A ND MI L AN— TH E U G O S L A V P OLI C Y
J -

A ND TH E S U R RE ND ER TO A U S TRI A
H UNG A RY ( 1 86 0—1 888)

TH E ne w ruler Pri n ce M ichael O b re n ovitc h had some

, ,

of the good qu alities of Pri n ce Alex an der an d some of

the abilities of Pri n ce M il osh But the son resembled
.

the f ather o n ly as tempered steel resembles iro n Ol d .

M il osh could n ot read an d had n ever travelled beyo n d the

B alkan s ; M ichael w as highly educated an d had visited
the c hief capitals of E urope M il osh to the last re
.

m ai n ed a despot M ichael saw that it w as n ecess ary to

restrict the autocratic power of on e man M ilosh b ased
.

the security of the state on himself as p arish co n stable

M ich ael k n ew the adv an tages co n ferred by law an d
order M ilosh n ot o n ly did n ot cre ate but actually
.
,

weake n ed the i n stitutio n s which he fou n d ; M ich ael

gave to Serbi a a civilised basis of gover n me n t The .

’
short eight ye ars of M ichael s rule were the best th at his
cou n try has experie n ced si n ce the achiev e me n t of her
freedom .

M ichael took the phrase Tempus e t ius m e u m as

the motto o f his gover n me n t His work l ay in three
.

m ai n directio n s — the org an isatio n of an e fli c ie n t i n ter n al

gover n me n t th e adj ustme n t of the rel atio n s with the
,

P orte an d the developme n t of a n atio nal foreig n policy

, .

I n all these directio n s he showed origi n ality an d a

j udicious moderatio n . The i n ter n al problem was
 MI CHA EL AN D MI LAN 2 43

attacked fi rst an d with results that were brilli an t He .

fou n d a q uasi p atri arch al society where the cl an chiefs

-

,
-

an d their w arriors thre ate n ed the st ability of the St ate ,

where j udges gave d e cisio n s ag ai n st the Gover n me n t at

the peril of their lives an d where the Se n ate an d the
,

Sk up t c h in a were at d aggers dr aw n His very fi rst me asures .

showed a bro ad gr asp O f the politic al evils in Serbi a an d

of the n ecess ary remedies His first procl am ati on had
.

“
a n n ou n ced th at the law is the supreme authority in
”
Serbi a . Politic al oppo n e n ts i n ste ad of bei n g tried
,

before i n timid ated j udges were p ard on ed an d eve n

,

admitted to o ffi ce G arashan in th at able but somew h at

, ,

reckless statesm an bei n g m ade the Premier Thus

, .

early Pri n ce M ich ael had show n th at he w as j ust

,

e n o ugh t o p ard on oppo n e n ts an d stro n g e n ough to

employ them I n his service He had alre ady removed .

the old misc arri ages of j ustice b efore he tur n ed to the

an o m alies of politics His propos als as l aid before the
.
,

Sk up t c h in a of 1 86 1 aimed at limiti n g the power o f

,

the Se n ate an d at regul arisi n g that of the S k u p tc hin a .

The i n dividu al se n ators were in future to be respo n sible

, ,

n ot to the Sult an but to the regular courts of l aw Few .

were fou n d to defe n d the prete n sio n s o f a despic able

oligarchy an d his moveme n t for bro ade n i ng the b asis of
,

power was popular The s upreme legisl ative body w as

.

n o lo n ger to be the Se n ate but the Sk up tc hin a An

,
.

elector al law b ased the fra n chise f or the latter on the

p ayme n t of taxes an d provided th at it should meet at
,

le ast every three ye ars Thus Serbi a w as for the fi rst

.

time properly org an ised as a politic al e n tity A n other .

l aw org an ised her as a milit ary e n t i ty an eve n m ore ,

importan t law 1 11 view o f the fact that force 13 ofte n the

o n ly support o f law I n the B alk an s .

Up till 1 86 1 Serbi a had bee n wh at M o n te n egro has

bee n u n til very rece n t times an irregul ar army e n ,

camped ou the soil Whe n w ar w as i mmi n e n t the

.
,
2 44 M I CHA EL AND M I L AN
cl an s wer e c alled out an d e ach chief led out his force
, ,

or if he th ought fi t sulked like Achilles in his te n t

, , ,

w hile his m om k e s idled away their time at his S ide At .

a re al n atio n al emerge n cy e very man bec ame a soldier ,

but left the m ai n army if his ow n district w as attacked ,

or if he wished to bury his plu n der Such a force w as .

irregul ar I n every se n se of the word an d could n ot be

depe n ded upo n I n future M ich ael laid dow n that
.

there should be a sm all regul ar army b ased 0 11 c on

scriptio n an d a reserve or n atio n al militi a of the whole
,

n ati o n .The army w as to be tr ai n e d discip l i n ed an d , ,

e q uipped on Wester n models an d a Fre n ch o ffi cer w as

,

m ade Chief of Staff f o r the purpose E ve n tu ally this .

policy produced a M ilitary Ac ademy an d an army of

over me n To support the expe n se of these
.

an d other pr oj ects a n other law propos e d an i n come tax

,
-

sm all I n amou n t but u n iversal I n applicatio n All these .

reforms were e ve n tually c arried through i n spite of t he

hosti l ity of some foreig n Powers E n gl an d appare n tly
.

fe ared that a S e rbia n professio n al army might be used

ag ai n st the Turks an d suggested a r e ductio n of it to
m e n a propositio n which was with di ffi culty
,

foiled Austri a w as al armed but eve n tu ally ac q uiesced

. .

Th e Sult an n atur ally suspicious of any ch an ges did his

, ,

best to obs t ruct them But Russi a an d Fr an ce b e

.

frie n ded Pri n ce M ichael an d e n abled him to carry

through reforms whi c h at le n gth beg an to tur n Serbi a
from a rude medley of p e asant warriors into the
sembla n ce of a moder n state .

I n his rel atio n s with th e Porte M ichael trod on ,

delicate grou n d from the mome n t of his accessi on He .

“
succeeded to the thro n e in c on formity with the law of
1 8 which the Sulta n had decli n ed to accept but which ,

the S k up tc hin a had decl ared t o have the force o f law .

The Sult an grudgi n gly r ati fi ed his accessi on though ,

still decli n i n g to yield c on se n t to a hereditary succ e ss i on .

2 46 M I CHA E L AN D M I LAN

gr ade w as gi ve n u p an d the T u rkish i n h abitan ts were

c on fi n ed t o the fortress S hab at z
. Seme n dri a Fet
, ,

I sl am the isl an d o f Adak ale h in the D an ube an d little

, ,

Zvor n ik a vill age on the Dri n a were still to be

, ,

garriso n ed by the Turks But all Turks n ot in t hese

.

fortresses were to be deported from Serbi a an d their ,

property to be v alued an d sold A further co n cessio n

.

of co n sider able import an ce w as th at the Turks agreed to

dism an tle the fortress of Sok ol on the Bos n i an border ,

an d th at o f U dshit z e i n the S anj ak of N ov ib az ar which ,

comm an ded the c ommu n ic ati o n with M on te n egr o .

Pri n ce M ich ael h ad gracefully accepte d the propos al ,

but o n ly as an i n st alme n t of future co n cessio n s He .

se n t his wife Pri n cess Juli a with a publicist to Londo n

, ,

to i n flue n ce En glish opi n io n in his favour an d this ,

moveme n t co n verted C obde n to the Serbia n cause .

Whe n the gr o u n d had thus bee n carefully prep are d ,

dipl om atic i n q uir i es reve aled th at the British Foreig n

O fli c e would n ot oppose the withdr aw al of the rem ai n i n g
Turkish garriso n s if the Porte itsel f co n se n ted Austri a
,
.
,

which had j ust bee n overwhelmed by Prussia n arms ,

w as in a ch aste n ed m oo d I n 1 86 2 she h ad opposed

.

the ev acu atio n of the Turkish g arriso n s on the grou n d

th at their dep arture wo uld arouse the Austri an Serbs .

I n 1 86 6 she seems to have th o ught th at timely c on

cili atio n to Serbi a might avert an y such thre ate n ed ex
c it e m e n t. Fr an ce an d R ussi a supported Serbia so that ,

Turkey alo n e rem ai n ed M ich ael ag ai n exerted his

.

diplom atic arts an d b arg ai n ed with the Turks taki n g ,

’
gre at c are to save the l atter s dig n ity His policy was .

successful an d on 3rd M arch 1 86 7 th e Porte agreed to

,

evacu ate the Serbi an fortresses on conditio n th at the

,

Turkish flag should wave side by side with the Serbi an

from the r amp arts o f Belgrade M ich ael willi n gly
.

gra n ted this co n cessio n which me an t n othi n g to him

,

an d much to the Turk .

 M I CHA EL AN D M I L AN 7
24

Before J u n e 1 86 7 Serbi a saw t he l ast o f the Turks .

To ad apt the words o f Gl adsto n e employed on an other ,

famou s occ asi o n The Turks n ow c arried aw ay their

“
,

abuses in the o n ly p o ssible m an n er — n amely by c arryi n g ,

”
O ff themselves I t is difli c ul t to see wh at adv an t age
.

h ad bee n g ai n ed by the rete n tio n of Turkish g arriso n s

in fortresses for half a ce n tury after the rest o f Serbi a
had bee n free The Turkish V iew was that they would
.

h ave facilitated the further reductio n of the cou n try at

an
y time that the O ttoma n Power w as free to attempt

it Austri a too had an interest in keepi n g Serbia

.
, ,

divided an d we ak But the half hearted opp ositio n or

.
-

reluctan t acquiesce n ce of British statesm an ship in the

rem ov al of these g arriso n s is f ar less defe n sible British .

policy app are n tly did n ot wish to see Serbi a stro n g

, , ,

though at an y favour able mome n t Turkey might h ave

asserted a co n trol over her which would h ave led to
w ar . The adroit n ess of Pri n ce M ich ael in educ ati n g
British opi n io n was n o less importan t th an his n e got ia
tio n in Co n stan ti n ople M ich ael had S h ow n in this
.

aff air a skill in deali n g with Tu rkey which O l d M il o sh

might h ave e n vied an d a k n owledge of E n glish public

,

o pi n io n such as his father n ever possessed H e had .

achieved a striki n g diplomatic success He n ceforward .

,

the Pri n cip ality of Serbi a w as i n de pe n de n t an d the ,

Turkish flag 0 11 the b attle m e n ts of Belgr ade represe n ted

little more th an a col oured piece of bu n ti n g .

The n eg o ti atio n s with regard t o the fortresses ,

though sep ar ate in themselves were bou n d up with the

,

l arger aspects of foreig n policy Pri n ce M ich ael was.

i n deed the fi rst Serbi an ruler w ho may be s aid to h ave

h ad a fo reig n p olicy in the true se n se His predecess ors .

w ere so ab sorbed in i n ter n al a ff airs in n eg o ti ati o n s with

,

the Porte or in oblig atio n s to t he Gre at Po w ers th at

, ,

they were h ardly able to assert their n atio n al in de p e n d

e n ce an d mak e S e rbi a cou n t for some t hi n g in the eyes
2 48 M I CHA EL A ND M ILAN

of the world This task Pri n ce M ich ael performed with

.

the address an d the prude n ce which m ark his political

co n duct At di ff ere n t times he frighte n ed E n gl an d
.
,

Russi a an d Fr an ce c aj oled Turkey an d thre ate n ed

, , ,

Austri a Before his time the Powers had made their

.
,

i n flue n ce felt by disturbi n g Serbi a ; duri n g his reig n ,

Serbi a m ade her i n flue n ce felt by d isturbi n g the Powers .

The argume n t of Lord Stan ley prev ailed in 1 86 7

over the fe ars which Austri a had previ ously expressed ,

th at an y accessio n of stre n gth to Serbi a me an t a dis

t u rb an c e of the Serbs u n der Austri an rule Stan ley .

held that wh at Serbi a w an ted w as freedom from the Turk ,

an d th at the Serbs beyo n d her borders did n ot i n terest

her I t is usu al for hist oria n s to ch arge dipl om atists

.

’
with l ack of foresight but I n this i n sta n ce Stan ley s
,

co n te n t io n appe ared reaso n able though subseque n t ,

eve n ts have falsi fi ed it Possibly a very close ac

.

q u ai n tan ce with the life rather tha n with the politics

o f the N e ar E ast might eve n at this time have suggested
’
a di ff ere n t co n clusio n Serbi a s dema n d to be rid of the
.

Turkish g arriso n s in her fortresses had tur n ed E uropean

atte n tio n fr o m her n o less import an t bec ause less i m ,

medi ate aspir ati on s elsewhere By the m iddle of the

,
.

n i n etee n th ce n tury the forces which h ave cre ated the

Souther n Sl av questio n in its moder n form were already
prese n t I n remote schools an d in the researches of
.

solitary stude n ts were bei n g mustered those formid able

forces which do so much to u n ite divided peoples in the
comm on b on ds of l an g uage history an d n atio n ality , , .

The physic al an d politic al b arriers to Jugo Sl av u n ity -

were still tre m e n dous an d forbiddi n g b u t the i n tellectu al ,

o bstacles had alre ady bee n removed Already they had .

scattered the seed

O f t h b u dl
e o n d i v i ib l t h ug ht t h t go
e ss an n s e o a es

Fr t h r ug h ut t im
ee o o N rth e d S out h w i d b l ow
as o an n s,

F ar t h r oug h ut p o E t or W t
s ac e as flwas es se a o s.
2
5 0 M I CHA EL AN D M I LAN

di rec ti on an d th at of o ther H u n g ari an Serbs seve n ty

, ,

eleme n t ary scho ols an d a High Sch ool ( n ow the

U n iversity ) of Belgr ade arose an d exercised a very
imp ortan t i n fl ue n ce on the n ext ge n er atio n Ristitc h .
,

o n e of the ablest M i n isters of Pri n ce Mich ael s reig n

’
,

received his educatio n i n this w ay .

By the side of O b radov it c h was the young Vuk

Karadj itc h like him self ed u cated like h im a frie n d
,
-

of K ar a George u n like him in bei n g a pure bred

,
-

Serbi an H e w as a m an of comm an di n g abilities who

.
,

amid i n fi n ite difli c ul t ie s completed the work th at

O b rado vit c h had begu n an d m ade the to n gue u n der
,

st an de d of the people His work l ay in two dir e ctio n s

.

—in the collectio n an d public atio n of f olk so ngs an d -

in the co n structio n of a n e w liter ary l an gu age by which , ,

like a n e w St Cyril he was to u n ite the Jugo Sl av s

.
,
-
.

O n the fall of Kara George he le f t S e rbia an d S pe n t

the rest of his life in Vie n n a in c on structi n g his lin
uist ic system The idioms employed by co n tem
g .

orar writers h ad be e n profou n dly aff ected by R ussi an

p y
an d other i n flue n ces Karadj it c h determi n ed to rel ate
.

the literary la n gu age closely to the popul ar speech an d ,

thus to purify it from f oreig n eleme n ts A sta n d ardised .

an d puri fi ed liter ary la n gu age w as his e n d an d for this ,

purpose he empl oyed divers me an s Like M acpherso n .

in his se arch for Ossia n though with a more a uthe n tic,

purpose he gathered ball ads from the lips of u nlettered

,

peas an ts in remote vill ages an d of bli n d mi n strels by the

wayside Like th e Greek Korae s his scholarly activity
.
,

an d i n d ustr y produced a n e w l an gu ag e His collectio n .

of folk so n gs illustr ated his gramm ar an d his dictio n ary

-

system atised the modern Serbi an t on gue To complete

,
.

his demo n str atio n he devised a simpli fi ed pho n etic

,

system of spelli n g These reforms as w as but n atur al

.
, ,

e n cou n tered seri ous o ppositi on from m an y q uarters .

B ut t h e f ame wh ich Serbi an folk poetry won fro m hi s -

 M I CHA E L A ND M I LA N 25 1

p u blic ati on s c o n tributed l argely t o the li n gui stic triumph .

Goethe an d Grim m pr aised the Serbi an fol k so n gs as -

comp ar able with the Bible an d with Homer Da n te .

w o n a triumph f or the Tusc an ver n acular over the L ati n

by the D iv ine Comedy Karadj itc h w o n a triumph
.

n ot by his ow n poems but by usi n g the wo n derful

Serbi an epics as the best argume n ts for the liter ary
use of the pop ul ar ver n acular E ve n tually he pre
.

v ailed by the combi n ed force of his literary popul ar

an d scie n ti fi c appe al
. B e fore his death in 1 86 4 the
battle h ad lo n g bee n w on His work had bee n supple
.

m e n t e d an d developed by his pupil Ge orge D an ic hit c h,

( d
. a Serb from Sl avo n i a an d a li n guist
,
and

lexicol ogist of a high order Stra n gely e n ough the

.
,

most disti n guished of rece n t Serbi an sch ol ars an d

histori an s Stoy an N ovak ov itc h is a pupil of D an ich itc h
, , ,

an d therefore i n directly owes his teachi n g to Karad it c h

j .

Th e work of Karadj it c h supplied the m ost import an t

sti mulus to the developme n t of Jugo Slav liter ary id e as -
.

He himself co n tributed n ot o n ly by gr amm ar an d

dictio n ary but by articles an d editi n g to spre ad the
, ,

moveme n t f ar an d wide amo n g the Serbs of Hu ng ary .

The moveme n t which fi rst became importan t in 1 82 6

,

with the fou n datio n of 9 Serbi an liter ary society at

.

Pest w as soo n associated with great activity in fou n di n g

,

org an is atio n s an d in devel opi n g an i n depe n de n t Serbi an

Press E ve n tu ally the adva n ce I n civilis atio n an d educ a
.

tio n m ade by Serbia bec ame so m arked that the Serbs

of South Hu n g ary tra n sferred n ot their e n ergies but
their chief i n terest t o Belgrade which began to be ,

recog n ised as an Easter n ce n tre of J ug o Sl av cult u re .

But a resul t of the e n ergies of Karadj itc h f ar more

importa n t eve n th an this in ultim ate achieveme n t w as
the adoptio n of his policy in Cr oati a an d the impressio n
m ade by his writi n gs n ot o n ly in Croati a but also am on g
,

the Slove n es in the e arly n i n et e e nth ce n tury Th e .

 252 M I CHA EL AN D M ILAN

liter ature of Cro ati a i s ack n owle dged to have bee n

provi n ci al in char acter an d u n der i n flue n ces which wer e
,

n ot Sl avo n ic The revivi n g n atio n al aspir atio n s of

.

Cro ati a an d its risi n g liter ary tale n t fou n d its purest
mea n s of e xpressi on in the l an gu age syste matised an d
s tan d ardised by Karadj itc h Agr am ( Z agr e b ) became .
,

an d h as ever si n ce rem ai n ed the chief cultur al ce n tre ,

of Jugo Sl av activities The accepta n ce by the Cro ati an

-
.

liter ary sch ool O f the l an guage of Karadj itc h me an t the

ultim ate spiritu al u n ity of the Jugo Slavs I t w as a -
.

l on g w ay to go before there was an y re al possibility

of physic al or feder al u n ity betwee n these separated
br an ches of on e r ace But the grou n d had alre ady .

bee n prepared for such schem e s an d Prince M ich ael s ,

’

pl an of a Souther n Slav U n ion fou n d advocates wherever

Vuk Karadj it c h had moul ded the writte n to n gue .
1

Ab out the middle of the n i n etee n th ce n tury literary

an d mor al i n fl u e n ces were maki n g the Southern Sl avs

co n scious of the n e w an d l arger u n ity which awaited

them in the future Cr oati an artists an d scholars were
.

writi n g the l an gu age of Belgrade an d the Serbs of ,

So uth Hu n g ary after their bitter political experie n ces

,

of 1 848 were putti n g their hopes o n the fre e State

,

over the D an ube At the s am e time practical eve n ts

.

were r aisi n g in a w holly n e w form the questio n s of

,

Serb n atio n ality in Bos n ia an d M o n te n egro B o s n ia .

an d Herzeg o vi n a were an d perhaps hav e always bee n , ,

the most divided an d u n happy la n ds u n der Turkish sway .

Three religio s M ohamm e da n Lati n an d Greek

n —
, ,

divided the pe ople the Serb la n d holdi n g aristocracy

,
-

h ad become M oh ammed an s an d oppressed their fell o w ,

cou n tryme n with the compl ace n t co n se n t of the reside n t

Turkis h pashas an d o ffi cials I n th e remote hills .

1 Th l it r ry l
e g u g f Cr o t i d S r bi i pr t i lly id t i l
e a an a e o a a an e a s ac ca en ca ,

but, ash b m ti d b f r th f r m r dopt L t i h r t r

as een en on e e o e, e o e a s a n c a ac e s,

w hi h f t put
c ac r iou ob t l i t h w y of c ompl t u it y
s a se s s ac e n e a e e n .
25 4 MI C H A E L AND MILAN
those which his br o ther Serbi an ruler Pri n ce M ich ael , ,

pr omoted t e n ye ars l ater H e sought to w in his

.

cou n tryme n to civilis ati o n an d to abolish the blood

feud an d brigan d age by a civil code ( 1 8 He als o
to ok steps to form the germ of a regul ar army by
tr ai n i n g his body g uard l n professio n al methods The
-
.

Turks always susp i ciou s of reforms had n ot allowed

, ,

him to develop this policy i n security Almost before .

he w as settled on the thro n e they att acked him but , ,

D an ilo i n duced Austri a to i n terve n e an d force an

armistice upo n the Turks He m an aged with
( 1 8

s ome di ffi culty t o keep his subj ects from attacki n g the

Turks in the Crime an W ar but the l atter requited his ,

services very ill Th e co n stan t risi n gs of rebelliou s

.

Serbs in Herzegovi n a were sometimes if n ot alw ays

aided an d stimulated by i n depe n de n t volu n teers from

M o n te n egro I t w as absolutely impossible for Pri n ce

.

D an ilo to keep all his wild mou n tai n eers from taki n g
p art in a str uggle which they reg arded p artly as a sp ort
an d p artly as a cru s ade But beari n g in mi n d the fact
.

th at Pri n ce Da n ilo h ad risked his thro n e in preve n ti n g

a decl ar atio n of war ag ai n st the Turk in 1 85 4 the ,

Sultan c ould have aff orded to be ge n erous B ut the .

Turk co n fi de n t in the support of the three Powers who

,

h ad fought for him in the Crime a used the disturb ,

an c e s in the Herzegovi n a as an excuse for crushi n g the

adj oi n i n g Pri n cip ality of free Serbs The fact th at .

D an ilo h ad cl aimed i n depe n de n ce at the Co n fere n ce of

Paris in 1 85 6 w as a further re aso n for crushi n g this
i n sole n t little Power The time had co m e for the
.

T urks to prove that M o n tenegro w as in fact wh at they

“
falsely asserted it to be in the ory an i n tegr al part of ,
” 1
the O ttom an E mpire .

All those possessed of a love of freedom which l ove ,

1 V ide Mill e r ,
Ott oma n E mp ire , p . 2 40 . Th e c ont e nt ion w as
r idi l
c u ous in V ie w of t h e Tul k ish firman of 1 799 .
 MI C H A E L AND MILAN 25 5

per haps e ve n an historia n may sh are must rej oice th at ,

the Turkish attempt on this occasio n failed Da n ilo .

had appe ale d to the P owers for assista n ce but the ,

Russi an an d Fre n ch frigates which arrived wer e hardly

adapted for a mo un tai n c amp aig n I n spired by M irko
.
,

the father of Ki n g Nicholas of M o n te n egro the galla n t ,

mou n tai n eers played upo n the Turks that old g ame
which their a n cestors had pl ayed for eight hu n dred ye ars
o n successive Byza n ti n e an d O ttoma n armies Amid .

the rocks of Grahovo a Turkish army was caught an d

defe ated with e n ormous losses ( M ay
The battle has bee n c alled the M ar atho n of M o n te
“

”
n egro . I n on e se n se it was an old story for defe at ,

of the Turks w as but on e m a lo n g series of dis asters

i n flicted by the heroic m e n of the hills “
I t w as the
.

mou n tai n s an d the spirits of the mou n tai n s that were

, ,

alo n e i n vi n cible . The he athe n crests were lowered

”
there rolled b ack in a bloody fo am
,
But this victory
.

had certai n ly a fresh sig n i fi c an ce I t resulted in the ac

.

u isit ion of n e w territ o ry to M o n te n egro an d it proved

q ,

that the little mou n t ai n Pri n cip ality w as of more import

an ce th an a n yo n e h ad imagi n ed . The future however , ,

showed th at Mo n te n egro w as n o more freed from the

Turkish me n ace by Gr ahovo th an Athe n s w as from the
Persi an me n ace by M aratho n .

Pri n ce D an ilo was ass assi n ated in 1 86 1 an d suc ,

c e e de d by M irk o s
’
so n N ichol as the prese n t ruler
, ,

whose achieveme n ts h ave bee n rel ated elsewhere At .

the early age of n i n etee n he w as c alled upo n to face a

serious n atio n al crisis The Serbs of the districts rou n d
.

M o n te n egro both in Herzegovi n a an d O ld Serbi a w ho

,
”
,

h ad bee n gre atly excited by the victory o f Gr ahov o ,

rose in rev olt in both di stricts an d m ass acred the Turks .

I n 1 86 2 Tu rkish armies i n v aded M o n te n egro an d ,

th ough br avely resi sted by M irk o the Pri n ce s father

,
’
,

forced a humili at i n g Co n ve n ti on on M o n te n egro E n g .

256 MI C H A EL AN D MI L A N
l an d u n der P almerst o n o n ce more showed a regrettable
, ,

desire to j ustify the Turk an d to uphold him ag ai n st a

,

struggli n g n atio n ality B ut eve n tu ally the obj ectio n able

.

cl auses of the Co n ve n tio n were n ot e n force d an d M o n te

n egro g ai n ed a good de al from M ichael s diplomacy
in this very ye ar The dem olitio n of the fortress of
.

U dsh itz e which h ad hitherto preve n ted all c omm u n ic a

,

tio n betwee n Serbia an d M o n tenegro was an importan t ,

adv an t age Fo u r ye ars l ater in 1 86 6 Pri n ce Nicholas

.
, ,

g ai n ed the co n se n t of the Sultan to his occup atio n of a

strip of se a c oast at N ivase lla n ear Spi zza The proj ect
‘

-
.
,

w as vet oed by Fr an ce an d E n gl an d on the grou n d th at

a M o n te n egri n h arbour would in re ality be a R ussia n , ,

on e. Pri n ce M ich ael who watched ev e n ts in the

,

B alka n s with a f ar seei n g eye an d realised the ambitio n

-

an d the ability of the you n g M o n te n egri n ruler had ,

begu n to establish de fi n ite diplomatic relatio n s with

him on the basis of a u n io n agai n st the Turk .

The co n clusi o n to which M ich ael had com e about

'

the Pri n ce of M o n te n egro was the co n clusio n to which

other B alk an Powers had com e about the Pri n ce o f
Serbi a The two Serbia n rulers made an alli an ce an d
.
,

M ich ael exte n ded his policy in all directio n s I t w as ob .

“ ”
v iou s th at revolts in both Herzegovi n a an d O ld Serbi a
might be extremely d an gerous if supported by the whole
power of the two Serbi an Pri n ces Th e ye ars 1 86 6— 6 7 .

were fateful in E urope They were m arked by the .

dow n fall of Austri a before Prussi a an d her subseque n t ,

co n cessio n s to Hu n gary in the Aus Gleich ( Compromise ) -

of 1 86 7 While Austri a was humbled Turkey was dis

.

tr acted by an i n surrectio n in Crete an d R ussi a remai n ed ,

h ampered by the Tre aty of 1 85 6 The Gre at Powers .

were less formid able th an they had ever bee n an d ,

M ich ael seems t o h ave co n ceived the bold ide a of a

s ort of B alk an Le ague for the destructio n of the Turk .

His diplomatic s uccess in removi n g the Turkish garriso n s

25 8 M I CHA EL AND M I LAN
What is c e rtai n is th at M ich ael wished to u n ite all the
struggli n g B alk an n atio n alities ag ai n st the Turk an d i n
,

this se n se he an ticip ated the more moder n Balkan Le ague

which also pl an n ed acti on ag ai n st the Turk .

The u n timely e n d of Pri n ce M ich ael is us ually

give n as the expl an ati on o f the failure of his great pla n .

But it is prob able th at the mome n t for actio n was

already go n e Austri a completely crushed in 1 86 6 w as
.
, ,

str on ger two ye ars later bec ause of her agreeme n t with
Hu n gary an d bec ause the rece n t c on cessio n s promis e d
,

by Hu n gary to the Cr oats an d t o Hu n g aria n Serbs w e r e

believed to be ge n ui n e Russia t oo w as re n ewi n g h e r
.

stre n gth an d her i n flue n ce Greece was n ot yet e n tirely

.

in M ichael s grip an d the Bulg ari an s were n ot ripe

’
,

for rebellio n The mome n t t o strike was e ither whe n

.

the Great Pow e rs were occupied e lsewhere as in 1 86 6 ,

or whe n the sm all B alkan Powers were u n it e d an d

whe n rebellio n s were prob able withi n the Turkish Empire ,

as in 1 877 There are sig n s th at Pri n ce Michael had

.

decided n ot to force a crisis an d was s atis fi ed with his

diplomatic triumph i n getti n g rid of the Turkish garriso n s
in 1 86 7 . At an y r ate he dismissed his able Prime
M i n ister G arashan in evide n tly in the belief that the
, ,

advocacy of a Gre ater Serbi a pol icy was i n volvi n g

the cou n try in grave da n ger The Pri n ce was war n ed
.

in the autum n of 1 86 7 by E n gla n d Fra n ce an d

, ,

A ustria Hu n gary of the co n seque n ces of stirring up

-

agitatio n everywhere Further th ey advised him to

.

refrai n from the military activities he was showi n g .

R ussia gave him cou n sel of a di ff ere n t character in the

early days o f 1 86 8 she advised him to arm an d to put
Serbia in a c o mplete state of military prep aratio n At .

the s ame time she cautio n ed him to be patie n t an d to

wait for a favour able opportu n ity for the realis atio n of
his great pla n s Perhaps this advice made the Pri n ce
.

turn ag ai n his eyes tow ards i n ter n al a ff airs At all

.
 M I CHA EL A ND M ILA N 259

eve n ts he seems to have bee n c on templ ati n g a furth e r ex

te n sio n of p opular liberties There c an be n o doubt at
.

le ast th at a stro ng party desired reform in this directio n .

Be th at as it m ay the c areer of this e n lighte n ed

,

Pri n ce w as e n ded by a blow of bewilderi n g sudde n

n ess. While w alki n g in the Top tc hide r the famou s ,

wooded heights above Belgr ade M ichael was shot ,

de ad by three ass assi n s ( l o th Ju n e 1 Th e mystery

of this hideous crime has n ever bee n fully solved .

Some hi n ted at dis appoi n ted politici an s or ambitious ,

dem agogues bu t the most popul ar vie w fi xed the

,

bl ame on Alexa n der Karage orge v itc h Th at worthy was .

acquitted by an A ustri an C o urt but c o n dem n ed in his

,

abse n ce by a Serbi an o n e while thirtee n perso n s were tried

,

an d shot for complicity in the crime A dark whisper .

of the time has decl ared that the we ak Alex an der K ara
e or e v it c h was a tool in the h an ds of Austri an age n ts
g g
who brought about the assassi n atio n Cert ai n ly there .

have bee n sever al n otorious tri als of rece n t ye ars which

prove on the evide n ce of Austri an law —courts that
A ustri an diplomats c an m ake use of extr aordi nary
me an s to discredit an d humili ate Serbi a I t is also true .

th at Austri a reaped all the pro fi t fro m the death of Pri n ce

Mich ael an d th at s ome of the co n spirators pl an n ed their
,

deed o n Austri an soil an d fou n d refuge there after the deed

w as do n e .There the m atter rests in the abse n ce of more
decisiv e evide n ce I t I s on e of those d ark an d terrible
.

tr agedies which throw i n to stro n g light the s avagery which

seem s i n grai n ed in the n ature of the B alkan s For Serbia .

the loss was irrepar able I n his short reig n M ichael had
.

d on e more th an an y other ruler of Serbia to civilise ,

to educ ate an d to elev ate the Serbi an pe ople A well

,
.

tr ai n ed regular army a more co n te n ted peasa n try a

, ,

wh ole people at last free from the Turkish oppressio n ,

stretchi n g eag e r h an ds tow ards their brethre n in other

l an ds a wis e an d powerful Pri n c e ass e rti n g the liberty
,
2 60 M I CHA E L AN D M I LAN
an d importan ce of his cou n try at Co n fere n ces of all the
Gre at Powers This is the pictur e of Serbi a u n der
.

M ich ael She has seldom be e n gre ater an d n ever

.
,

h appier an d more progressive tha n u n der his wise an d

b e n e fi c e n t rule
.
262 T RE ATY OF B E RLI N AND
A ssembly w as bro ad the legisl ative privileges were sm all
, .

The Assembly could n ot i n iti ate legisl ati on though the ,

E xecutive M i n is t ry w as in theory respo n sible to it But .

,

as so ofte n h appe n s in the B alk an s the C o n stitutio n w as ,

more liber al on p aper th an in re ality I n pr actice the .

E xecutive ret ai n ed me an s of i n timid ati n g both Press an d

i n divid ual perso n s in spite of the re n ewed assertio n th at
,

the Gover n me n t m ai n t ai n ed the liberty of j ustice I f .

the reig n of l aw sh ould be supreme it was n ot h owever , ,

i n te n ded t o submit to the r ule of l awyers Lawyers an d .

st ate offi ci als were alike declared i n eligible for the S k u p t

chi n a The poi n t w as th at the pe as an ts an d sm all arti san s
.

comprised n i n etee n twe n tieths of the populatio n an d

-

th at to admit l awyers an d educ ated perso n s as their

represe n t atives would h ave b e e n to fill the whole Ch amber
with them The ed uc ated cl ass however fou n d re p re
.
, ,

s e n tat ion amo n g the n omi n ated thirty

1
.

The m ai n defect o f the C o n stitutio n of 1 86 9 w as th at

it appe ared to be dem ocr atic but was n ot The As sembly .

w as elected on a liber al f r an chise b u t in theory its ,

powers were sm all an d in pr actice they were more

,

restricted still Th e sep ar atio n of E xecutive fr om Legis

.

l at u re an d exclusi on of M i n isters from the Assembly

, ,

preve n ted true m i n isteri al respo n sibility The arbitr ary .

de ali n gs of the E xecutive also i nj ured it in the popul ar

estim atio n The Co n stit utio n h owever rem ai n ed the
.
, ,

best solutio n of existi n g di ffi culties because its e n emies ,

“ ”
were divided Rist itc h c alled himself a Liber al an d
.
,

the Opp ositio n groups were respectively termed Progre s “

”
siv e s an d Radic als The former were for ce n tr alis a
.

ti on on the Fre n ch or Prussi an m odel wh at we should ,

”
c all the p arty o f e ffi cie n cy
“
The Radic als were
“
.

for stro n g l oc al gover n me n t of the Swiss type an d were ,

the advoc ates o f the policy of Greater Serbi a I n the .

1
Q u t i
esf g r t
on s o ti l im
ea
p t
na w
onar t o b ub m i
0 1 an c et t d t o e e e s e a

G r d S kupt h i
an of 480 m mb r
c na
p i llyeummo e d f o
s s ec a th
p pur o
s ne r e se .
 AU ST RO HU N GA R IAN I NFLU E N C E
-
263

clashi n g ide als of these groups lay the s af ety of the

“ ”
Liber al Co n stitutio n .

I n 1 872 the n e w ruler c ame of age an d took up the

rei n s of gover n me n t but retai n ed R ist itc h in offi ce
, .

Perso n ality 1 5 the chief factor in successful gover n me n t

everywhere but most of all in the B alkan s A p arty
, .

favoured Pri n ce N ichol as of M o n te n e gro an d wished t o ,

depose M il an H ad it succeeded the history of both

.
,

Serbia an d M o n te n egro would h ave bee n di ff ere n t .

The m asterful an d f ar—sighted Nichol as h as more th an

o nce b affl ed the dipl om ats o f E urope but has fou n d ,

M o n te n egro too n arrow a fi eld an d t oo sm all a supp ort

for his ambitio n s I n Serbi a his pers on ality an d abilities
.

might h ave had a l arger scope an d h ave achieved more ,

decisive results M ore over the a n t ag on ism which has

.
,

existed betwee n the t w o S e i an dy n asties has more th an

o n ce i nj ured both Pri n cip alities Pri n ce M il an was .

u n fortu n ately a f ar w orse ruler th an Pri n ce N ich ol as

would h ave be e n His an tecede n ts were n ot in his
.

f avour for the life of b oth his moth e r an d father had

,

bee n ope n to repro ach E duc ated in an u n healthy

.

atmosphere ,
an d in a most u n fortu n ate an d frie n dless

positio n both at P aris an d Belgr ade M il an soo n bec ame ,

addicted to ple asures an d exce sses o f the worst ki n d .

The excelle n ce of his p olitic al abilities might perh aps

have compe n s ated for the b ad n ess of his priv ate ch ar acter .

But M il an like his still more u n fortu n ate son Alex an der
, ,

was n ever able t o cle ar himself of the suspici on th at he

’
was re ady to s acri fi ce his c ou n try s n eeds t o his pers on al
desires P atri o tism is a virtue in Serbi an eyes which
.

compe n sates for m an y faults its l ack is a crime which

,

re n ders a m an or a ruler a p olitic al o u tl aw S oon er o r .

later the reig n of a Serbi an ruler w ho has bee n c o n victed

of th at u n spe ak able crime m ust e n d in abdic atio n o r
ass assi n ati o n . I t w as the fate o f M il an to experie n ce the
fi rst an d of Alexa n der to u n dergo the seco n d of these
,
2 64 TR EATY OF B E RL I N AN D

pe n alties H apless as were their desti n ies there c an be

.

little doubt th at their sel fi sh n ess re n dered their cou n try

more u n fortu n ate st ill .

F o r a time fortu n e smiled on M il an All Serbi an s

.

felt th at a supreme mome n t in the history of the N e ar

E ast w as appro achi n g . O l d m e n of th at day e n vied the
you n g as V oltaire e n vied them in the days before 1 7 89
The you n g m e n are very lucky they will see fi n e
,

thi n gs
. M il an was you n g an d there was a wide
,

spre ad belief th at he w ou ld rise to the gre at occ asio n .

Th e opportu n ity f or which R ussi a h ad war n ed M ich ael

to w ait c ame for M il an in 1 87 5 O n ce more
.

H erzegovi n a burst i n to revolt o n ce more bold

,

mou n tai n eers from M o n te n egro streamed over the

”
border an d o n ce more the Serbs of O l d Serbi a sought
,

to stretch out ha n ds to their free brethre n I n Belgr ade .

But there were n e w an d v astly importan t eleme n ts I n the

situatio n R ussi a was armi n g an d w as prep ari n g t o
.

r aise a n e w n atio n from the de ad 1 n the sh ape of Bulgari a ,

an d to revive the memories of th at lo n g forgotte n -

empire I t has alre ady bee n rel ated how Serbi an

.

i n fl ue n ces had helped to educate the Bulg ars ; th at

r ace of dour an d st urdy pe as an ts w as n ow growi n g in
n atio n al self co n scious n ess I t had fi n ally received a
-
.

most import an t additio n to its n atio n al power in 1 87 2 .

I n th at y e ar a Bulg ari an E xarch ate w as cre ated with the ,

approv al of the Porte as a cou n terpoise to the authority

,

of the Greek Patriarch ate at Co n stan ti n ople I t w as in .

te n ded to serve as a Sl avo n ic P atriarch ate in E urope an

Turkey an d to co n trol an d educ ate all Bu lgars u n der
,

whatever gover n me n t they were fou n d I t w as thus n ot

.

the creatio n of an autoceph alous P atri arch ate like the

Serbia n which exte n ded over a politic al c omm u n ity in a
,

de fi n ed are a but of an E x arch ate exte n ded over a

,

li n guistic c ommu n ity i n a wider p olitic al are a E ver .

si n ce its erectio n th e Bu lg aria n E xarch ate has bee n a

266 TR EAT Y OF B E RLIN AND
arian s were u n able to give e ff ective hel n d a Turkish
g p a ,

opposi n g army u n der the afterw ards famous O sm an

,

the Victorious marched as of old dow n the M orava

, .

With a force or i half that of the e n emy Tc he rn aie ff could ,

do little except sta n d on the defe n sive Serbia n s were n ot

.

impressed by the fact that M il an w as s al uted with the

title of Ki n g at the mome n t th at his forces were bei n g
everywhere defe ated Ale k sin ats fell an d on 2 9th O ctober
.
,

the Serbi an s were b adly beate n at Kru she vatz The .

Turks were n ow in possessio n of the famous str ategic

road to Belgr ade an d that city must i n evitably fall before
,

their arms The n at the last mome n t R ussia s aved Serbia

.

from a great disaster for the seco n d t I me I n history

, .

O n 3 1 3t O ctober Abdul Hamid w as i n formed by the

Russi an A mb ass ador that he must sig n an armistice with
Serbi a in forty eight hours He lear n t his fi rst lesso n
.

in the art of gr ace f ul co n cessio n an d yielded The .

armistice of two mo n ths w as exte n ded an d subse q ue n tly ,

developed i n to a pe ace ( I st M arch The tre aty

left everythi n g on the basis of the stai ns q ua an d ,

Mil an lost o n ly the m e n he had left d ead on the fi eld

of b attle .

A Co n fere n ce of the Gre at Powers assembled at

Con stan ti n ople duri n g the wi n ter Abdul H amid with
.
,

the V i ew of i mpressi n g the Gre at Powers desig n ed ,

a dra matic stroke of policy which his rivals imitated

with de adly e ff ect in after d ays He sudde n ly .

pr ocl aimed to an asto n ished world th at Turkey had

become a co n stitutio n al mo n archy an d admirers o b ,

served th at this prescie n t i n n ov ator of Liber alism had

e n d o w ed his L e gisl ature with two Ch ambers a prec autio n ,

n eglected by the hot he aded democrats of

-
Serbi a an d
Greece B ut this pr oj ect does n ot seem t o have deluded
.

the diplom ats f or lo n g an d eve n S alisb u ry who had

, ,

c ome to the Co n fere n ce at Co n st an ti n ople with the

ge n ui n e idea of reformi n g Turkish abuses left it in ,
 AU STR O H UNGARIAN INFLU E N C E
-
267

desp air Before the e n d of April 1 87 7 Russi a had

.

sig n ed an alli an ce with Roum an i a an d decl ared w ar on

Turkey an d M o n te n egro oft e n se n sitive to the R us si an
, ,

wi shes foll owed suit A g ai n Pri n ce N ich ol as w as

, .

brilli an tly successful drivi n g the Turks o n ce m ore

,

fr o m the vale of th e Zeta an d c on q ueri n g p art o f ,

Herze o vi na O n re achi n g the sea at Spizz a he rested

o n his g
.

aurels an d sought fame of an other sort by c o m

,

posi n g a poem on his fi rst sight of the se a Serbi a .

,

sh ake n by defe at d ared n ot move u n til the Turki sh

,

armies were de fi n itely crushe d .

Whe n the brilli an t victories o f O sm an P ash a fai led t o

avert his surre n der at Plev n a
( 1 0 t h December
) M il an ,

thought the mome n t ripe for actio n an d decl ared w ar .

The Serbia n army pro fi ted by the B ulg ari an rev olt ,

the R ussi an victories an d the Turkish dis organ is atio n

, ,

an d th o ugh n o t n umberi n g more tha n fi fty thou san d ,

w as fairly successful The le aders had le ar n ed from

.

defe at an d were able to thre ate n the left fl an k of the

Turkish army faci n g the B alk an s an d t o c o oper ate ,
-

with the M o n te n egri n s in the S anj ak of Nov ibaz ar .

O n e Serbi an force be at the Turks at Pir o t o n the

prese n t Bulg ari an border at the he ad of a n other M il an
,

e n tered N ish th at old city of Serbi a whose str ategic

, ,

importan ce w as so great Fi n ally a third victory at

.
,

V ran ia e n abled the S e rbi an s to pe n etr ate to Kos sov o ,

th at pl ai n with historic and p oetic mem ori e s so de ar to

the he art of every Serbi an There after the l ap se of .
,
’
fi v e ce n t u ries Serbi an s free an d armed s an g a m ass o e r
,

the shri n e o f K n ez L az ar I t seemed th at the reviv al o f

.

’
Serbi a s an cie n t glories w as n e ar .

The Ru ssi an arms had proved victori ous Adri an ople .

fell an d the B ri t ish fl eet in the S e a of M arm or a w as the

,

o n ly bulw ark o f the Turkish E mpire H o w far Ru s sia .

a n d her allies would h ave g o n e but f o r t h e B rit ish o p p o

s iti o u is u n cert ai n but the Tr e aty of S an St e fan o sig n e d

,
26 8 TR EAT Y OF BE RL I N A N D

betwee n Turkish an d Russi an represe n tatives on 3rd

M arch ( 1 87 8) i n dicates the high water m ark of Sl avo n ic -

aspir atio n s in the B alka n s Serbia was to receive Nish

.

an d a large accessio n of territory M o n te n egro was to be ,

greatly e n larged to touch the coast of Spizza an d A n ti

v ari an d to be almost co n tiguous in bou n d ary with
,

Serbia The ess e n ti al fe ature however of the scheme

.
,
“
w as the creatio n of a Big Bulgaria which Russia
evide n tly hoped to m ake an output of her i n flue n ce in
the B alka n s Put briefly the i n depende n t Pri n cipality
.
,

of Bulg ari a w as to comprise th e most importan t parts

of Turkish territory ceded to the B alk an League in
1 91 3 Bu lg ari a i n cluded all its prese n t bound aries
.
,

t ogether with all M acedo n ia an d other parts of Serbia

an d Greece as exte n ded in

Such a pla n realised all th at Bulgaria could cl aim an d ,

its import an ce on fu ture Bulgaria n history is m arked by

the fact th at a map i n dicati n g the bound aries of S an
Stefa n o is to be fou n d in every Bulgari an schoolroom .

The attai n me n t of these bou n d aries h as bee n the aim of

all fut ure Bulg ari an policy The criticism of the settle
.

me n t as a purely Sl avo n ic on e is u n doubtedly j ust The .

Helle n ic cl aims to p arts of M acedo n i a and the JEgae an

co ast li n e h ave bee n fairly satisfied in the arrangeme n ts
-

of 1 9 1 3 but they would h ave bee n perm an e n tly rej ected

,

by those of S an Stefa n o The m ai n motive of rej e c

.

tio n however w as the desire on the part of E n gl an d an d

, ,

1 The imit s of l
B ig B u a ia“
lg r
e e as f o o swr ll w
I t inc ude d t he. l
k g r
B ulgai ian spe a in dist I ic t s of Pi ot and V rania ( u t imat e
-
c om l ly
p ise d r
in S e ia ) , t he n ran a on t he mountains of t he K a a
rb l g a h an d S h a r Dg r
D g w w
a h do n in a sout h e st e rly r
di e c t ion t o t he B ac
-
l k Dr v r
in Ri e some
fi y l bv r r
f t mi e s a o e t h e no t h e n e nd of L a e O c h rida k I t t h e n t u ne d. r
sout h , inc ude d t h e L a e of O c h rida and t he dist ic t s of K o it z a and
l k r r
K ast o ia F om t h e e t h e ine ran e ast a ds t o Ye nidj e V a da and
r r r . l wr r r
-

rv r
t h e mout h of t h e i e V a da r r
Th e ounda
. b ry l
ine ran no t h of r
l C l
S a on ic a and t h e l l
h a c idic Pe ninsu a, but in c ude d a a a and t h e c oastC v ll
r k b w
t o t he B o u L a e ( e t e e n X
an t h i and G umu ina
) lj .
2 70 TR EAT Y OF B E RLI N AN D

chiefly i n th e south e ast Th e old bou n d ary ran almost

-
.

str aight e ast an d west from Al e k sin at s The n e w acces .

si on s formed an irregular tria n gle draw n from Pirot on

the e ast to V ran ia in the south an d the n ce to the Bos n i an ,

border some twe n ty miles south west of U dshitz e This -

.

i n cluded with it the importa n t city of Nish .

The claims of S e rbia had n ot e rred on the side of

“
moder atio n They had i n cluded all O ld Serbi a an d
.

Kossovo the Sa nj ak of Nov ibaz ar M acedo n i a an d

, , ,

Widdi n But these claims though prese n ted to R u ssia

.
, ,

were perhaps n ot such as she expected to be gr an ted A .

perfectly reas on able dema n d was for the exte n sio n of her
“ ”
authority in the Serbi an spe aki n g districts of -
O ld Serbi a
an d N o vib az ar Th e Pirot district which she actu ally
.
,

received i n cluded ma n y who spoke Bulgari an whereas

, ,

some villages i n cluded in Bulgaria S pok e Serb Th e r e .

can b e very little doubt that the d e ma n d for Ol d Serbia

“

w as refused owi n g to the i n flu e n c e of Austri a Hu n gary -

.

Th e H absburg Power was alr e ady se riously alarmed at the

growth of Serbia an d at Serbia n i n flue n ce over the Serbs
,

of Hu n gary an d over the S e rbs of Bos n ia who were n ow

,

to come u n der Austro—Hu ngari an rule U n fortu n ately .

the diplom ats of the Co n gress were n ot too well acqu ai n te d

with the history or geogr aphy of the la n ds in dispute an d ,

Austria Hu n gary played on these we ak n esses to her ad

-

v an tage Austria n policy ably direct e d by the Hu n garia n

.
,

Cou n t A n dr assy was a n ti Slav or at an y rate a n ti Serb

,
-
,
-
.

His aim was u n doubtedly to divide an d dismember th e

Serb race i n to separate fragme n ts U n d e r the origi n al .

S an Stefan o Treaty the bou n daries of M o n te n egro an d

of Serbia almost touched on e a n oth e r in the S anj ak of
N ov ib az ar By the revised arra n geme n t of Berli n
.
,

Austri a Hu n gary occupied the S anj ak of Nov ibaz ar a

-
,

territory stretchi n g fro m the Tar a in Mo n te n egro to

above the Lim By these mea n s Serbi a was separate d by
.

ba n ds of Austro Hu n gari an or Turkish territory from all

-
 AUSTR O H UNGARI AN INFLU E NC E -
271

access to Mo n te n egro or to the se a i nj ured commerci ally ,

by ha v i n g n o m aritime outlet an d strategic ally severed by ,

the Austro Hu n g ari an forti fi ed outpost at N ov ib az ar from

-

an milit ary c o o per atio n with M o n te n egro The S nj ak

y a
-
.

was an Austro Hu n garia n bridge head by which the H abs

- -

burg Pow e r r e tai n e d its right of e n try i n to an d direct con

n e c t ion with the Turkish E mpire I t w as to be the door .

ope n for the road which was to make possible the Dr an g

n ach O ste n an d lead Austro Hu n garia n tr ade on an e asy -

road to Salo n ica with its mag n ific e nt harbour an d bou n d

,

less commerci al possibilities .

The triumphs of A n dr assy were u n doubtedly gre at .

Where Russia had spe n t thousa n ds of lives an d milli on s

o f pou n ds h e spe n t o n ly in k an d p aper
,
Russia deprived .

her ally Rouma nia of territory set up a sadly reduced ,

Bulgari a as auto n omous an d aba n do n ed Serbia Austria

, .

Hu n gary without fi ghti n g occupi e d two rich provi n ces cut ,

off M o n t e n egro from Spizza an d S e rbia from

“ ”
O ld Serbi a ,

an d interposed a dividi n g wedg e of t e rritory betwee n the

two small Serbia n stat e s Th e immediate co n seque n ces .

of the Treaty of Berli n to Russia were the alie n atio n of

Serbia an d Roum an ia Th e result was in each case a
.

gai n to Austria Hu n gary tho ugh n ot comparable to th at

-
,

acquired in Bos n ia an d Herzegovi n a Russia was vic .

t oriou s in war Austria Hu n g ary was victorious in pe ace

,
-
.

British policy which aimed at supporti n g Turkey

, ,
’
had supplied the cou n terpoise to Russia Gl adsto n e s .

politic al i n sight was n ot perh aps alw ays for the ex

e die n t but he spoke like an i n spir e d seer of the e ff ects
p ,

of fr e edom in the Balka n s P e ople talk of opp osi n g a

barrier to Russia n aggra ndiseme n t There is n o b arrier .

like the bre asts of free me n The j udgme n t of Sir

Willi am White the ablest of recent British Amb assadors
,

in the E ast the o pi n io n of Bism arck the whole hist o ry

, ,

of the ge n er ati on si n ce that date h as co n fi rmed the ,

truth of thes e words I n proportio n as the B alk an

.
2 72 TR EATY OF B E RL I N AN D

States have received freedom they have developed

n atio n al self c on scious n ess I t is n ot a little i ro n ical
-
.

th at Serbia who w as ab an do n ed by Russia is to day

, ,
-

her ally th at Bu lg ari a who w as created by her is to day

, ,
-

her e n emy ; that the el abor ate me asures w h ic h w e re take n

to pres e rv e Turkey the promises of reform by which
,

she gai n ed British support wer e equally vai n The, .

gratitude of Turkey to E n gla n d was lik e th e gratitude

of Bulgaria to Russia .

The attitude of Austria Hu n g ary in occupyi n g Bos n i a

-

an d Herzegovi n a in 1 87 8 might be defe n ded on th e grou nd

th at a stro n g admi n istr atio n was n e cessary All agreed .

th at the Turk must go who else but Austria Hu n gary -

could hav e come ? E ve n tually the provi n c e s proved

di ffi cult to co n quer an d expe n sive to settle an d th e task of ,

admi n isteri n g them would certai n ly have bee n beyo n d the

stre n gth of an y but a great Power I t is n ot easy to see .

wh at other solutio n th an the Austro Hu n garia n occupatio n -

could have bee n o ff ered E n gla n d an d Austria Hu n gary

.
-

would alike h ave preve n ted a R ussi an Protector ate of

Bos n ia A n i n ternatio n al admi n istr atio n w as possible
.
,

but the history of such attempts elsewhere does n ot

e n cour age the belief th at as much mo n ey w ould have bee n
spe n t or as much e n ergy show n in the gover n me n t as has
bee n displ ayed by the Aust ro H un garian admi n istrati on
o

O n e thi n g however is cert ai n the Austro Hu n g aria n

, , ,
-

admi n istr atio n though moder n progressiv e an d e fli c ie n t

, , ,

as comp ared with the Turk ish has n ever attracted the ,

sympathies of either M oh ammeda n or O rthodox Serbs .

The Austro Hu n gari an policy tow ards M o n te n egro

-

an d Serbi a seems f ar less defe n sible G ort c hak off himself .

is said to h ave told Rist itc h the chief Serbi an n egoti ator
, ,

to seek the good o ffi ces of Austria Hu n gary at Berli n -

.

Th e logic of eve n ts m ade Serbia depe n de n t on Austri a

Hu n gary cut her off from M o n te n egro an d e n closed her
, ,

on thr ee side s with Austro Hu ngaria n territory Th e -

.
2 74 TR EATY OF
‘
B E R L I N AN D
c alled the Co n ve n tio n an act of treaso n an d Ki n g Peter ,

s aid of it in more rece n t d ays I t is of the n ature of a

, ,

feud al State that liberty c an n ot an d must n ot flourish in

the vici n ity of Austri a Austria arra n ged all th at in .

the time of the O b re n ov itc he s Serbi a w as m ade merely .

a tributary of Austri a She w as n o lo n ger free at all . .

By the Treaty of 1 881 she re n ou n ced all her rights .

There is n o doubt th at this co n ceptio n ultim ately bec ame

the popular on e an d very little th at it is the true ,
1
on e .

M il an s positio n bec ame r apidly worse

’
He m ade a .

poor fi gure in c omp ariso n with the riv al Serbi an ruler of

M o n te n egro Nichol as showed his e n mity to M il an
.

by marryi n g o n e of his d aughters to Peter Karageorge

v it c h who h ad fought br avely in the revolt of Herze
,

ov in a an d was on e day like his father an d gr an dfather

g , , ,

to be ruler of Serbi a an d the n an exile in his ol d age ,

.

Nichol as m ade it very cle ar th at as the he ad of the ,

oldest Serbi an r ace he co n sidered himself the le ader of ,

all Serbi an s M an y felt th at N ichol as the victorious

.
,

soldier the poet in the Serbi an ver n acul ar the m asterfu l

, ,

ruler would h ave bee n a f ar better ch oice t h an M il an

, ,
’
who was wasti n g his people s mo n ey an d his o w n vigo u r
in riotous excesses His assumptio n of the title of Ki n g.

in 1 882 did n ot evoke e n thusi asm an d in 1 883 rebellio n ,

actu ally broke out Th e R adic al P arty which stood for .

,

eco n omy an d loc al gover nme n t w as implic ated in a plot ,

for the restoratio n of the Karage orge v it c h li n e in the

perso n of Peter The risi n g failed an d the pu n ishme n t
.
,

of the co n spir ators w as bitter M an y were shot an d .

,

others severel y de alt with Nichol as Pashitc h the .

,

leader of the Radic als escaped wi th his life an d lived to ,

’
be Serbia s Premier A f eeble foreig n policy abro ad .
,

1 A umm ry of t h C v t io i g iv i t h F t ig / tly R i
s a e on e n n s en n e or n a ev ew

p 8 38 I t x
. i t w l g d i.d but ow bs e s e nc e as on en e , c an n e te

g rd d
a e t bli h d
as e s a s e .
 AU ST RO -
H UNGARIAN INFLU E NC E 2 75

severe repressio n an d l avish extr avag an ce withi n had ,

alre ady m ade M il an extremely u n popul ar O n ly on e .

further step w as n eeded to complete his humiliatio n an d ,

th at was defe at by an other B alk an state .

By the arr an geme n t on which Disr aeli had i n sisted in

1 87 8 th at portio n of Bulg ari a south of the B alk an s h ad
,

bee n sep ar ated from it u n der the title of Easter n “

”
Roumeli a I t w as co n stituted as an auto n omous
.

provi n ce u n der the Turk I n 1 885 Easter n Roumeli a .

revolted dethro n ed the Turkish Pash a an d u n ited

, ,

herself to N orther n Bulg ari a Sir W illi am White .

,

u n der i n structio n s from Lord S alisbury fi rmly supp orted ,

this ch ange on the grou n d th at it acc orded with the

,

wishes of the p opul atio n co n cer n ed E n glish diplom acy .

’
h ad accepted Gl adsto n e s lesso n o n the utility o f freedom ,

an d put it i n to pr actice R ussi a alre ady disillusio n ed .

,

with reg ard to Bulg ari a opposed it in words Austri a ,

.

H u n gary stirred up Serbi a to oppose it by deeds .

I t is difli c ul t to k n ow the motives which i n duced

1
M il an t o attack B ulg ari a at this mome n t The popul ar .

pressure does n ot seem to h ave bee n overwhelmi n g an d ,

was a pressure M il an w as accustomed to disregard I t .

is perh aps more likely th at he hoped that accessio n s of

territory an d prestige wo uld reco n cile the people to a
w ar which w as a gamble in every se n se But he took .

little mea n s to secure success He decl ared w ar on .

B ulg ari a in the seco n d week of November 1 885 0 11 his ,

dem an d for territori al compe n s atio n s bei n g refused .

The army which he led in pers on w as sm all an d b adly

, ,

equipped an d n ot i n spired by an y co n fi de n ce in the

,

ge n eral The soldiers o f Pri n ce Alex an der were raw

.

pe as an ts b u t they were m ore n umer ous an d they believed

,

in t he ir l e ade r The armies met at Sliv n itz a on 1 6 th Nov

.

1 Mill e r ( p .
41 7) t ak e s t h e vi w
e t h at t he w ar w as
p p l r
o u aw i h t

t he Se ian masse s . Th is st at e me nt is c ont I adic t e d by P r v i het o tc

( PP 1 43 an d is ope n to qu e st ion.
2 76 T REATY OF B E RLI N AN D

ember an d on the 1 9th the Serbi an s were forced to fall

,

b ack in defe at They fell b ack on Pirot which the

.
,

Bulgari an s e n tered The n on the 2 8th N ovember an

.
, ,

Austr o Hu n gari an ultim atum forced Pri n ce Alex an der to

-

co n clude an armistice This developed i n to a pe ace in

.

M arch 1 886 which est ablished the sta t us guo a nt e ae llunt

,
.

M il an slu n k b ack to Belgr ade an d the Serbi an s cursed ,

him alike f or his milit ary i n c ap acity an d for his diplom atic
skill Better th at Serbi an s should h ave died th an th at
.

Austri a Hu n gary should h ave s aved them

-
.

Th e l ast ac t in this si n gul arly disgr aceful reig n w as

r apidly appro achi n g M il an dis agreed with his be autiful
.

wife N atalie an d co n ti n u ally i n sulted an d humili ated

,

her The family qu arrel was of serious politic al import

.

an ce ,
for N atalie was a R ussophile an d M il an a Pro
Austri an Th e Quee n had a stro n g will an d both her
.
,

be auty an d her policy w on symp athy an d support in

import an t politic al ce n tres M il an crow n ed a lo n g
’

series of i n sults by circul ati n g n auseati n g sca n d als about

his wife an d by obtai n i n g a divorce from her which w as ,

illegal accor di n g to the ide as of the O rthodox Church .

But though successful M il an w as so d am aged in reputa

tio n th at he w as forced to attempt a diversio n of public
i n terest He fell b ack upo n the last refuge of b an krupt
.

B alkan politicia n s an d like Abdul H amid promised to , ,

e n dow his cou n try with a free Co n stitutio n His fervour .

for democr acy was e n tirely n e w but if si n cere would , ,

h ave bee n of re al adv an tage to Serbia The C on st it u .

tio n of 1 889 w as i n te n ded to remedy the defects of

th at of 1 86 9 I t was draw n up by a Commissio n re
.

prese n ti n g all parties in the State an d owed somethi n g ,

at an r ate t o the suggestio n s of M ila n who n ever l acked

y ,

i n tellectu al ability Th e te n de n cy w as democratic the

.
,

fr an chise w as widely exte n ded an d freedom of the Press ,

w as promised Lawyers were n o lo n ger to be excluded

.

from the As sembly though the Ki n g retai n e d the right of

,
2 78 T R EATY OF B E RL I N AND
rule I n April 1 893 the seve n tee n ye ar ol d Alex an der
.
- -

i n vited the R ege n ts to di n n er arrested them at his ow n

,

t able decl ared himself of age an d dissolved the S k up t

,

chi n a N ext ye ar he dealt with the Radic als abolished

.
,

the rel atively democratic C o n stituti on of 1 889 restored ,

that of 1 86 9 an d agai n gagged an d i n timid ated the Press

,
.

The n to the am azeme n t o f all M il an retur n ed to Serbia

, ,

i n 1 897 an d bec ame Comm an der in Chief of the army

,
- -
.

This l ast appe ar an ce of his resulted in a cruel persecution

of all Radic als an d Pro R ussi an s I n an other respect it
-
.

w as less h armfu l b e c ause he devoted much time an d al l

,

his ability to reorgan isi n g the army There c an be little .

doubt th at he t ook the fi rst steps which m ade p ossible

the military perfecti on which Serbi a afterw ards displ ayed .

This service w as m arred by the i nj ury to public morality

produced by a disgr aceful i n timid ati on of j ustice An y .

me an s were cou n te n an ced by M il an in the smelli n g

“
”
out of R ussophiles who expi ated their p atriotic bias
,

with their blood .

Alex an der whose ch ar acter though bad w as certai n ly

,

e n ergetic surprised everyo n e by his marri age in August

,

1 900 His bride was a widow Draga M ashi n whose

.
, ,

previous ch ar acter an d co n n ectio n s u n suited her to be

a wife an d forbade her to be a mother O f all the .

scan d als of the reig n s of the last two O b re n ov it c h e s

this w as the worst f or it was also a politic al blu n der
,

o f the fi rst mag n itude E ve n M il an m arked his dis

.

approv al an d retired from Serbi a

,
dyi n g in Vie n n a in ,

1 90 1 By the people of Serbia as a whole the m atch

.

w as rese n ted as a n atio n al humiliatio n This fact is the .

more rem ark able bec ause Russia m ade use of this
opportu n ity t o re n ew her frie n dship with Serbi a an d ,

Cz ar N ichol as se n t a represe n tative to ac t as best man

to t he bridegroom an d was the fi rst to co n gratul ate the
n e w Q uee n Yet n othi n g could w ash out the stai n of
.

this u n io n Alex an der so u ght to m ake himself popul ar

.
,
 AU S TR O —H UNGAR I AN I N FLU E NC E 2 79

an d p ard o n ed the Radic als He eve n issued a n e w .

C o n stitutio n dig n i fi ed with a Seco n d Ch amber wh ose

, ,

pr o visio n s n eed n ot det ai n u s But every expedie n t .

to reco n cile the people w as in v ai n The disco n te n ted .

beg an t o dre am of supporti n g Karage orge v it c h an d ,

an o utbre ak in his favour actu ally occurred beyo n d the

K ol ub ara in 1 90 2 I n April 1 90 3 Alex an der tur n ed

.

0 11 his ol d foes the Radic als He showed the v alue .

of his Co n stitutio n by su spe n di n g it an d proclaimi n g

m arti al law After a dr astic purge of all perso n s an d
.

l aws which appeared obj ectio n able to him A lex an der ,

h ad the i n sole n ce to restore the suspe n ded Co n stitutio n

an d assure the cou n try of his b e n e fi c e n t i n te n tio n s in

the future But th e pledge c ame too l ate : it w as im

.

possible t o trust on e who had n ever allowed any i n terest

or gu ar an tee to stan d in the w ay of his purely sel fi sh
e n ds .

I t is n ecessary to u n derst an d the ex act politic al

situ atio n in order to expl ai n the hideous tr agedy which
e n s ued . Quee n Drag a w as all powerful with her -

husb an d an d had i n d uced him to m ake on e of her

,

brothers a M i n ister Th at was n ot the o n ly d an ger. .

Q u ee n Draga w as k n ow n to be i n c ap able of h avi n g

childre n but she had show n pretty cle arly th at she
,

i n te n ded to fi n d an heir somewhere I n 1 6 88 the birth .

of a son to J ames 1 1 g ave rise to the lie th at a suppositi

.

tious i n fan t had bee n i n troduced i n to the p al ace in a

“

w armi n g p an -
Dr aga w as accused o f wishi n g to re
.
"

“ ”
prod u ce the w armi n g p an i n cide n t in re al life an d
-

in the t w e n tieth ce n t u ry an d amo n g an excit able an d,

p as si on ate pe ople Dr ag a h ad previously simul ated

.

an accoucheme n t o n on e occ asi o n with o ut success I t .

w as believed th at she i n te n ded either to foist a

supposititi ous child on Alex an der o r t o alter the suc ,

cess i o n in favour of her brother The tyr an n y of the .

O b re n ov itc h was b ad e n ough but the D raga i n flue n c e ,

2 80 TR E ATY OF B ERLI N AND
a ccumul ated circumst an ces of b ack stairs i n trigue an d -

of sordid guilt which pr oduced an almost u n i q ue

se n se of n ati on al h u mili ati on an d wr at h The life of .

an
y politic al oppo n e n t of either Alex an der Dr ag a or , ,

her brothers w as u n s afe an d an y mome n t might bri n g

,

further an d more irremedi able disgr ace on the n atio n .

The speedy remov al of Dr ag a an d her i n flue n ce w as an

absolute n ecessity for it w as k n ow n th at Alex an der
,

w ould st an d by her to the l ast P olitic al rev olutio n .

w as j usti fi ed o n every gr o u n d an d a depositio n an d

,

pe aceful deportati on of this u n fortu n ate pair would have

bee n co n dem n ed by n o imp arti al observer Yet th e .

fact th at dep ositi on h ad n ot got rid of M ilosh O b t e mo

v it c h n or dep o rt ati on of M il an sh o wed th at pe aceful
mean s had n ot alw ays succeeded M oreove r B alk an .
,

pe oples are n ot in the h abit of settl i n g their difli cul tie s

with their rulers by the m ost co n stitutio n al methods .

’
I n deed u n der Alex an der s rule it is strictly true to say
,

th at i n surrecti on w as the o n ly m ea n s of protest th at

'

o fl e re d a re al ch an ce of s afety
u As i n surrectio n had
.

bee n tried an d failed the extremists fell back on

,

c on spir acy .

O n 1 0 t h Ju n e 1 90 3 cert ai n milit ary ofli ce rs who ,

had g ai n ed over a p art of the soldiery an d were supported

by s ome politici an s e n tered the p al ace of Belgr ade an d
,

butchered the Ki n g an d Q uee n in cold blood The .

ass assi n atio n was followed by terrible i n dig n ities to the

’
de ad an d by the murder of Dr aga s two brothers an d of
,

t w o M i n isters N othi n g c an excuse the c allous brut ality

.

an d b arb arous co n duct o f the regicides Yet these .

h orrible i n cide n ts which disgr aced the regicides in the

,

eyes of all E urope did n ot aw ake n e q u al in dign auon

,

in Serbi a The actu al co n spiracy w as co n fi n ed to a

.

comp ar atively sm all n umber of pers on s but the dis ,

c on te n t w as widespre ad The pe ople had su ff ered so

.

lo n g u n der the n ightmare of sc an d al an d shame that

2 82 T RE ATY OF B E RL I N AND
Herzeg ovi n a in 1 87 5 M ore p aci fi c t astes were in
.

dic at e d by his tr an sl atio n in to Serbi an of Mill on

L iberty . There w as little doubt that he was well
i n te n tio n ed an d si n cere an d his c autio n an d obvious
,

disi n terested n ess made a ood impressio n on the pe ople

There i s n o period 0 gSerbia n history in which the
.

rule has bee n so co n siste n tly moderate an d liberal as in

the re ig n of Ki n g Peter For the fi rst time the Press
.

has bee n rel atively free an d the mo narch ge n ui n ely

co n stitutio n al in aim a iad in actio n H is di ffi culties
,

were very gre at because he owed his thro n e to the

,

regicid e s but he gradually showed th e Serbia n s the

,

evil of defyi n g public opi n io n in E urop e I t was this .

cause more tha n any other which e n abled him gradu ally
, ,

to get rid of the murderers of Alexa n d e r The last .

regicides were removed in 1 90 6 A n other difli cul ty lay .

in his eldest son George whose impetuosity an d folly

, ,

scandalised public opi n io n in Belgrade Duri n g the .

crisis of 1 90 9 this u n suit able heir w as i n duced to resig n

his prete n sio n s his pl ace of Crow n Pri n ce bei n g t ake n
,

by the seco n d so n Alex ander w ho was in all respects

, ,

fi tted for the desti n y th at aw aited him an d whose ,

courage in the B alk an War u n ited to amiable ma n n e rs ,

an d ability made a remarkable im p ressio n n ot o n ly

,

on Serbi a but on the sist e r st ate of M o n te n egro .

’
Ki n g Peter s policy brought to Serbi a n ot o n ly a respit e
from th e politic al feuds which had w e aried an d h um ili
ated h e r ,
bu t a period of reviv e d prosp e rity and of
budg e ts which bala n ced e xpe n diture I t was these .

achiev e m e n ts which m ade possible the brillia n t foreig n

policy and warlike achieveme n ts of Serbi a in later ye ars .

Ki n g Peter has shown that a cautious an d moder ate

ruler c an redeem Serbi a from the i nj uries she su ff er e d
through the vices of M ila n an d Alex an d e r His reward .

has come where he would most like to fi n d it in the

, ,

lov e and admiration of his free peas an ts The Serbi ans .

 AU STRO HU N GAR IAN I N FLU E NC E-
2 83

are c ap able o f high an d ge n ero u s feeli n gs an d their ,

co n tempt of de ath an d their glorious rally at the

summo n s o f their old Ki n g h ave showed that th e re is
still a m agic in the n ame of K ar a George .

Th e politic al p ast of Serbi a has bee n chequered an d

u n certai n I t s medi ae v al period th ough full of milit ary
.
,

an d cultur al activity does n ot sh ow much evide n ce o f

,

politic al cohe sio n or n atio n al u n ity Th e difli c ul ty w as .

the s ame the n as n ow for the restlessly democr atic spirit

,

of the Serbi an s has hi n dered speedy developme n t ,

st ability an d ce n tr alis atio n I n the l ast ce n tury Serbi a

,
.

w as c alled up o n to produce a n atio n al an d civilised spirit

after ce n turies of sl avery which had atrophied all the
higher orga n s of go ver n me n t an d devel oped all the
loc al an d sectio n al feeli n gs t o an extreme Th e Serbi an .

pe asa n t like the Greek an d u n l ike the Bulg ari an is , ,

i n terested in politics Like ma n y fi ghti n g r aces he

.

is somewh at averse to the ster n art of l abour an d ,

prefers si n gi n g b all ads sh arpe n i n g arms an d t alki n g

, ,
1
politics to worki n g in the fi e lds Without the stress of
,
.

poverty or the temptatio n of we alth with a fi erce an d ,

excit able temper ame n t the Serbi an is n ot e asily s atis fi ed

, .

Thus the co n ti n u al u n rest h as give n adv an tages to

in t rigu e rs an d O pportu n ists of a low type E ve n
i

ap art from the blu n ders of gover n me n t it would h ave

bee n more difli c ul t for such a st ate to attai n politic al

st ability th an for Greece or Bulg ari a Though th at .

e nd has o n ly p ai n fully an d rece n tly bee n re ached ,

there are re assuri n g sig n s A n educ ated cl ass has bee n .

devel oped whose i n tellectu al stan d ards are high .

Serbi a has cert ai n ly produced a n umber of able diplo

m at ist s an d st atesme n as well as schol ars an d li n guists
, .

The l ack of org an isi ng cap acity an d the difli c ul t ie s of

1 It i ho
s, v r y t x gg r t t h t d i ; t h r of ul
w e e , e as o e a e a e e se en e nc e s e a ea c

ti t d
va e il h d i
so d f r om 4 p
a t i
n e l e ase th ig ht i to rly 1 e r ce n . n e e es ne a

37 p e r c e nt . in 1 90 4 . V ide Ne w bigin, pp . 2 02 —1 1 .
2 84 TR EATY or B E RLIN AND

her ec on omic positi on h ave proved the most seri ou s

hi n dra n ces to developme n t E duc atio n still o n ly exte n ds
.

to about on e fi f t h of the tot al popul atio n The Serbi an

-
.

is less c ommerci ally acute tha n the Greek less i n dustri ,

ous an d pl oddi n g tha n the Bulg ar But on e gift he .

p ossesses which m akes him superior to either He is .

like them supremely p atriotic but he also possesses the

,

gift of visu alisi n g an d recog n isi n g a supreme crisis or a

superb opportu n ity .

The defects of the Serbi an s h ave bee n ex agger ated

by the tyra n n y o f o thers but their virtues are cert ai n ly
,

their ow n There is n o r ace which has show n a more

.

heroic desire for freedom or achieved it with less aid

,

from others or at more sacri fi ce to itself There is .

n o peopl e more homoge n eous more u n ited more in

, ,

te n sely n atio n al whe n o n ce its symp athies are e n listed

,

an d i t s im agi n atio n is aw ake This fact expl ai n s n ot

.

o n ly Serbi a s si n gle ha n ded achieveme n t of her fr ee dom

’
-

in d ays go n e by but her rece n t prowess in w ar

, .

Wh e n the Serbi an s realised th at th e sh adow of w ar

hu n g he avy over their cou n try they at o n ce devoted all
their e ff orts t o details of orga n isatio n an d admi n istr atio n
which might stre n gthe n an d perfect th e army They .

subordi n ated all mi n or issues to the gre at on e an d the ,

result w as the m ag n i fi ce n t military machi n e which w on

a co n ti n uous series of triumphs in the Balka n W ar .

I n some of the higher i n tellectu al problems of w ar as in ,

str ategy in scie n ti fi c ha n dli n g of artillery an d of c av alry

, ,

the Serbi an surpassed other members of the B alk an

Le ague The re aso n w as that for the fi rst time the
.
, ,

i n tellectu al an d the democr atic forces in Serbi a were

fused together The m ag n i fi c e n t raw m ateri al supplied
.

by the pe asan t becam e a fi n ished product in the ha n ds

of the Staff .

The milit ary task w as easy an d co n ge n ial for the ,

“
Serbi an is n aturally w arlike Do you k n ow writes
.
,
TH E R U SS OPH I LE PE RI OD . FORE I G N P OLI C Y
TH E B OS NI A N A ND J U G O S L AV
-
Q U E S TI ON
( 1 903
-
1 0)

IN co n tr ast to other Balkan states Serbi a has alw ays

bo asted of her n ative dy n asty The i n fere n ce is th at
.

a peasa n t Pri n ce is better th an a Germ an on e Serbia n .

history has u n doubtedly show n th at while a good ,

n ative ruler is an almost ide al sovereig n in a B alk an

st ate a b ad on e m ay bri n g almost irre m e diabl e disast e r
, .

I t is e asier to remove a fo reig n ruler th an a n ative on e ,

for the l ast alw ays le aves behi n d him an oppositio n in the
state M oreover Serbi a su ff ered fro m n ot on e but two
.
,

n ative dy n asties an d two good dy n asties an d on e w as n ot

, (
good) are w orse th an on e b ad on e Serbi a had n o domestic
.

pe ace till the dy n astic di ff ere n ces were fi n ally settled by

the de ath of the last O b re n ov itc h Th at Pri n ce had show n
.

more spirit th an his father who had bee n the obedie n t

,

serv an t of Austri a Hu n g ary Yet though Alex an der had

-
.

ultim ately em an ci p ated himself from Austri a Hu n g ary he -

had do n e more h arm th an good to Serbi a by his un

fortu n ate m arri age Still the Austro Hu n gari an co n n ec
.
,

tio n h ad bee n severed an d this fact m ade I t e asier for Ki n g

,

Peter to establi sh a more de fi n ite rel ati on with Russi a .

As a son —in l aw to Pri n ce N ichol as of M on te n egr o

-

P eter might h ave expected his support But their priv ate .

rel ati on s were n o t h arm on i ous an d N ich ol as stood al o of

,

an d married his seco n d son M irko to Pri n cess N at alie a ,

2 86
 s B O S N IAN AN D J U G O S L A
-
V Q U E ST I O N S
The popul ar feeli n g throughout M o n te n egro in 1 9 1 3
a
D

w as very evide n tly I n f av ou r of Serbia an d of Crow n Pri n ce

Alex an der the hope o f the Serbi an race I t I s certai n
, .

al so th at the u n ited actio n of the two peoples co n stitutes

the surest protectio n for Serbia an d the o n ly hope for

M on te n egro in the future .

Good rel atio n s with Russi a were absolutely n ecess ary

to Serbi a I n view of the threate n i n g attitude of Austri a
Hu n gary The Austri an Crow n Pri n ce Rudolph h ad
.

’
he ade d a moveme n t for crushi n g the hor n ets n ests at
C e tt inj e an d Belgr ade an d his imperi al father th o ugh n ot
, ,

appr o vi n g of the moveme n t slowly re alised the growi n g ,

’
d an ger I n Serbi a R ussia s bid for co n trol I n Bulgari a
.

had bee n a de fi n ite failure an d her frie n dli n ess with ,

Serbi a as show n in 1 90 0 put Austria Hu n g ary on the

, ,
-

w atch . From the begi n n i n g of the reig n of Ki n g

P eter Austri a Hu ngary showed further u n frie n dli n ess
,
-

tow ards the little state I t is certai n th at the Austri an

.

Ge n er al Staff c ame to the well w arr an ted historic al -

c on clusio n that the true military ro ad to S alo n ic a w as

up the v alley of the M orava I n 1 87 8 they had .

th ought the ro ad lay through the mou n tai n ous de fil e s of

N ov ib az ar but at some d ate befo re the e n d of 1 90 8 they
,

recog n ised th at the Sa nj ak would be a de ath tr ap to an -

i n vadi n g army The w ay was n ot through N ov ib az ar at

.

all,
but alo n g the old ro ad trodde n by Byz an ti n e ,

Bulgaria n Hu n gari an an d Turkish armies from Belgr ade

, ,

to Nish an d from N ish to the coveted harbour of

,

S alo n ic a This perfectly tech n ical milit ary opi n io n had

.

an importa n t i n flue n ce or policy for an adva n ce thro u gh ,

N ov ib az ar could be m ade alo n g purely Turkish territory ,

an d Serbi an oppositio n could e asily be brushed aside .

But an adv an ce thro ugh Belgrade could o n ly be made i f

Serbi a were absolutely depe n de n t or utterly crushed by
brute force The an n ihil atio n of S erbi an i n depe n de n ce
.
,

in on e form or an other was therefore i n dispe n sable if

,
 TH E RU SS O PH IL E P E RI O D 2 89

S alo n ic a the go al of Austro Hu n g ari an policy si n ce 1 86 6

,
-

w as ever to be re ached M ilitary opi n i on in Austri a

.

Hu n gary therefo re weighted the sc ales in the directio n of

hostility t o Serbi a I t is n ot certai n whe n the A ustri an
.

E mper o r w as co n verted to this V iew but it was um ,

doubtedly before O ctober 1 90 8 .

E ver si n ce 1 87 8 the co n ditio n of a ff airs in Croati a ,

D alm ati a South Hu n g ary an d Bos n i a had become more

, ,

an d more difli c ul t I n all four districts a di ff ere n t

.

Gover n me n tal system was applied There w as j oin t admi n .

ist rat io n in Bos n i a an d purely Austria n rule in D alm ati a

,

Croati a with a cl aim to Home Rule was subj ect to the

, ,

M agy ar G over n me n t the Serbs of South Hu n g ary were

,

directly co n trolle d by it L avish bribery an d the skilful

.

m an ipul atio n of p arties e nabled successive Magy ar B an s

of Croati a to keep th at district fairly quiet But in 1 90 5 .

the co n ti n ued aggressio n of the M agyar Gover n me n t

c aused the Croats an d the O rthodox Serbs the two chief ,

p arties in Croati a to si n k their di ff ere n ces an d oppose a

,

coalesced fro n t to the Magyar The pr actical result was .

th at the Hu n g ari an Gover n me n t could n ot rule Cro atia

except by fl agr an tly viol ati n g the Cro ati an Au s Gleich of -

1 86 8 by which Cro ati a h ad secured Ho m e R u le

,
A .

series of disgr aceful sc an d als also discredited the H un

g ari an Gover n me n t of Cro ati a The m or al import an ce .

of these eve n ts had co n sider able e ff ect on all the Souther n

Sl av l an ds Cro ati a as the liter ary an d cultur al leader of
.

the Jugo Sl avs had an importan ce out of all propor

-

tio n to its mere size Determi n ed oppositio n to the

.

M agyar from 1 90 5 o n w ards c aused much u n rest an d

disco n te n t amo n g their blood brethre n elsewhere The .

Serbs of Souther n Hu n g ary h ave developed less th an

an
y other Jugo Sl av -
pe ople of l ate ye ars E n tirely .

co n tr olled by the Hu n g ari an Gover n me n t an d subj ected

t o the policy of forcible M agyarisat ion they h ave decli n ed ,

both in power an d in p opul atio n Still on the b ala n c e .

,
2 90 B O S N IAN AND J UG O SLAV Q U E ST I O NS -

ther e is n o doubt th at the adhesio n of Croati a to the

Jugo —Sl av c ause f ar outweighed the decli n e of the
Hu n g ari an Serbs .
f

I n D alm ati a which was u n der Austria n co n trol the

, ,

most n otice able fe ature was a developme n t of Serb in

h abitan ts at the expe n se of I tali an s an d a great i n cre ase
,

of eco n omic stre n gth an d e n terprise in the face of m an ifold

obstacles This eco n omic factor made it more di ffi cult
.

to keep b ack the Jugo Sl av moveme n t in D almati a

-
.

The Austri an Gover n me n t however to ok great care

, ,

to sep arate the railway systems an d th e eco n omic

i n terests of Dalmatia an d Bos n ia Herzegovi n a It -
.

deliber at ely m ade it di ffi cult for c o oper atio n betwe e n

the two to take pl ace for it feared th at eco n omic c o
,

o peratio n betwee n the two would re act on the political

situatio n an d thus further the Jugo Slav programme -

.

A trivial i n cide n t sometimes reveals a te n de n cy more

sharply th an a volume of pri n t The travell e r at .

Spalato may see a fou n t ai n rece n tly erected by the

Tow n Cou n cil I t is surmou n ted by the for m of a
.

goddess whose outstretched arm poi n ts tow ards Serbi a

, ,

thus symb olisi n g the hope of the Serbs of D alm at i a .

Th at of Cr oati a is aptly symbolised by the statue O f

ll h i h i n the market pl ace of Agr am which poi n ts
J e ac t c -

with dr aw n sword to Hu n gary whither he c arried fi re ,

an d destructio n in 1 848 .

The ge n er al attitude of the three districts me n tioned

had co n vi n ced the Austria n Foreig n C fli ce of the da n gers
of a Souther n Sl av U n io n This dan ger w as i n te n si fi ed
.

in Bos n ia an d Herzegovi n a which is u n der the j oi n t

,

admi n istratio n of Austria Hu n g ary -

So lo n g as Russia.

w as v ai nl y struggli n g to domi n ate Bulgari a an d S e rbia ,

was pledged by a Co n ve n tio n to discour age Serb pro

a an dism in Bos n i a Austri a Hung ary w as reaso n ably
p g
-

,
’
secure But Serbi a s secret Co n ve n tio n came to an e n d
.

in 1 889 M il an the Pro Austria n died an d Russia was

,
-

,
2 92 B O SNIAN AND JUG O SLA V Q U E STI O NS -

of ma n y M ohammed an Bo sn i an s was an o mi n ous sig n .

O f l ate ye ars the emigr ati on of m an y Christi an Serbs

an d the disco n te n t of those th at rem ai n show the truth .

The A ustr o Hu n gari an Gover n me n t has t ake n very

-

little trouble to give her subj ects an y politic al educa

tio n despite her gr an t of a Co n stitutio n There c an
,
.

be n o d ou bt th at on e re aso n of this n eglect is

that they fe ar the use t o which politic al power would
be put by the Serbs who form n i n e te n ths of the
,
-

popul atio n .

R epressi o n of n atio n alistic ide als in all the Jug o Sl av

l an ds we n t h an d I n ha n d with a policy of decl ared hostility
to Serbi a The fi rst m an ifestatio n of re al e n mity was
.

tow ards the swi n e of Serbia I n 1 90 5 Austria Hu n g ary -

le ar n t th at Serbi a w as n egotiati n g with Bulg ari a on the

b asis of a commo n custom s t ari ff I n quiries an d a .

correspo n de n ce e n sued which showed how completely the

Austro Hu n g ari an G over n me n t still regarded itsel f as
-

domi n a n t over Serbi a I n 1 880 the Austro Hu n g ari an

.
-

Gover n me n t had complai n ed bec ause Serbia made a com

m e rc ial tre aty w ith E n gla n d n ow it n ot o nly protested
,

ag ai n st the Serbi an s m aki n g a tre aty with Bulg ari a but

made n e w an d extr aordi n ary dema n ds At this time .

Serbia w as reorgan i si n g the army an d orderi n g big gu n s ,

A ustri a Hu n g ar y dem an ded th at she should give pre

-

fere n ce t o her i n the m atter of mu n itio n s i n ste ad of

to Fra n ce from wh om they were to be ordered There
,
.

can be little doubt th at A ustri a Hu ngary i n te n ded to

-

co n trol the ammu n itio n supply an d th at a co n tr ol of the

ammu n itio n supply would h ave e n abled her to dictat e

to Serbia in m atters of w ar policy I f these pr opos als .

had bee n accepted Serbia would have bee n more

,

completely Austro Hu n garia n tha n in the d ays of the

-

l ast O b re n ov itc h e s I t is perh aps the gre atest service

.

o f N ich ol as Pash it c h to his c o u n try th at he resolutely

an d ,
as eve n ts proved triumph an tly opposed this
,
 TH E RU SS O P H IL E P E RI O D 29 3
1
dema n d .He blu n tly decli n ed to admit the questio n
of gun buyi n g i n to a discussio n on commerce an d
-

eve n tually Austria Hungary w as reduced to the ex -

e die n t of decl ari n g war on the Serbi an pigs

p .

The r aisi n g of the Au stro Hu n gari an t ari ff ag ai n st -

c attle an d swi n e imported from Serbi a i n augurated the

”
“
famous pig war I t see m ed to thre ate n Serbi a with
-
.

eco n omic dis aster as the British Navig atio n Act h ad

,

thre ate n ed the Dutch R epu b lic in 1 6 5 1 Th e Dutch had .

had a sole i n dustry shippi n g —the Serbi an s had a sole

, ,

i n dustry pigs an d retali atio n up on them m ight be fatal

, ,
.

Serbi a pr oduced a gre ater prop ortio n of pigs th an an y

other B alkan st ate n i n e te n ths of her exports an d three -

fif t h s o f her imports touched or left Austri a Hu n g ary -

.

Yet the blow proved less deadly th an w as an ticip ated .

The Serbi an s faced as they were with a gre at n atio n al

,

crisis rose to the opportu n ity as t h ey are sometimes

,

c ap able of doi n g Their de alers push e d f arther afi eld

.
,

an d fou n d n e w m arkets in E gypt Fra n ce an d eve n in , ,

E n gl an d With some immedi ate l oss there was ultim ate

.

g ai n to Serbi a an d in fact Austria Hu n gary fou n d the

,
-

price of her ow n meat gre atly e n ha n ced by her t ari ff .

Serbi an milit ary an d eco n omic em an cip atio n w as a politi

c al g ai n O f the highest order an d on e th at proved o f gre at ,
’’
importan ce for the future The p 1g w ar embittered .
-

Serbi a an d complic ated the rel ati on s of the c ou n tries .

I t c o n vi n ced Serbi a t h at Austri a Hu n g ary c ould n ot -

be trusted an d th at without a se ap ort an d free access to

,

o ther n atio n s Serbi a depe n ded n o t o n ly f o r pr o fi ts but

f or e xi ste n ce o n the prec ariou s g oo dwill of n eighbours .

11 0 m an meets a
“
I n the desert s ays an Ar ab proverb, ,
”
frie n d in the Balk an s n o people trusts its n e ighbou r .

The dema n d f or a wi n dow on the Adri atic still further

1 M P h it h w
. as t i p w r d i g p rt
c as nof th g ot i t i but h
n o e in n a o e ne a on e

c ommitt e d h is c ount ry t o a c ou ser fr om w hi h

c sh e c ou ld n ot r e c e de , an
d
he l
c on c ude d as w ll e as init iat e d t he p r oc e e din s g .
2 94 BOSNIAN A ND J U G O
-
SLA V Q U E STI O N S
stre n gthe n ed the desire for conn e ctio n with the other
Jugo Sl avs especi ally with the fi n e harbours of D alm ati a
-

, .

The situ atio n gr adually grew worse A solid block .

of disco n te n ted Serbo Croats in Croatia a sulle n Bos n i a

-

, ,

a dis c o n te n ted D almatia an d an am b itious an d hostile

,

Serbia made the Austro Hu ngaria n policy more an d -

more di ffi cult The fact t hat Russi a was preoccupied

.

with J apa n an d the F ar E ast w as the o n ly ray of

hope I t is clear that withi n the first dec ade of the
.

twe n tieth ce n tury it was still possible for Austria

Hu n gary to co n ciliate the Serbo Cro ats withi n her
empire . R ussi a w as still weak after the R usso
J ap an ese W ar Bulgaria was still hostile and sulle n
,

tow ards her guardia n Liberator S e rbia was still ,

disco n te n ted an d despised for the sca n dals of the

O b re n ov it c h r égime Thus duri n g the fi rst years of
.

the twe n tieth ce n tury wh e n disco n te n t u n mistakably

,

m an ifested itself withi n the Serbo Cro at la n ds I n Austria -

Hu n g ary a pol icy of co n cili ation might still have suc

,

ceeded There was i n deed a da nger in this policy that

.

A u stro Hu n g ari an co n cili atio n might be defe ated by

M agy ar i n timid atio n of the Slavs of Hu n gary The .

b asis of the Aus Gleich of 1 86 7 was that Hu n gary an d

-

Austria should rule their subj ects i n depe n de n tl y an d this ,

arr an geme n t w as m ai n t ai n ed for the Magyars were very

te n acious of their rights an d the Austria n s very timid of
i n terferi n g with them But the conti n ued i n cre ase of
.

disco n te n t the absolutist M agy ar r égime an d the Serbo

, ,

Cro at co aliti on I n Cro ati a the growi n g eco n omic import

,

an ce of Dalm ati a an d the mutteri n gs of a storm in Bos n i a

, ,

forced Austri an st atesme n to reco n sider the positio n .

The M agy ar system blocked the w ay to all possibility

of improveme n t in the lot of Cro ats or of Serbs of
South H u ng ary an d h ampered amelioratio n in Bos n i a
,
.

The whole Jugo Sl av questio n must be settled if ever

-
,

it was to be settled on a commo n policy withi n the

,
2 96 B O SNIAN AND j U G O SL A V
-
Q U E S TI ONS
sible co n cili atio n in an other se n se was n ot
,
Gre ater .
“
” “ ”
Austri a was the proper reply to Gre ater Serbi a .

This phr ase w as a co n ve n ie n tly vague on e coveri n g ,

a n ythi n g betwe e n co n ciliatio n to Slavs an d a ce n tr alised

“
feder atio n of the whole empire Greater Austri a .

me an t a policy i n spiri ng co n fi de n ce in the adm in i

st rat iv e e fli c ie n c an d the progressive char acter o f the
y
Gover n me n t I t therefore i n cluded a vigorous an d
.

spirited foreig n policy which might appe al to Serbo

,

Cro ats withou t an d ultim ately a general policy o f

,

co n cili atio n which might appeal to them within This .

idea l ay at the root of some of the views of Cou n t

A e h re n t hal an d his disciples duri n g the ye ars 1 90 6 — 1 1 .

I t was n ot acted on as a complete policy bec ause ,

political aims are n ecess arily limited by facts an d the ,

stubbor n n e ss of facts is n owhere so gre at as in Austri a

Hu n gary But it was the ideal policy to which the
.

better cl ass of Austria n statesme n an d diplom atists of

that period might be said to aspire I f Trialism was .

impractic able Gre ater Austri a was n ot

, .

The policy of co n ciliatio n withi n the empire may be

recko n ed as havi n g de fi n itely failed in Hu n gary after
the Serb o Cro at U n io n in Croatia
-
I t s purpose
was l ater described by its chief author Fra n z S up il o in , ,
“
the followi ng words I wa n ted to m ake peace with the
Serbs bec ause the struggle betwee n Serbs an d Croats
would have wor n us both out I succeeded in c on .

cludi n g peace an d n o power on earth will avail to

,
” 1
destroy the u n ity betwee n us Croatia so lo n g .

divided by reli gion an d policy was at l ast u n ited an d

e n abl e d to form a spiritual coalitio n with the other Jugo
Slavs A respo n se was n ot lo n g in comi ng from the
.

i n depe n de n t Serbia n rulers Pri n ce Nichol as se n t off his

.

son Crow n Pri n ce D an ilo to atte n d a meeti n g at Sp al at o

, ,

at which the Austria n E mperor was to be prese n t The .

1 R . W . S e t on- Watson, S out lve rn S/a 'v Q uestion,

p . 29
5 .
 TH E RussoPH IL E P ERI O D 29 7

Dalm atia n s had determi n ed on a demo n stration of silenc e ,

an d the fact w as o n ly k n ow n j ust in time to substitute

Fr an z Ferdi nan d the heir to the thro n e for Fr an cis

, ,

Joseph Fran z Ferdi n an d la n ded from a ship an d w as

.

received in icy sile n ce Da n ilo who c ame overl an d was , ,

received with a shout so loud th at it echoed f ar acr o ss

the se a Possibly with s arc asm possibly with a deeper
.
,

me an i n g Pri n ce Nichol as alluded in a public speech to

,
“ ”
the ki n d receptio n of Pri n ce D an ilo on his visit to
Dalm atia The feeli n gs of Austro Hu n gari an st atesme n
.
-

may be im agi n ed whe n this mess age of u n ity w as a n swered

i n Serbi a an d the Serbo Croats an d Serbia n s freely com
-

m un ic at e d with on e an other The popul ar attitude was

.

viole n tly expressed but it is impossible to discover how

,

far the Gover n me n t or o ffi cials of Serbia were co n cerned

in these moveme n ts Their attitude w as certai n ly sym
.

pathetic and n ot always discreet I n 1 90 7 the famou s .

Serbi an geographical schol ar C v ij ié gave a public

lecture in the prese n ce of Ki n g an d Crow n Pri n ce in ,

which he spoke ope n ly of the Serb brethre n in

Hu n gary an d Austri a an d of the superior Balkan
positio n of Serbia Th e da n ger was fully r e alised by
.

the Austro Hu n g ari an Gover n me n t B ut as it fe ared

-
.

the Magyars eve n more th an the Serbians it preferred to ,

i n timidate the l atter To de al in the m atter e ff ectively

.

it h ad to attack Turkey for n ot o n ly Serbi an s but

,

Turks were i n terested in B os n i a Herzegovi n a -

.

The Bos n i an attitude of Austri a Hu n gary w as c on -

n e c t e d with exp an sio n tow ards S alo n ic a an d the ge n er al

q uestio n o f M acedo n i a I n 1 90 3 Austri a Hu ngary an d

.
-

R ussi a had agreed to the M ii rz st e g progr amme of re

forms in M acedo n i a the C hief aim of which w as to secure
,

improveme n t in the g o ver n me n t of these districts but to

m ai n tai n the territori al sta tus q uo This policy ex actly .

suited R uss ia which w as fi rst pre occupied an d eve n tu ally

,

we akened by a struggle in the F ar E ast I t did n ot suit .

2 9s B O SN I AN AND J UG O SLA V QU E STI O N S
-

Serbi a which still wished to redeem the Serbs of Ol d

,

Serbi a an d M acedo n ia Still less did it suit Ae hre n thal

”
.
,

who with n o reg ard f or the pas t was willi n g to pro fi t

by the Russi an we ak ness an d to m ake Austria Hu n gary ,
-

the predomi n an t Power in the Balka n s I t is usually .

believed th at he b argai n e d with Turkey to drop all

reform in M acedo n ia in retur n for a railway co n cessio n
through N ov ib az ar At an y r ate in Ja n u ary 1 90 8 he
.
, ,

am az ed the world by a n n ou n ci n g his proj ect of a railway

li n e which w as t o run through N ov ib az ar an d thus ,

facilitate an Austro Hu n g ari an adva n ce on S alo n ica

-
.

R ussi a an d Serbia were immedi ately aroused an d

metaphoric ally in arms A cou n ter proj ect of a Russia n .
-

railw ay to the Adri atic which would give to Serbia her

much n eeded outlet to the sea was at o n ce made
-
, .
1

Ae h re n t hal was in n o w ay disturbed by this oppositio n ,

but his bold n ess w as soo n fou n d to e xceed his discretio n .

This scheme had bee n hastily proposed an d a n n ou n ced ,

an d the eco n omic an d practic al difli c ul t ie s of layi n g li n es

through the mou n t ai n ous cou n try were fou n d t o be very

’
gre at I t is almost certai n th at Ae hre n t hal s r ailw ay
.

scheme was about to be ab an do n ed whe n the You n g ,

Turkish R evolutio n occurred an d Abdul H amid w as

overthrow n A e hre n t hal w as quick to seize the op p or
.

t un ity Before the world had recovered from the

.

surprise of M oslem s embraci n g Christi an s an d of

Turkish oflfic e rs t alki n g Liberalism to Abdul Hamid ,

A e hre n t hal struck an d struck hard O n 5 t h O ctober .

1 90 8 Ferdi n an d procl aimed the complete i n depe n de n ce

of Bulg ari a an d an n ou n ced himself as its Cz ar an d two ,

d ays l ater Ae h re n t hal an n ou n ced th at Austri a Hu n g ary -

n o lo n ger recog n ised Bos n ia Herzegovi n a as u n der the -

’
Sultan s sovereig n ty but reg arded these territ ories as
,

1Th R u i ou t r
e r j
ss ant of c l i fr om D ub t o A d t
n e o ec a ne
p an e r1 a 1 c
-

w uld g r t ly h v b fi t d S r bi B ut th h m v r got b y o d
o ea a e e ne e e a. e sc e e ne e e n

t h di u io
e sc t g ss n s a e.
39 9 BO SNI AN AND J U G O S L AV Q U E ST I ON S
-

an d Christi an states of the B alka n s to u n ite in a Le ague

for gu ara n teei n g their i n depe n de n c e Ae h re n t hal showed .

a fi rm n ess u n expected in an Austro Hu n g aria n M i n ister -

an d i n formed the protesti n g Powers th at a Co n gress

should o n ly be summo n ed to register the accomplished
fact of an n exatio n n ot to discuss its propriety
, .

A e hre n t hal w as n ot alw ays a wise or reflective states

m an but he relied on the e n ergy of his will an d the
,

circ u mst an ce th at he de alt with a Ce n tr al E urope an

q uestio n E n gl an d who m Germ an y feared could make
.
, ,

n o e ff ective i n terve n tio n in a l and questi on Russi a w as ,

we ak f rom her rece n t dis aster in the F ar East he n ce ,

A u stri a Hu n g ary an d Germ an y were stro n ger th an the

-

Triple E n te n te Wh at c an E n gl an d do to us P asked
.

A e h re n t hal He took his st an d firmly an d relied on

.

the support of Germa n y E ve n tu ally he prevailed .

,

as he was bou n d to prevail whe n the Gre at Powers

would n ot support Serbi a up to the verge of war I f .

we may j udge from the s e mi Offi c ial Press of Ae hre n t hal

-
,

the an n ex atio n w as due to a desire on the part of Austri a

Hu n g ary to discredit the Pro Serb revolutio n ary agit atio n ,

which h ad so lo n g spre ad from Belgrade like a fever to

disturb D alm ati a Cro ati a an d Bosnia Th e o n ly w ay to
, ,
.

meet the d an ger of this i n fectio n was to sterilise Bos n i a

Herzegovi n a by the a n tiseptic process of a n n ex atio n So .

“ ”
l on g as the provi n ces were o n ly occupied by Austria
H u n g ary an d were still n omi n ally Turkish the Serbi an s ,

could hope for their ultim ate absorptio n in a Jugo

“ ”
S lav st ate O n ce they were a nn exed Serbi a w as cut
.
,

off by a bro ad ba n d of Austro— Hu ngaria n territory from

D alm ati a an d Cro ati a This stroke w as i n te n ded to be
.

“ ”
the death blow of Greater Serbi a an d the re surre c
-

”
tio n of Greater Austria
“
Austria Hu n g ary i n deed
.
-

ev acu ated N ov ib az ar but did n ot be n e fi t Serbia by

,

doi n g so the Turks reoccupied it an d mai n t ai n ed the ,

wedge sep ar ati ng Serbia from M o n te n egro .

 TH E RU SS O PH IL E P E RI O D 30 1

Wh at e ver opi n io n m ay be held of the j ustice of the

Serbi an protest ag ai n st the an n ex atio n there c an be n o,

doubt th at Serbi an politici an s an d diplomatists showed a

lack of b al an ce th at dam aged their cause They certai n ly .

had griev an ces but they gai n ed n othi n g an d lost much

,

by their i n temperate l an guage an d ope n de fi an ce of

Austri a Hu n gary Crow n Pri n ce G e orge in the l ast an d
.
,

most viole n t stage of his politic al career fairly excelled ,

himself in veheme n ce He we n t off on a missio n to

.

Petrograd to dema n d R ussia n support an d became the ,

idol of the war p arty His attitude an d that of his

.

fo llowers seems to have bee n deliberately based on the

idea that Austria Hu n gary was a bu n dle of medi aev al
-

miscell an ies which could be shivered i n to fragments by

the Serbi an army The view w as grot e sque an d Serbia
.
,

su ff ered de arly for its absurdity The Crow n Pri n ce

.

’
fou n d I svol sky s attitude bellicose an d Pan Slavist but -

he c ould obt ai n n o de fi n ite pl e dges from Russi a He .

retur n ed to Belgrade m ore viole n t th an ever an d used ,

all his i n flue n ce to i n crease the agitatio n C artoo n s .

represe n ted him as St George slayi n g the Austri an

.

Dr ago n which disgorged the t w i n sisters of Bos n ia

,

Herzegovi n a as he plunged in his sword The Press .

was more tha n usually u n tamable The agitatio n

.

re ached far beyo n d the war p arty an d excited eve n the

soberest The F oreig n M i n ister M ilov an ov itc h though
.
,

an able diplom atist committed s o me i n discretio n s

, On .

a n d J an u ary 1 90 9 he spoke viole n tly in the Ch amber .

I t w as alleged in Vie n n a th at he described his fellow

“ ”
Serbs as e n slaved to Austria Hu n g ary a phr ase -

which he subseque n tly i n terpreted as subj e cted But .

whether he used this phrase or n ot oth e r expressio n s

,
“
were fairly de fi n ite . Austria Hu n gary must cease to
-

be a B alka n state — her path to the JEgae an must be

blocked . The D an ube an d S ave must at all costs
r e main th e legal b ou n d ary betw e en the Habsburg
30 2 B O SN I AN AN D J UG O SLAV Q U E ST I O NS -

Monarchy an d the B alk an States Th e S k up tc hin a .

p assed a u nan imous vote dema n di n g the m ainte n a n ce

of Turkish authority over Bos n i a an d the cession of a
su ffi cie n t slice of territory to conn e ct Mo n t e n egro an d
Serbia .

I n spite of his u n bala n c e d public utt e ra n ces M ilo ,

v an ov itc h wrote able dispatch e s an d the poi n t of V iew ,

which he urged was n ot u n reaso n able in itself Th e .

j oi n t M o n te n egri n an d Serbi an policy was e xpressed

” 1
in the dema n d for an irreducible mi n imum This .

dema n d mea n t the cessio n by Austri a H u n gary of a strip -

of Bos n i an territ ory su ffi cie n t to m ake a bridge betwee n

,

Serbia an d M on te n egro an d to give both states a com ,

m e rc ial outlet to the Adri atic I t was claimed th at .

such a co n cessio n could alo n e compe n sate the two

Serbi an st ates for th e loss of the Serb provinc e s which
Austri a Hu n gary had tak e n There was a great de al
-
.

more force in this argume n t tha n politicia n s of the West

wer e ready to admit The co n ditions had defi n itely altered
.

in a w ay th at Cha n celleries had n ot real ised I n 1 87 8 .

Serbia an d M o n te n egro were toss e d aside as t rifling an d th e ,

former was practically regarded as an Austro Hu n gari an -

“ ”
depe n dency Previous to the pig war Serbi a had
.
-

bee n an eco n omic provi n ce of Austria Hu n g ary Si n ce -

.

1 90 5 Serbi a h ad de fi n itely em an cipated herself from this

servitude The agitatio n in all Jugo Slav territories w as

.
-

n ow at its height an d Serbia was j usti fi ed in dema n di n g

,

a co n sid e ratio n for all ayi n g that discont e n t Austri a .

Hu n gary had promised support of S e rbian d e sig n s on

Macedo n ia to the O b re n ov it c he s an d had don e n othi n g
to redeem that promise though M ila n had faithfully ,

discour aged S e rbian prop aga n da in Bosnia Fi n ally .

,

Russia n ow ass e rt e d hers e lf as a champio n of Serbia n

1Th b t t t m t of t hi v i w i i
e es s a e en v ry b l but om wh t
s e s n a e a e s e a

c rit i i d p mph l t b y Pr of or C ij ié C o t r t F our i r Wi Wi

c se a e e ss v . n as n e , e r

a
f
a B osnia Ka me n .
 B O SNIAN AN D J UG O SLA V Q U E ST I O NS
-

I sv ol sk y could n ot face a w ar an d expressed his willi n g

,

n ess to ac q uiesce i n the an n ex atio n of Bos n i a To an .

observer duri n g these critic al days Belgr ade appear e d l e ss

exciti n g tha n might have bee n supposed There was .

great military activity an d great V iole n ce in the Press ,

but the people were l e ss stirred tha n at an earlier period .

Mobs howled be n e ath the wi n dows of the Crow n Prince

and of the Russia n Ambassador an d bitter thi n gs were
,

said in the Press of how Russia had betray e d a Slav

state but it was r e cog n ised that resista n ce was impossible
, .

O n 3ot h M arch Serbia was forced publicly to announc e her

submissio n to aba n do n her prot e sts an d to promise n ot
, ,

to disturb the relations of Austria Hu n gary with h e r Serb

-

subj e cts I n the fi n al s e ttl e m e n t Austria Hu n gary paid

.
-

Turkey £ T2 J ,
as compe n satio n for the destruction
of the sov e r e ig n rights of the Sult an ; Bulgaria gai n e d
i n dep e n de n ce for h e rself an d the title of Czar for her
rul e r ; M o n te n egro freed herself from th e v e xatious
Austro Hu n gari an police restrictio n s on her sea coast ;
- -

Russia put Bulgaria u n der an obligatio n by givi n g her

a loan on e asy terms and to that exte n t dev e loped an d
recovered her B alkan i n flue n ce Serbi a deserted an d
.

isolated w as forced to pledge herself to ab an do n Serbia n

propaga n da in the Austro Hu n garia n l an ds an d received
-

n othi n g in retur n for this humiliati n g co n cessio n .

So far we are on sure grou n d but ther e is evid e nc e

, ,

which is more tha n surmise for the V iew th at what

,

Serbi a really gai n e d was her exist e nce I t is significa n t .

that arrests of suspected prop aga n dists of Great e r “

Serbia had b egu n in A ustria—Hu n gary as early as

”

August 1 90 8— that is before the an nexatio n had pro

,

duc e d a gre at agitatio n . The extraordi n ary result of

the Frie dj un g tri al prov e d beyo n d dispute th at the
Austro Hu n garian E mbassy at Belgr ade was implicated
-

in the forgi n g of docume n ts i n te n ded to prove an

anti Austria n conspiracy of S e rbo Croats There were
- -
.
 TH E R U SS O P H I L E P ERI O D 30 5

stro n g suspicio n s th at Ae h re n thal hims e lf an d perhaps

e ve n the Austri an Heir App are n t were i n volved in
thes e S i n gular tra n s actio n s I t is of importa n ce that
.

great masses of Austro Hu n gari an troops w e re c on

-

c e n t rat e d o n the borders of Serbia duri n g th e wi n ter

of 1 90 8— 9 The Austri an Ge n er al St aff is k n ow n to
.

have declared the S anj ak of N ov ibaz ar u sel ess for military

purposes an d to have advoc ated an i n v asio n alo n g the
,

li n e of the M or ava I t w as n ot till almost too l ate th at

.

the Austri an Heir App are n t publicly decl ared th at he

w as n ot in favour of w ar with Serbi a whe n there were ,

speci al re aso n s for this cha n ge of fro n t which had n ot

existed before The ge n er al te n de n cy of these i n cide n ts
.

seems to s uggest that a str on g Austro Hu n gari an party -

had determi n ed on crushi n g Serbi a but w as foiled at ,

the last mome n t by other co n sider atio n s of high policy

an d by the p aci fi c i n cli n atio n of the Old E mperor .

Wh at Serbia g ai n ed fro m the Bos n ia n dispute was

immu n ity from immedi ate attack Her existe n ce
.

depe n ded upo n whether she would be able to use the

respite give n to h e r to prep are for greater da n gers .

The eve n ts of 1 90 8— 9 m ade a perm an e n t impressio n

on Serbia . The a n n ex atio n p assed the da n ger an d the
,

desire for ve n gea n ce rem ai n ed M ila n had begu n the

.

reorga n isatio n of the army an d this reform though

, ,

retarded by p olitic al disturb an ce had already m ade some

,

headway A fter the crisis it w as pushed with feverish

.

activi t y
. Fre n ch military service w as e n listed an d Fre n ch ,

gu n s an d mu n itio n s were supplied The pl an s an d pre

.

arat io n s were m ade with gre at secrecy an d few re alised

p ,

the developme n ts u n til the B alkan W ar of 1 9 1 2 — 1 3 .

The Serbi an pe asan t w as a m ag n i fi ce n t n atur al soldier ,

more e n duri n g in physi q ue th an an y other in the w orld ,

less dogg e d tha n the Bul gari an but with more él an ,

easily roused to mor al e n thu si asm by a refere n ce to

M arko Kralj e v itc h or Kossovo Wh at was n e eded was
.
39 9 B OSNIAN AND J UGO SLAV QU EST ION S -

to direct this m ag n etic fluid alo n g the right wires an d

e n able it to strike at the right spot an d with the gre atest
force The problem was n ot an e asy one for the fu n da
.
,

me n tal democracy of the Serbi an n ature is n ot easy to

reco n cile with military discipli n e or with fi x e d pl an .

Str ategy an d orga n is atio n had to co n form to n atio n al

ide als Discipli n e such as the Bulgari an s had imparted
.
,

to them was impossible a Serbi an o ffi cer addresses his

,
”
m e n as Brothers an d must appe al to their se n time n ts
,

to be successful Agai n strategic al pl an s could n ot be

.
,

worked out with a view t o pure military n ecessity but h ad ,

to recko n with n atio n al impulse an d feeli n g Yet these .

appare n t dis adva n t ages could be an d were surmou n ted .

The Serbi an horse was mettl esome an d restless but if ,

w e ll ha n dled his speed an d his spirit e n abled him to

outstrip the cou n try bred Bulgaria n hack
-
.

The Staff pr oblem w as to supply a skeleto n orga n isa

tio n which would rapidly develop the stan di n g army of
thirty thousa n d to a force t e n tim e s that n umber in war
time Such a system n eeded careful thought an d organ
.

isi n g c ap acity of a high order Both were supplie d an d

.
,

the result w as th at the Serbi an army u n k n ow n to a n yo n e

,

but itself took the fi eld in 1 9 1 2 with more big gu n s

,

th an an y other B alka n P ower with carefully worked ,

out str ategic al pl an s an d with a complete n atio nal pur

,

p ose The possessio n o f a large army by a state has

.

o n ly bee n rece n tly reg arded as a proof of a high st an dard

of civilis atio n This moder n V iew contai n s truth as well
.

as satire for so much scie n ce thought an d org an is atio n is

, , ,

dem an ded of military chiefs n owa days th at moder n w ar

fare is beyo n d the compete n ce of really u n civilised
peoples The superiority of the Serbi an army to the
.

M o n te n egrin is n ot of degree but of ki n d A primitive .

,

poor an d democr atic cou n try like M o n te n egro may

,

pr o duce soldiers w h o are heroes it c an n ot m ake s oldiers

,

who are regul ars Serbia with m an y of the s ame difli

.
,
'
 TH E M AC ED ONI A N Q U E STI ON ( 1 903—1 0)

TH E new era which ope n ed for Serbia in 1 90 3 brought

, ,

a n e w dy n asty an d a n atio n al policy an d seemed to ,

assure her a future I t is true there w as the enmity of

.

Austria Hu n gary but th at d an ger it could be argued

-
, , ,

was b al an ced by the frie n dship of R ussi a Those who .

re aso n ed thu s forgo t M acedo n ia Serbia could n o more

.

avoid the M acedo n ia n whirlpool in the twe n tieth ce n tury

tha n she could in the thirtee n th The situ ation was .

not i n deed dissimilar The weak n ess of the By z a n ti n e

.

E mpire in the thirtee n th ce n tury forced Serbia to co n test

M acedo n ia with Bulg aria for otherwise the latter would
,

have become overwhelmingly stro n g Similarly the .

,

w e ak n ess of the Turkish E mpire after 1 878 and the

power of the n ewly created Bulgari a tur n ed Serbia n
aspiratio n s tow ards M acedo n ia At fi rst dan ger was .

averted because Austria Hu ngary protected Serbi a an d

-

Russia Bulg aria N either side could go to extremes an d

.
,

af ter Sliv n itza Austri a Hu n gary protected Serbia ag ai n st

-

Bulgari a There was thus a b ala n ce of pow e r in the

.

B alk ans which kept th e peace in M acedonia This .

bala n ce was upset in 1 90 3 wh e n the Karage orge v itc h

,

dy n asty aba n do n ed A ustri a H u n gary for Russi a He n ce

-
.

forth n e w developme n ts in the B alk an s were i n evitable ,

an d the struggle w as fo ught out in Macedo n ia where con ,

flic t in g n atio n alities met .

N atio n ality is a rece n t but i n te n s e growth in the

B alka n s H alf a ce n tury ag Bulgars Greeks an d S e rbs
g , ,
.

30
 TH E MAC E D O NIAN Q U E ST I O N 309

h at e d the Turk now they hate on e an other an d this

, ,

hatred has its fi ercest e xpressio n in M aced on ia I n the .

racial sense Macedo n ia s e ems a m e dley of to n gues a ,

kaleidoscop e of n ation alities But it s e ems di ffi cult to

.

say that natio n ality is false whe n it is so i n te n sely

ass e rted The feeli n g of n atio nality however arti fi ci al
.
,

or assumed is th e most pote n t lever of p olitical life in

,

Macedo n ia There is n ot an y room for h alf measures

.
-

for i n di ff ere n ce or for n eutrality E ach m an will sta n d

, .

by his n atio n ality — eve n if he has o n ce assumed it will

, ,

live for it lie for it die for it O f two brothers on e

, , .
,

m ay c all himself a Bulgar an d t he other a Greek but ,

each assumes the obligatio n s of his n atio n ality for n othi n g ,

c an bridge th e racial gulf betw e e n Greek Serb an d , ,

Bu lgaria n .

M acedo n i a is full of i n co n siste n cies S ome Bulgars .

still call themselves Gr ee ks an d would die for Bu lg ari a

the M ussulman ise d Serbs k n ow n as Ar nauts are the
bitterest foes of the Serb ; some of those who spe ak
Bulg ari an wish to be u n ited to Serbi a These are but .

the e ff ects of the strife of w arri n g n atio n alities in

M acedo n ia I n to that d ark an d turbid l ake flow ma n y
.

waters — Serbi an Bulg ari an Alb an ia n an d Greek

, , ,

coloured with th e soils of the la n ds from which they co m e .

Yet the lake itself is disturbed n ot o n ly by waters from

afar but by S pri ngs from withi n There seems to b e a
,
.

M acedo n i an rac e in de p e n de n t of these tributary st reams

,

a r ace stro n g repelle n t virile i n depe n de n t ever re ady

, , , ,

to c all in the stra n g e r to its aid an d equally re ady to ,

ab an do n or deceive him at the fi rst opportu n ity Thus .

it is th at Macedo n ia has remai n ed a perpetu al problem

to all surrou n di n g n atio n s a meeti n g pl ace an d bloody
,
-

debat ab l e grou n d betwee n the v arious aspir an ts to c on

q uest an d to fame While the Turks still held her
.
,

Macedo n ia perpetually attracted the B alk an n atio n s an d

perpetu ally distracted the Great Powers .
31 0 TH E MAC E D O N I AN Q U E ST IO N

The M aced on i an Q uesti on is the fi n al vortex of all

qu arrels th at are purely B alk an an d u n til this l oc al ,

disturb an ce is settled the B alka n States will co n ti n ue

to exert i n flue n ce beyo n d their legitim ate sphere an d ,

to trouble w aters that are more purely E uropea n .

This aspect of the c ase was ofte n overlooked or

de n ied by the Gre at Powers an d the result w as a ,

remote c ause of u n ivers al E ur ope an w ar Th e local .

i n terests of each B alka n Power in M acedo n i a bec ame

vit al in the twe n tieth ce n tury an d forced on the crisis ,
.

The Turkish E mpire th ough still u n der the ir on rule ,

of Abdul Hamid w as believed to be ne ari n g its e n d in ,

E urope Gre at disturba n ces had occurred in E uropea n

.

Turkey m ore were foresee n These could n ot go o n

,
.

for ever an d therefore the remedies were two either

,
-

i n terve n tio n by the Gre at Powers or i n terve n ti on by ,

the sm all The fi rst experime n t fail e d duri n g the fi rst

.

dec ade ; the seco n d attempted with parti al success in ,

the years 1 9 1 2 — 1 3 ultimately merged itself in a coloss al ,

struggle for remodelli n g the map n ot only of Macedo n ia , ,

but of the w o rld .

The cl aims of the B alka n Powers to the reversio n of

Turkish territory in Macedo n ia were all b ased on the
plea th at these Christi an subj ects were aki n to them in
blood an d r ace The cl aims m ade by Bulgar Greek .
, ,

an d Serb defe at on e a n other an d O bscure the real facts , .

M acedo n i a in the l argest se n se has eleme n ts of Bulgaria n

, , ,

Serb Greek an d Alba n ia n rac e s withi n it

, ,
History .
1

1 r fM d i
Th e pa r g rd d G r k
t o m h
ac e on a n ow e a e as ee w as not so uc
i di p
n b i l d d
s ut e , Gr k l m
ut M d i
nc u e vr n on- ee e e e n t s. ac e on a w as n e e a

T rk i h di r i
u s b g r l rm i l d h l d b d d
st c t, ut as a e ne a te nc u es t e an oun e on
th r h b y h S h r D g h d K r D gh M i
e no t t e a h by a an a a a ounta ns, on t e e ast

th Rh d p M
e i
o o e d h M h w by h A l b i
oun ta ns an t e e st a, on t e e st t e an an

M i d
oun t a ns anl i dr w h r g h O h id L k
a ne h h Gr k a n t ou c r a a e to t ouc t e ee

b d ry f 878 M v h
oun a o 1 h h r b d ry r p
at e t so o, t e nc e t e sout e n oun a uns ast

O ly mp h nus t o t d Tb I l de Th r vr
ae an an asos s an . ac e w as ne e c on
sid d e re
p r f M
as d i a t o ac e on a.
 31 2 TH E MAC ED O N IAN QU E STI O N
the two Accordi n g to this view the auto n omou s
.
1

M acedo n i an w ould the n be n either on e n or the other ,

bu t the product of those origi n al Sl av tribes which

settled in these districts about the time Serbia n s or
Bulgars settled elsewhere This f act expl ai n s why Bulgar .

an d Serbia n can both pl au sibly claim the bulk of this

populatio n as their ow n blood—ki n sme n Ther e is a .

M ac e do n i an l an guage an d a M acedo n i an race which can ,

u n derstan d the to n gue an d ad apt itself to the customs

of either Bulg ari an or Serbi an but which is in itself ,

i n depe n de n t of either Give n the n ecess ary time mo n ey .

, ,

i n timidatio n i n duceme n t an d educ atio n al pressure the

, , ,

M ac e do n ia n c an prob ably be assimil ated to on e or the

other comp e ti n g r ace But if the history of past ages .

is really to h av e weight Sl avo n ic M ace don ia should be ,

auto n omou s an d i n depe n de n t O n the oth e r hand if .

,

history is to be disregarded an d expedie n cy adva n ced as

the pri n ciple the n the settleme n t depe n ds n ot o n ly on
,

existi n g politic al co n ditio n s in Macedo n ia but upo n th e ,

bala n ce of power outside it .

The history of M acedo n ia in the past havi n g fail e d

to give a decisive Bulgari an st amp to the whole p op ula
tio n th e questio n rem ai n ed to be solved by the politics
,

of the prese n t These were decisively altered in the .

seve n ties of the n i n etee n th ce n t ury by two eve n ts of

great importa n ce the cre atio n of the Bulgaria n E xarchate
,

an d the treaties of S an Stefa n o an d Berli n

( 7 7 )
1 8 0 — 2 .

Both gave a co n siderable impetus to Bulgaria n p rop a

ga n da an d a correspo n di n g depressio n to that of Serbia
, .

Th w h ol pr b l m i t ill
1 e u ttl d
e Th M do i
o e s S an nse e one . e ac e n an

Q u tio hes v t l it r tur f it ow Th b t umm ry fo t h

n as a as e a e o s n. e es s a r e
g r l r d r i B il f d M d i L o d
e ne a ea e s
9 6
ra Th l t t
s or
’
s a ce on a , n on 1 0 . e a es

v i w of C ij ié— w hi h h v u d rg o v r l h g — g iv
e s v c a e n e ne se e a c an es are en

in D Q ti
es B lf g P
ue s r i 9
ons6 Th S r b
a i
'

i
a nz ue s , a s 1 1 . e e an c ase s

m d r t ly t t d b y Pr of
o e a e r P ul P p
s a e Th B ul g r i e sso a e o ovI C . e a an c ase
m y b f ou d i ma y wr it r
a e n d i mod r t ly g iv
n n by C t ti e s, an s e a e en ons an ne

J ire c e k .
 TH E MAC ED O NIAN Q U E ST I O N 3 1 3

In e arli e r d ays Pri n ce M ic hael o f Serbi a had exploited

Bulg ari an disco n te n t an d fostered B ulg ari an scho ols in
the hope of eve n tually ruli n g a u n ited Serbo Bulg aria n -

people The creatio n of the Bulg ari an E xarch ate ( from

.

as i n te n ded by the Turks as a blow to the

1 8 0— 7 2
7 ) w
Greeks whose schools wer e tur n i n g the popul atio n of
,

M acedonia i n to Helle n es I t w as equ ally a b l ow to the

.

Serbi an s A Slavo n ic E xarch ate was erected which w as

.
,

to be i n depe n de n t of the Gr ee k Patriarch at Co n sta n ti

n o le
p . T h e E x arch was to hold ecclesi astical
j u risdic

tio n in S peci fi ed districts of M acedo n i a an d of moder n

Bulgaria — wher e ver two thirds of the p opul ati o n of a
-

’
district expressed a desire to come u n der the E x arch s
sw ay This E xarchate was i n te n ded by the Turks to be
.

a ce n tre of Sl avo n ic i n flue n ce which would arrest the

Greek i n flue n ce in M acedonia But the E xarchate soo n .

proved a n ti Serb as well as a n ti Greek an d bec ame the

- -

ce n tre of Bulgaria n i n trigues for i n depe n de n ce I n .

1 878 ,
as the result of the Russia n W ar the Turks ,

closed the Serbia n schools in M acedo n i a an d he n ce ,

forward the Serbi an pressur e an d pe n etratio n of M acedo n ia

became purely exter n al Bulg aria became auto n omous
.

an d powerful an d used th e E x arch ate as an i n strume n t

,

for Bulgari an pr opagan da throughout M acedo n i a At .

t h e s ame time Greece by me an s of her schools an d

,

her mo n ks co n ti n ued the Helle n isi n g process Both

, .

r aces subsidised brigan ds or revolutio n aries to promote

their n atio n al prop ag an d a The Serbi an s with little
.
,

mo n ey an d n o schools for prop aga n da were left behi n d ,

in the struggle All that they could do was to hold o ut

.

some hopes to th e brig an d chiefs an d b an ds who c alled

themselves Serbs an d to le n d them u n o ffi ci al support .

A t the s ame time the Turkish misgover n me n t combi n ed

with the prop agan d a of the the n i n terested n eighbours
to pr oduce gre at u n rest misery an d su ff eri n g throughout
, ,

M aced on i a Th e i n h abita n ts were ex p osed to bl ackm ail

.
31 4 TH E M AC E D O N I AN Q U E ST I O N

from brig an ds an d t o eve n w orse fi sc al r obbery from

,
’ — ’ ’

Turks B an ds of e omzta aj zs Serbia n Greek Bulgaria n

.
, , ,

or Alb an i an — periodic ally o ppressed an d m altreat e d

vari ous districts O n e ofte n saw the pe asa n t labouri n g
.

with his gun at his b ack eve n whe n bet w ee n the stilts of
his plough Wome n were viol ated or villages e x te rmin
.

ated at the pleasure of brigan ds Pl ai n s n aturally rich an d .

fer tile became deserts an d whether Turk Greek Serb

, , , ,

o r Bulgar triumphed the M acedo n ia n alw ays su ff ered

, .

I t was p o ssible perh aps n ecessary for the Gre at Powers

, ,

to look on while Arme n ia was bleedi n g but th e y could ,

n ot disregard the su ff eri n gs of Macedo n ia Too ma n y .

i n terests were i n volved t oo ma n y ambitions were c on

,

c e n t rat e d th e re Austria Hu ngary dre amed of a port at

.
-

Salo n ic a Russia of a capital at Byz an tium ; Germa n y

, ,

reflecti n g lo n ger c alcul atio n s of her ow n pla n n e d for a ,

ro ad through to M esopot ami a a railway to the Persia n Gulf , .

For the Great Powers Macedo n ia w as a steppi n g sto n e -

to ot her an d higher obj ects for the B alka n st ates it was ,

the goal itself Serbi a dreamed of revivi n g the glories

.

of Dush an Bulgari a of the d ays of Cz ar Simeo n Greece of

, ,

Byza n ti n e emperors who had ruled M acedo n ia for t e n

c e n turies Duri n g the period of the Arme n ia n massacres
.

the R ussia n Gover n me n t had bitterly declared th at the

example of Bulgari a did n ot i n cli n e h e r to w ards sup
porti n g auto n omy for Arme n ia Yet whe n Macedo n ia .

was disturbed R ussia could n ot sta n d idle for disturb ,

an ce in M acedo n i a mea n t the triumph of the Turk or

the e xte n sio n of Bulgari an i n flue n ce an d to both ,

Russia n i n terests were opposed This attitude was .

stre n gthe n ed by the fact th at R ussia was absorbed in the

F ar E ast at th e begi n n i n g of the twe n tieth ce n tury an d ,

wished to settle Ma n churia before she tur n ed to Macedo n ia ;

co n seque n tly her aim was to suppress disturba n ce by
promoti n g good gov e r n me n t an d by reformi n g admin is
t rat i on in Macedonia .
3 6
1 TH E MAC E D O N IAN QU E STI O N
c aj olery secured th at th e bulk of M acedon i ans if ,

n ot Bulg ari an S hould at least be B ul arop hil e I f that

, g .

result w as re ally b ased on co n victio n an d n ot on i n timida

tio n th at fact an d n ot the dubious historical title de e ds
,
-

would co n stitute the true Bulgar cl aim to M acedo n ia .

But though Bulgaria might plot an d sch e me it was ,

still possible for the Gre at Powers to check her aspira

ti o n s The fi rst step tow ards reformi n g M acedo n i a was
.

t ake n by a rapp rocheme nt an d m ut ual expla n atio n b e

twee n the Russi an an d Austro Hu n g aria n Gover n me n ts -

i n 1 897 which amou n ted to a repudi ation by b o th p arties

,

o f desig n s of co n uest i n the B alk an s an d to a public

q ,

avowal of their res olve to mai n tai n t he sta tus q uo This .

arr angeme n t kept the Near East quiet till the fi rst years
of the twe n tieth ce n tury At le n gth in 1 90 2 the com
.
, ,

b in e d forces of Turkish misgover n m e n t Balkan ,

briga n d age an d M acedo n ia n misery threate n ed to

,

produce an i n surrectio n an d the two Great Pow e rs ,

chiefly co n cer n ed agai n made e ff orts to improve th e

stat e of Macedo n i a This n e w e ff ort resulted in an
.

agreem e n t betwee n the two Gov e r n m e n ts the substa n c e ,

of which was prese n ted to the Porte on 2 1 st F e bruary

“
1 90 3 ,
an d he n ce bec ame k n ow n as the Febru ary
Progr amme R eforms were suggested in th e districts
.

of S alo n ica of Kossovo an d of Monastir an d a Turkish

, , ,

I n spector Ge n er al was appoi n ted to c arry them out

-
.

But n either reforms n or I n spector Ge n er al could avert -

the Macedo n i an i n surrection which burst out in the

summer of 1 90 3 .

U n der pressure from the British Gover n me n t Austria ,

Hu n gary an d Russi a ag ai n combi n ed to settle the Mace

don ian problems Sovereig n s an d diplomats met at a
.

Styri an shooti n g b ox an d produced the famous M urzsteg

-

Programme This agreeme n t was said to h ave bee n in

.

flu e n c e d in the R ussia n se n se by the c areless n ess of the

Austria n Cou n t G ol uc how sk i who was out with th e gu n s
,
 TH E M AC ED O N I AN Q U ESTI O N 31 7

at a time whe n importa n t clau ses of the progr amme were

bei n g drafted The m ai n ide a of the programme w as
.

to m ake Austria H un g ary an d Russia j oi n tly respo n sible

-

for arra n geme n ts by which the Porte would be com

e ll e d to carry out reforms The Turkish I spector
p n .

Ge n eral was to be accompa n ied by a R ussi an an d an

Austro Hu n gari an Civil Age n t on all his visits of
-

i n spectio n who could see for themselves an d report o n

,

the situatio n to their ow n Gover n me n ts The Civil .

Age n ts were appoi n ted for a period of two years M ixed .

M ussulm an an d Christi an Commissio n s u n der Russi an

an d Austro Hu n g ari an surveill an ce were to de al with
-

politic al crimes an d with meas ures to rep air the losses

produced by the i n surrectio n A foreig n ge n er al w as .

to org an ise an d to co n trol a Ge n d armerie force for the

m ai n te n an ce of order assisted by ofli ce rs dr aw n from
,

amo n g the Gre at Powers The fourth clause provided

.

for the admissio n of local Christi an s to some share in

loc al admi n istr atio n an d in the j udici al system So f ar .

the clauses were co n cer n ed with the Turkish Govern

me n t an d it was largely respo n sible for the failure to
,

carry them out .

But there was an other cl ause the third of the ,

progr amme which re acted on B al k an politics in a tr agic

,

m an n er an d whose S i n ister co n seque n ces brought m ore

,

evil to M acedo n i a th an all the tyr an n y of Abdul H amid .

This clause prov ided th at whe n the c o un try had bee n ,

p aci fi ed the Turkish Gover n me n t should be requested

,

to modify the territori al delimit atio n of the existi n g

Turkish admi n istr ative districts in o r der to secu re a “
,

more regul ar gr oupi n g of the v ari ous M acedo n i an

r aces
. This Cl ause in appe ara n ce h armless e n ough
, ,

w as in result most fat al E ach of the sm aller B alk an

.

pe oples re alised th at its claims t o a l arge e n cl ave f or its

ow n r ace would depe n d o n the vig our an d ex te n t to
which it st aked out its claims before p ac ifi cat ion E ach .
3 8
1 TH E M A C E D O NI AN Q U EST I O N

brig an d b an d therefore started a pol i cy of m assacre an d

i n timid atio n wherever the n atio n ality of a vill age or of a
district di ff ered from its ow n For years a terrible .

series of massacres we n t on in which brig an ds ge n erally ,

an d bishops sometimes led armed b an ds to u n holy

co n quests of the faith which the foreig n Ge n darmerie ,

could n ot prev e n t an d which the Turkish Gover n me n t

ope n ly e n couraged All the Balka n n atio n s had their
.

S h are of bl ame but it seems to be ge n er ally admitted

,

th at the Greeks an d Bu lgars were the worst Fi nally .

the Gre at Powers i n terfered an d in August 1 90 7 the ,

i n terve n tio n of E n gl an d brought A ustri a Hu n gary an d -

subseque n tly Russi a to agr e e to the abrog atio n of this

fat al cl ause which in a very literal se n se had bee n
,

writte n in red .

For the failure of the third cl ause the Great Powers

were n ot primarily responsible but the c arryi n g out of ,

other p arts of the programme was the t ask fi rst of

Russia an d eventually of the Co n cert of E urope Ulti .

m ately the M tirz ste g Programme was i n ter n atio n alised

'

M acedo n i a was divided i n to fi v e spheres over e ach of ,

which on e of the Great Powers presided with the ,

omi n ous exceptio n of G erma n y which stood aloof 1

P arts of the district of M o n astir an d most of th at of

Kossovo ( the most disturbed are a) were however ex , ,

cluded from this arr an geme n t The Ge n darmerie w as .

reformed better order was kept an d excelle n t work do n e

, ,

by an I n ter n atio n al Fi n ance Commissio n which controlled

an d reformed M acedo n i an fi n a n ce The credit w as .

largely due to En gl an d which u n tiri n gly supported the ,

work of amelioratio n an d w as aided by I taly the n by , ,

Fra n ce in April 1 904 an d ultim ately by Russi a Fi n ally ,

.
,

in November 1 90 5 E n gla n d took the le ad in a n av al ,

A u t r i H u g ry ph r of K ov
1 s a- n Fr
a
p
, h r
s f S r
e e ; oss o anc e , s e e o e es

I t ly ph r of M
a , s tir ; G r
e e t B r it i
ph r of D r m ; R u i
onas
ph r ea a n, s e e a a ss a, s e e

Of Sa l onic a .
32 0 TH E MAC ED O NIAN QU E ST I O N
the En te n te see m to h ave fi n ally decided to ab an don
further i n terfere n ce Their m otiv e s were prob ably
.

two— fe ar of drivi n g Austri a i n to w ar an d belief I n the ,

e ffi cacy of the You n g Turkish moveme n t .

I n July 1 90 8 one of the most remark able move

me n ts of our time burst forth At Salo n ic a there had
.

lo ng bee n a Committee of Moslems an d Jews which ,

h ad pla n n ed a You n g Turkish moveme n t an d which ,

had established rel atio n s with the M ohammed an s of

Macedo n i a The moveme n t owed its stre ngth to
.

Jewish c apit al M ace do n i an brig an d age an d Turkish

, ,

rese n tme n t of the tyr an n y of Abdul Hamid Two .

you n g offi cers N i azi Bey an d E n ver Bey the l atter

, ,

afterwards desti n ed to a si n ister re n ow n r aised the flag ,

of rebellio n an d of Europea n liberalism in M acedo n i a .

At a tumble dow n in n at Re snj a n ear M o n astir the , ,

Co n stitution was procl aimed The moveme n t had

.

wo n derful success an d spre ad like a prairie fi re Abdul -

.

Hamid ack n owledged the Co n stitutio n an d the phrases ,

of liberty were on the lips of all Tyra n n y was over .

throw n liberty triumph an t an d a w ave of lyric e n

, ,

t h u siasm swept through M acedo n ia Alb an i an s fi re d off

.

“ ”
revolvers to celebrate the Co n stitutio n ; the Greek
Archbishop an d the Bulgari an Committee Ch airma n
embraced at Seres ; a Bulgaria n comita ei/u chief frater
n ise d with the Pasha of Mo n astir ; Christi an s and
M oh ammed ans kissed on e a n o t her in the streets ; free
“
Greece se n t her greeti n g to free Turkey He n ce .

”
forth said E n ver Bey we are all brothers There are
, , .

n o lo n ger B ulg ars Greeks Rouma n s Jews M ussul

, , , ,

m an s u n der the s ame blue S k y ; we are all equ al we ,

glory I n bei n g O ttoma n

I n all moveme n ts of e n thusi asm in 1 90 8 as in 1 848 ,

an d I n 1 7 89 there w as the terrible power of i n trigue

, ,

c alculatio n an d desig n behi n d the lyric rh apsodies cele

,

b rat in g the fall of a cruel d e spotism Yet it is diffi cult .

 TH E M AC E D O NIAN Q U E ST I O N 3 2 1

to suppose that the moveme n t was alto gether a sh am

eve n to such h ar de n ed c on spir ators as the Turks .

M an y of the revolutio n ists were you n g an d u n pr actic al ,

all had fou n d the Hamidi an tyr an n y i n support able In .

the gl ad n ess of relief an d in the e n thusi asm of di ff ere n t

creeds an d r aces there w as for a mome n t a hope of a
, ,

n e w heave n an d a n e w earth — that is of a M acedo n i a at

,

pe ace The visio n faded soo n e n ough , yet it was a

.

d azzli n g o n e I t certai n ly a ff ect e d the diplomats an d

.
,

in this dre am of a free an d a liberal Turkey some saw

the Solutio n of the M acedo n i an problem Certai n it is
.

that from th e time of the establishme n t of the You n g

Turks M acedo n i an reform schemes were doomed
, .

But though se n time n t u n d oubtedly aff ected diplomacy ,

there were also more pr actic al co n sider atio n s The lo n g .

an d ste ady oppositio n of Austri a Hu n g ary to the refo rm

-

schemes was imme n s ely str e n gthe n ed by the visio n of a

liber alised Turkish Empire I t had become app are n t
.

al ready th at th e path of Macedo n i an reforms might le ad to

w ar an d th at the simplest solutio n was to aba n do n them

,
’
altogether E n gl an d s l ast attempts in 1 90 8— 9 to revive o r
.

m ai n tai n the reform schemes were u n successful an d the ,

whole questio n w as quietly dropped For this the re .

spo n sibility u n doubtedly rests on Austri a Hu n g ary who

-

with Germa n support had pushed her oppositio n to the

reforms to the verge of war an d the eve n ts of 1 90 8— 9
,

proved th at this was a co n ti n ge n cy which the E n te n te

the n decli n ed to face .

The practical e ff ect of th e situ ation was to close an

epoch The Great Powers had sought to reform M ace
.

do n i a an d h ad n ot o n ly failed but had aba n do n ed the

,

proj ect altogether O n ly two courses rem ai n ed for the

.

small B alka n Powers — either to trust in the You n g

Turks or to reform M acedo n ia themselves Trust in the
,
.

You n g Turks w as S peedily dispelled The promises of

.

E n ver va n ished i n to thi n air I t soo n became app are n t

.
32 2 TH E MAC ED O NIAN QU E STI O N
th at You n g Turk an d O ld Tyr an t wer e n ot v e ry di ff er e nt
in aim however much they di ff ered in name
,
E ditors or .

opp on e n ts of the You n g Turks died sudde n ly of myste ri

ous dise ases or from ope n ass assi nati on I n certai n dir c e .

tio n s an d in certai n pl aces as for i n st an ce in Adrianople , ,

some re al progress an d improveme n t was achieved But .

in those p arts of Turkey n ot u n d e r E urope an observatio n

a very di ff ere n t tale beg an to be told E ve n the Alba n ians .
,

the spoilt childre n of Abdul H amid who were for the ,

most part c o—religio n ists of the You n g Turk were n ot ,

left in pe ace Their beys were flogged an d tortur e d their

.
,

l an gu age was suppressed they themselv e s wer e persecuted , ,

an d Turkish armies pe n etrated eve n i n to th e n orth e r n

fast n esses of Alb an ia So ma n y fugitiv e s fled to

.

M o n te n egro that old Ki n g Nicholas decl ared that e v e n

war would be prefer able to providi n g for so ma n y
refugees I f the Alba n i an atrocities could b e defe n d e d
.

on th e gr ou n d that they w e re m e asur e s of war the ,

s am e could n ot be said of th e treatm e nt of the Mace

don ian s with whom th e Turks w e r e professedly at
,

peace Life an d prop e rty w e r e less s e cur e than ever

.
,

though th e M acedo n ia n was now disarmed pe rsecut e d , ,

cowed robbed or i nj ur e d n ot by brig an ds but by

, , , ,

You n g Turkish s oldiers or o ffi cials The ge n e ral policy .

m ay be illustrated by two i n cide n ts which c ame u n der

my ow n n otice in 1 9 1 0 A Bulgaria n at O ch rida re .

fused to p ay taxes an d fled up to the mountai n s The .

Turkish soldiers desce n ded on his house set it on fi re , ,

“
an d drove his family out on the hillside So this is .

your liberty this is your equality ,

mutt e r e d the
crowd as they st od rou n d the flami n g house
,
o 1
Agai n .
,

at C avall a where there is a mixed Greek an d M ohamme

,

dan popul atio n a Turk murdered a Greek in cold blood

, .

1 r rd f d h hi i id l ik
I a ft e wa s oun t at t s nc e nt, e so man y ot he s,r w ld ou

h v b
a e d i d b y h T rk i h G v r m
een en e t e u s o e n e nt but f or t h e f ac t t hat it
h pp
a d h v b
e ne wito d b y my l f
a e d een t ne sse se an anot h e r
E n ishman gl .
 32 4 TH E MAC E D O NIAN Q U E STI O N
armed These i n st an ces of tyran n y were but the
.

sketches of a l arger pla n of universal O sman isat ion I f .

th e y were to be carried out the hopes of the sm all ,

n atio n s of the B alka n s were doom e d Consideri n g their .

prese n t and their past it is n ot surprisi n g that these ti n y

,

states resolved to h ave a future .

The Gre at Powers had withdraw n from the struggle

of reformi n g M acedo n ia an d if a n ythi n g was to be
,

do n e the sm all states must ac t for themselves The .

idea of such actio n had lo n g bee n dorma n t an d had b e e n ,

expressed as f ar back as 1 89 1 by the famous Greek

statesma n Trik oup is wh e n he struck out the phrase
“ ”
The Balk an s for the B alkan peoples But the real .

u n ity an d t he real solution of the B al ka n problems

n ecessarily depe n d e d on fri e n dship an d allia n ce betwee n

S e rbia and Bulgaria Such a reco n ciliatio n was re n dered

.

possi b le by the accessio n of King P e t e r I t had de .

l d i the years — n the li n e of eco n omic agree

ve o
p e n 1 90 5 7 o

me n ts an d would u n doubtedly have go n e further but for

,

the arbitrary actio n of Austria which i n terfered with these

,

arra n g e me n ts by declari n g t he Subsequ e n tly

”
pig war -
.

her an n ex ati on of Bos n ia thr e at e ned Serbia directl y an d

Bulgari a i n directly an d e n abled Russi a for almost the
, ,

first time to support the claims of both The i n terests

,
.

of both n atio n s which had previously at times bee n

,

i n flue n ced by a pro Turkish policy s e emed n ow to poi n t

-
,

to a relia n ce on Russia This was the i n n er cause of

.

the B alkan Le ague and of that diplomatic revolutio n

,

which brought the Bulgarians an d Serbia n s i n to the

same orbit The adh e sion of Greec e is easier to e x pl ai n
.
,

bec ause the success of t he Bulgaria n propagan d a in

M acedo n i a had already brought Greeks an d Se rbs i n to
good relatio n s an d wh e n Serbia was r e co n ciled to
,

Bulgari a there w as n o r e as o n for Gre e c e to lag behi n d

, .

A S for M o n te n egro she was gathered in by the actio n

,

o f the other states Thus the forc e s leadi n g towards an

.
 TH E MAC ED O NIAN Q U E STI O N 3 5
2

alli an ce ag ai n st the Turk were all prese n t Desp airi n g .

of assistan ce from the Gre at Powers dre adi n g an d ,

h ati n g the Turk who stood betwee n them an d their

,

future the B alk an st ates re alised at l as t that u n ity w as

,

their i n terest an d divisio n their destructio n I t n ee ded .

o n ly fi rm policies an d comm an di n g perso n alities for

these little st ates to produce gre at eve n ts N o n e of .

these elem e n ts were w an ti n g an d the result was the ,

Balkan League an d the startli n g ch an ges of 1 9 1 2 an d

1 91 3.

It has bee n s aid that rebellio n an d disco n te n t after ,

bei n g e n demic in M ace doni a at l e n gth bec ame an epi

,

demic which aff ected all surrou n di n g peoples This .

epigr am co n tai n s a profou n d truth Th e B alk an

.

people s could not st an d idly by whe n their brethre n

were perishi n g when the Turk was i n creasi n g his
,

oppressio n an d whe n the Gre at Powers were u n able to

,

i n terve n e Serbi a an d Bulg ari a an d Greece from bei n g

.
,

n atio n al st ates were gradu ally dr aw n i n to a struggle

,

which i n volved imperi alistic ambitio n s for e ach of them .

The time had go n e by whe n an i n cre ase of power to a

B alk an state could be viewed by the Gre at Powers with
equ an imity I n E urope the b al an ce of power had bee n
.

erfect an d the n eedle h ad poised eve n ly betwe e n the two

p
great diplom atic combi natio n s u n til M acedo n ia had upset
,

the equilibrium .

I n the n arr owest se n se a settleme n t of M aced o n ia

w as vit al t o Bulgari a Serbi a an d Greece
,
I n the l arger
, .

se n se it w as equ ally v it al to the Gre at Powers F or the .

v alleys of the V ard ar an d the M aritz a co n trol the

r ailw ays which le ad to S alo n ic a an d Co n stan ti n ople an d ,

the power which co n trols M acedo n ia must ultim ately

co n trol these t w o routes Thus a Serbi a le agued with
.

Bulgari a in a pe aceful co n trol of M ac e do n i a would

h ave opp osed an almost impreg n able b arrier to Germ an
an d Austri an aspir atio n s The l ast would n ot h ave
.
32 9 TH E M AC ED O NIAN QU E ST I O N
re ached S al on ic a the fi rst would h ave bee n cut off from
,

Co n st an ti n ople an d B agdad Serbi a Bulgari a an d

.
, ,

M acedo n ia blocked the road to the ZEgae an and the

E uphrates .

Yet eve n before the B alk an Le ague b ecame a re ality ,

Serbia had re ached a decisive poi n t in her n atio nal

history. A S in the d ays of old she n urtured her
,

stre n gth in the l an ds betwee n the Dri n a and the M orava

before she exp an ded to the V ard ar A S in the d ays of
.

Dush an the tr an sitio n from a purely loc al an d n atio n al

,

policy t o on e of exp an sio n in M acedo n ia w as m arked by

the most serious d angers AS in those days there w as
.
,

d an ger over the D an u be as well as d an ger from Bulgaria

an d Byza n tium I n o n e se n se the world had ch an ged
.
,

for eco n omic forces had stre ngthe n ed These forces .

might h ave allo w ed Serbi a to exist as an i n l an d state

with n atio n al i n depe n de n ce in the fourte e n th ce n tury ,

they could n ot allow her so to exist in th e twe n tieth .

Powerful n eighbours m ade it clear to Serbia that i f she ,

did n ot obey them they could comp ass her destructio n

, ,

an d thus o ff ered her the choice bet w ee n depe n de n ce an d

exti n ctio n There w as n o doubt about the ch oice or

.

about the decisio n I f Serbi an st atesme n retai n ed an y

.

illusio n s in 1 90 6 they could n ot h ave preserved them

after 1 90 9 Yet with the co n se n t of the natio n they
.

the n m ade a choice which they k n ew to be irrevoc able ,

a n d pursued a p ath which they saw to be full of peril .

Serbi a was bou n d by a chai n to the heroic memories of

K ara George an d of K ossovo and prized n atio n al i n de
,

e n de n c e above every m ateri al g ai n Soo n er th an forget

p .

the p ast she preferred t o e n dure the prese n t an d to risk

,

the future an d by this fi n al d e cision assert e d her righ t

,

to be a n atio n .
32 8 APP E N D I X
vi n c e s, d p r ti l rly
an r i g th g r t r ut wh i h r
a cu a c on c e n n e ea o e s, c c oss
fr m th p l i
o f S rv i S Ofi a
e a ns o d F Iip p Op l i t t h
e f S rr
a, ,
an I o o ose o e es
an dS l i w ll t h divi i b tw th l tt r d th
a on ca, a s e as e s on s e een e se a e , an ose
o f T/ ly d Upp
zessa M d i wh i h
an py th i t ri r p r t f
er a ce on a , c occ u e n e o a -
o
th G e i P i
re c a n l e n nsu a .

Th r lt f th
e q ir i I h ll
e su o h v th h
e se r f
en u e s, s a n ow a e e on o o
l y i g b f r y r L r d hip t g th r w ith k t h f th g
a n e o e ou o s ,
o e e a s e c o e eo
g r phy f th p r vi
a o i ll t r t iv
e se f th b rv ti
o wh i h
n c e s, us a e o e o se a on s c
f ll w
o o d , tr an t d w ith m h t t ti
c on s uc e t r y as uc a en on o ac c u ac , as

th w e t f t iman d m t r i l w l d dmit
o e an a e a s ou a .

Th p l i f S r i
e d S Ofi
a ns o w ll th ll i f th
e v a an a as e as e va es o e
H a e rus, wh i h xt d f r m B gik t Adr i p l
c e en p r t d
o asar o an o e are se a a e

f r m th p l i
o f th S t ym
e a ns o d A i b y th g t h i f
e r on an x us e re a c a n o

m u t i
o n a ns, c a e ll d b y th ti t R l p Th r d f r m S rr e an en s
’
z oao e . e oa o e e s,

th e h i f t w i th S t y m i p l i
c e o n t F ilipp é p l i t h
n e
p i t r l f on c a n, o o , e ca a o
t h t f th
a o H o i j ur y f i
e o ra y, v d y gr t p rt f
s a o ne o s x or se en a s, ea a o
it v r M
o e t D h p at t h h ig h t
oun mmit f t h r g
es f Rh d p
, e es su o e an e o o 0 e.

B t th
u rdi ry t r k f r m S rr i t th h mp ig u try
e o na ac o e es n o e c a a n co n on
th e r th f Mt R h d p l d l g th l ft b k f th
no o . o 0 e, ea s a on e e an o e
S t ym
r v r th h ill t g r t di
on , or o e f r m it
e f s a no ea st an c e o , as ar as

th r
e sou c e s o f t h t r iv r t D up itz fr m w h
a th r e r d a n
1
a, o e nc e e e are oa s,
b r h i g t G i t dil S Ofi B gik
an c n o u s end F ilip pOp li Th
, a, asar , an o . e

c hi f p e i th i r d i
ass p i t b ut h l f
n s y b tw
oa , M lé is a on a o a wa e een e nc o

an d D giuma wh r p r ip i , r h g th b k f t h r iv r
e e ec ce s ove an e an s o e e ,

an d l v r ly th p g
ea e sc a c e ry f h r It i
e ll d
assa e , ne c e ssa or a o se . s ca e

th S é b
e D é y
r e na e rv n .

Th th e se are l r ut fr m S r i t th r th r p l i
e usua o es o e re s n o e no e n a n s,

b ut th y t e diffi ul t t b w r th y f m h
are oo cid r t i i o e o o uc c on s e a on n a

mi l it ry p i t f i w
a onTh t hi f p
o v e f th i r g. f e wo c e asse s o s an e o
m t i
oun a n s, an d th l w th y of mu h t t ti ose a on e or c a en on are
1 . Th e Pass of K atz an it i .

2 . Th e Pass of Mast oritz a .

fir t i v ry h r t l v i g th up p r p l i of th A i
Th e s s e s o , ea n e e a ns e x us

or V rd r f a r h r b v S p i d r i g i th r h r
a ou ou s a o e co a an c oss n n ee ou s
i t
n o th h illy et ry t th b k f P di Th h r t
c oun a e ac o re s n . e s o n e ss

an d rr w na f th i p o j i d t th ugg d t r f th
n e ss o s ass, o ne o e r e na u e o e
m t i
oun a n , r d r it f th utm t imp t en e It m t ho e os or an c e . se e s o ave

b eenf r t ifi d i o ll g d i e i th h d
n a f l y fa e s, an s n ow n e an s o a c o on o
Al b i an an b ditti h ff r an tr ll r t p , m l t d
w o su e no ave e s o ass un o es e ,

u l th y g i
n e ss ffi i t b dy t
e mm d
o n a su p t c en o o co an re s e c .

Th P
2 . f M t it e b gi t th
ass o t w f V i d as or z a e ns a e o n o ran a, an

c onti u f n i h es r l g rr w v ll y t M t it f r m
or s x ou s a on a na o a e o as or z a, o
wh e nc eb g i th p g f w dy m t i whi h
e ns e ti u
assa e o a oo oun a n , c c on n es

Ab D p i z d G i dil
1 out h r f h S ym H o d
u n t a an u st e n are t e sou c e s o t e tr on , e rus, an

f
o som f h b h
e o f h Dt e b ranc es o t e an u e .
 APP E ND I X 3 9
2

g r w r
for e i h t h ou s t o ith in a sh o t distan c e of L e sc Ovitz a in th e p ain s l
of S e rv ia. g l gr
Th is p ass t h ou h muc h on e , t h an t hat of K atz an it i,
r gg
is n ot so u e d or so e asi de fe nde d ly .

w
S uc h are t h e t w o de fi le s, h ic h e in th e on b g ly g
op e n in s, th at
l r r r r r
e ad f om t h e n o th e n f on t ie s of Tu e rk y
in t o G ree ce , are e vi
r w r
de n tly t h e most imp o tan t on th e e ste n side of E u op e an Tu e r rk y .

r r w
An d t h e e is a th i d, h ic h e at i e r l v ly
t o l ra ce an d C
onst an t in op e l
gr r
h as t h e same de e e of imp o tan c e , as t h e t w o oth e s in e a d t o r rgr
G re ece .
’
rj
Th is is t h e an tie n t p ass of T a a n s G at e e t e e n S é fi a b w
a n d B a sargé k . r r r g
Th e oad c osse s a an e of b ills of n o e at h e i h t gr g
ly x
or diffi c u t , e t e ndin g
for six h ou s, r b w
e t een I kt iman at t h e
xr y
e t e mit of th e V a e ll y
of S Ofi a to J e n ik ie n y on t h e e d e of t h e g
p l a in of t h e H e brus . T h ifi l g
e m ost d f c u t p assa e is in t h e m idd e l
ll
at a p oin t c a e d C ap ul ic D e rvé n y, w r r
h e e t h e e is a Tu ish ua d rk g r .

r l v g rg
B e f o e e a in M a ce don ia , it is i h t t o me n tion a de e of some fil
r w r l wr
imp o tan c e , hic h se p a at e s t h e o e p lain s of t h e A x i us at t h e
l r
h e ad of th e Tlze rma ic G u f f om th e up p e p ains of t h e same i e r l rv r
r l
a oun d V e isa an d S c o p ia . I t is c a e d ell D r C
m i — a é or th e I on
p r
b g
G at e , e in a p oin t w r
h e e th e V a da r r r b w
un s e t e e n tw o oc r ky
ste e p s, o e vr on e of w r
h ic h a oad of a mi e in e n th h as e e n l l g b
r l
f o me d, an d in on e p ac e c ut t o a c on side a e h e i h t th ou h t h e r bl g r g
l r k
so id oc . lk w
Th is p ass is i e ise a p oin t of c ommun ic ation e t e e n b w
l l
t h e p ain s of S a on ic a, an d th ose of th e Tc h e n a or B rigou, an d r
b r r
e c ome s th e e f o e of e v ry g r r r
e at imp o t anc e , if a c o p s of t oop s, r
r g r D r
ma c h in f om u azz o an d t h e w r
e ste n c oast, an d de si ous of r
v g
a oidin t h e moun tains, w b w r
h ic h l ie e t e e n Mon a st i an d V odh e na
l r l
S h ou d p u sue t h e p ain s of t h e Tc h e n a an d V a da r r r v
E e n in th is
.

wvr
c ase , h o e e , t h e yw l
ou d h ave t o p ass a of t l y
c h a in o f h i s ll
x
e te n din g r
f or f ou h ou s r b w
e t e e n Pyrl ip é an d Tik fi s, c a e d t h e ll
Moun t ain of Morikh ovo .

r rb
I t n ow e main s f or me t o de sc i e t h e c ommun ic ation s e t w e e n b
l y g xr y
t h e p ain s, oc c up in t h e e t e mit of t h e T/z e rma ic G u f an d th ose l
of Tfi e ssa iy an d upp e r M a ce don .

H a in v g in f o me r r l r r rk
e tt e s e ma e d th e r
c on st uc tion of t h e

c oun t ry of T/zessa ly , an d t h e ad ac e n t j rg
e ion s, i t is on ly
n e c e ssa ry
r l g
t o e c ap it u at e t h at th e c h amp ai n dis tr1c ts oc c up all th e c e n te y r
l
of th e Pe n in su a of R oumil é , e in b g b
oun de d on t h e e stw by th e
gr r g
e at
’
an e of Pi n a us, on th e n o th r by
t h e c h ain of moun tai n s,
w x r r
h ic h e t e n d f om L a isa, an d Tre ial a t o O h i on t h e south k r by
,

r g
t h e id e s of Otlz ry s an d D olop i a , an d on th e e ast by
th e c on t in ue d
b rr r
a ie of Pe l ion , Ossa , an d Oly mp us, t h e ast l b g
e in c on n e c te d it hw
th e r g
an e , w h i c h l
ie s at t h e ac b k r
of V e ia an d Naoussa, an d is
r
se p a at e d on ly b yt h e p ass of V odh e n a f om t h e r gr
e a t moun t ain s,

w h ic h b r r l
o de th e p a in s of th e Tc h e n a on t h e sout hr .

r ly r g
Th e e are on th e e p assa e s t h ou h t h e e ast e n a ier g r b rr r
330 APP END I X
1 . The an t ie n t Te mp e, ca ll ed by the rk
Tu s th e p ass of B a a, b
r
w h e e th e r
Pe ne us un s f or fi ve mi e s e t e e n th e oc l b w r ky r
p e c ip ic e s
of Ossa an d Oly mp us, e a in l v g lyon fi
th e sp ac e suf c ie n t for a n a o rr w
r oad . Th is p ass is of so e v ry r bl
f o mida e a n at u e , th at it ou d r w l
bl r y r
b e i mp oss i e f or an a m to f o c e it, in th e p e se n ce of an ac t i e r v
e ne m y w l w l
Xe rx es ith h is mil ion s ou d n ot ve n tu e to atte mp t it,
. r
r rr r r
b ut p e fe e d a c i c uit ous oute t h ou h Upp e r M ace don r g Wh ic h .

r
of t h e t w o e main in g g k
p assa e s h e too , is n ot q uit e e ide nt, b ut v
r b bl y l
p o a i it se e ms t o in c in e in favor of t h at h ic h e ads f om V e ia w l r r
r
t o S e l fi gé ac oss Moun t C ita ri a s, a it t e on t h e l l rg
i h t of t h e
r b l g rg w r vr
imp ac t ic a e o e s, h e e t h e R i e V ist ritz a n ds i t s w ay f om fi r
l
th e p ain of S e l fi gé in t o th at at t h e h e ad of t h e Tne rma ic G u f l .

2 g
Th e p assa e of Moun t Cita ri as, de man ds fi ve h ou s, an d is
. r
r r r
muc h sh o te an d e asie th an th e t hi d oute , hic h e ads f om r r w l r
C r l r
at e in a t o B ason a, c ossin g t o th e n o th of t h e r gr
e at summits of

Oly mp ics, b y ry
ve l g
diffi c u t h e i h ts .

3 Th is, l ast is usua

. lly ll
c a e d t h e p ass of Pe t a, f om a re ma r r rk
l
ab e O p e n in g r k r
in t h e oc s ne a th e summit of t h e rid e , h e e onc e g w r
w
st ood a t o n of t h e n ame of Pe t a r .

Th ou h th is p assa e of Moun t Oly mp us is muc h on e an d

g g l gr
r l
mo e diffi c u t th an t h at of Moun t Ci ta ri as e h in d V e ia ye t it b r
r rk l
must b e e ma e d, th at it e ads di e c t in to th e va ie s, hic h r ly ll w
l
c on duc t t o B ason a an d L a isa, r w r
h e e as t h e att e l r r
out e , h ic h w
l e ads t o S e l figé , h as t o surmoun t a
'

e v ry r rk b l
e ma a e p ass at t h e ac b k
w vr
of th at t o n , o e M oun t Pie ri a b r
e fo e it at tain s t h e sa me a ie s v ll .

r l r
I n th e c ou se of my at e t ou s I h ave f o o e d f om O fana t o ll w r r
r r
V odh e n a t h e c ou se of t h e R oman oad c a e d t h e I g n a ti a n Way ,ll
w r rk w
h ic h an t ie n t ly w as m e asu e d an d ma e d it h mi e st on e s all t h e l -

r
w ay f om D y rrnac/zi n nz t o t h e mouth of th e H e brus F om . r
l r r y l
S a on ic a t o V odh e n a, it c osse d for n e a fi ft mi e s t h e ast p ain v l
at t h e h e a d of th e T/ze r ma i c G u f, l w r r rly
h e e fo me st ood t h e c itie s

of T n / i P i/ E d d B / At V odh e na t h e
’a
essa on ca ,
e a ,
es sa , an err z a .

r
an tie n t E dessa , t h e Vi a l g n a ti a e n t e e d t h e moun t ain s, an d c osse d r
by lk r l
t h e a e of Ost ovo in to th e p ain s of Pe t ol ia ( Mon asti ) Th e se r .

v r l
are di ide d f om t h e p ain an d a e of O h i, lk k r by
t h e moun tain ,
w l
h ic h ie s at th e ac b k of t h at t o n w lk x
Th e a e e te n ds f or t w e e
. lv
l rg w r v ll
mi e s t o S t u a, h e e th e a ie s are a ain se p a ate d f om th e g r r
gr l v l
e at e e s of U pp e A an ia, and t h e p ain s of Dy rrlza c/ziunt
r lb l
an d Ap ollon i a , by l y
t h e of t moun tain s, w
hic h lie on t h e e ast side
of E lb ll
assan an d are c a e d Moun t C a n da z na
’
by
Cice ro, S tra bo,
an d oth e ran t ie n t auth o s r .

r r r
I t ap p e a s t h e e fo e t h at t h e I g n a ti a n Way p e se n ts f ou r r
fi l
dif c u t p assa e s g b w et een l
S a on ic a an d u azz o D r 1 F om . . r
V odh e na t o Ost o o r v by th e p ass of V ladova, a ve st on ry r g
an d

rr
n a ow de fil
e , w hic h I visite d at a fe w mi e s l by
e on d V odh e n a .
332 A P P EN D I X
( G h g
e s) , w r
h e e t h e in flue nc e of br
I ah im Pasha of S c odra is p re
domin an t . . v
3 Th e p ro in c e of S a on ic a l .

1
. x
Ne t t o A11 Pa sh a of I oan n ina, t h e B e y of S e e s is p e h ap s rr r
th e most p o e f u C h ie f t ain in Eu op e an Tu k e
wr l r r y . L ik e Ali Pash a,
h is aut h o it r y r
i n t h e dist ic t s, h is c omman ds is un imit e d, th e l
rg e ion s th e mse lv r v
e s are som e of t h e most p oduc t i e of t h is c oun t ,
ry
an d h is r gv bl y k
ic h e s i e h im t h e a i it t o ma e use of h is ot h e ad r
v gan t a e s t o t h e ut most . r ly r
H e h as b e e n ap id in c e asin h is p o e g wr
r g l y r r y
d u in t h e ast f e w e a s, an d h is auth o it n ow e te n ds n o th a d x r wr
r
t o t h e dist ic ts of S h ark ie n y, S Ofi a, an d F ilipp Op ol i, w wr
e st a d to
wr
I sh tip , an d e ast a d t o G ume rgin a . To th e south , t h e summ it s
of t h e moun tain s, w h ic h b r r
o de l
t h e S t ry mon ic p ain on t h at side ,
r rv r
se p a at e h is p o in c e f om t h at of S a on ic a l . I t is sup p ose d t h e
r rg lr
t oop s of I smail B e y in e u a p ay do n ot e c e e d t w o t h ousan d, x
g
t h ou h up on oc c asion , h e m i h t e asi g ly r aise fi
f te e n or t e n t w y
t h ousan d . lk g r l y
Th e se , i e t h e e n e a it of t h e Tu ish t oop s, h a e rk r v
y q l k x ll
m an of th e ua it ie s, adap t e d t o ma e e c e e n t so die s, b ut in l r
r r l
t h e i p e se n t un disc ip in e d state , are b l l
e st c a c u a te d t o k
e e p in aw e

r l
th e f e oc ious p op u ac e of M a ce don , or e n a e in a de su to g g l ry w r r
a fa e

w ith t h e n e i h ou in C h ie f t ain s
g b r g .

2. ry
Th e c oun t , c omman de d by br I ah im Pash a of S c odra,
g rv
t h ou h de p i e d of most of t h e l l v g
oc a ad an t a e s, an d r
ic h p ro
l
duc t ions of t h e p ain s of l ow e r M ace don f u n ish e s in a sup e ior r r
gr r y
de e e th ose h a d m oun t ain e e s, f om h om t he r r w e st A
b lb
an ian

r xr
t oop s are e t ac t e d . y
Man of t h ose in t h e n o th e ste n p a ts r w r r
-

are C lat h o ic s . br
I ah im Pash a is supp ose d c ap a e of bl br g g
in in in to
th e file d a fo c e r of t h i try t h ousan d me n up on an oc c asion of
y l
n e c e ssit , a n d I a m i n c in e d t o t h in k yw l
th e ou d n ot amoun t t o
l b r g
muc h e ss t h an t hat num e , t h ou h it is i e th at t h e u e n c l k ly rg y
w l vr
ou d n e e r
oc c u , b ut in t h e de fe n c e of his ow n auth o it , an d r y
th at his wan t of p e c un ia ry r r w l
e sou c e s ou d n ot a o ll w
h im t o e e p k
r
suc h a f o c e un it e d for an y c on side a r bl l ge e n t h of t im e .

rv l l
3 Th e p o in c e of S a on ic a in c ude s al l th e C/za /ci dzc Pe n in su a
. l
a s f ar as Moun t A t ae s, t o e t h e g rw it h t h e fi n e p ain s,l w
h ic h lie at
t h e h e ad of t h e Tfi e r nza ic G u f .l r
Th is ic h c oun t is c h iery fly w
o ne d
by a fe w gr r r r r
e at p op ie t o s, w h o e side in t h e G u f of S a on ic a,l l w r
he e
t he y r fl
usu p suc h an in ue n c e , t h at t h e Pash a is a me e c p h e , r y r
l
u n e ss h e c ome s ac c omp an ie d w b y
it h a suffi c ie n t od of atte n dan t s
r
t o e n f o c e h is auth o it r y. l
B ut t h is se dom h app e n s, as th e p o e t v ry
of t h e Pash as, an d t h e a l rg e su ms th e y are o bl g
i e d t o p ay at th e Po t e r
r
f or th e i ap p oin t me n ts, e n e a g r lly bl r
disa e t h e m f om an y suc h e e tion xr .

l r rv
Th e p op u ation of th e t h e e p o in c e s, t o w h ic h I h a e h ad t h e v
h on o r r y r r
t o di e c t ou
’
L o dsh ip s at t e n t ion , is n e a rly q lly
e ua
v
di ide d b w
e t een C r l
h ist ia n s an d Mussu man s, t h ou h p e h ap s g r
rath e r l g v r l r
in c in in in f a o of t h e at te , as man of t h e G e e s h a e y r k v
 APP E NDI X 333

e mi g r ate d w ith in th e l ast fe w y e ar an d man y oth e r s h av e c h ang e d s,

t h e ir r e l ig io in or de r t o av oid t h e dr e adf ul opp r e ssion s t o w hic h

n,

t h e R y h s a e sub j e c t e d
a a r .

rv
I n t h e p o in c e s of S a on ic a, S e e s an d Mon ast i , t h e Ye ure uks l rr r
r l
of th e C/za /cidic p e n in su a, an d o f t h e dist ic t s of S arigh e ul, a a i K r g
v y
O asi, Tik fi s, C aradagh , O fan a, an d man ot h e s t o th e n o th of r
r r
rr rb rkl rg
S e e s, c on t i ute th e a e st sh a e t o t h e Tu ish p op o t ion of t h e r r r
p o p u lat io n T h e se p e op e
. i ve in sma d ll l l
e t ac h e d h am e t s, an d l
raise th e gr r
e at e p a t of t h e t o ac c o w r b
h ic h is e p o t e d f om x r r
l
S a on ic a Th e ywr .e e Asiat ic s, se t t e d in th e c oun t
l , ry b y l
S u tan
r q
Mu at th e S e c ond, at t h e time of h is c on ue st of S a on ic a, ith l w
g l rwr r rv
if ts of an d, as a e a d f or t h e i se ic e s, un de c on dit ion of r
se rv g
in S ix mon th s, w r
ith th e i ow n a ms, r w v r ll
h e n e e c a e d up on .

y r k bl ll g w y
The are e c on e d c ap a e of c o e c tin t e n t t h ousan d t oop s, r
r v
b ut n o mo e th an t w o t h ousand h a e as ye t e e n summon e d, h a f b l
o f t h m d ti d t m r h t th f r
e es ne ti r
o d th r t f
a c th o e on e s, an e es or e

M r o ea Th Y u
.
l k eu d r th e p r t G v r m t f
re u s are n e e se a a e o e n en o a
B y e ,d it i g
an r lly sf th B y
e ne a f S l i h p ur h
on e o e e s o a on c a w o c ase s

t h i r p p i t m t f r m th P r t
e a o n en o e o e .

T th o tw r d f h
e S t ym
e as a f o th tBl k S e d r on , as ar a s e ac e a, an

M u t B lk
o n th a p r p r ti an , m y b th r
e t o ot i f r f on a e ee o wo n av o o
t h T rk
e wh th l rg it i f C t ti p l d Adri p l
u s, en e a e c es o on s an no e an an o e
an d t h p p l u di t r i t
e o u o s f K i gila t k s i t c s o id r t io r , are a en n o c on s e a n .

B t t th u r th w r d f th g r t r g f H m d R h d p
o e no a o e ea an e o ae us an o o e
are a ll C h r i ti w ith t h x p t i f th i h b it t f th g r t
s an s, e e ce on o e n a an s o e ea
t w
o i B ul g r i
ns n a a.

I h v th g h t it r ig h t t t t th
a e ou l di g f t th ub
o s a e e se ea n a c s on e s
j t f th p p l ti f E r p Turk y
ce o e o u a on o it m y l d t u o e an e , as a ea o a
j dg m t f th p r b b l r l t f th p r t t t b t w
u e en o e o a e e su o e e se n c on e s e een
t h T rk
e ud Ru i s an d f w h t i l ik ly t b th p r g
ss an s, an o f a s e o e e o re ss o
th l t t r i
e a e u t ry w h r n a co n l rg h r , f t h p p l ti e e i so a e a S a e o e o ua on s
i li d t f
nc ne r th i r o avo N up e fl i w ill it p p r
c ause . or on re e x on a ea

th t th y
a m t ith
e c an y f r mid b l
ee w p p it i t th
an ut h o f a e o os on o e so o
M oun t B lk if t h y h
a l d u d i p t r ti g t h r g h th
an, e s ou s cce e n e ne a n ou e

p asse s o f th t b rr i r F a l m t th ly f r th t
a e . or b a os e on o ce a c an e
b r gh t g i t th m w ill b t h di r d rly J i r i f C t
ou a a ns e e e so e an ssa es o on s an
ti no p l d th
e an d j t g i e t g th r w ith th A i ti t r
a ac e n re
p on s, o e e e s a c oo s,
wh i h m y b ll t d t r i f r th m Th g r t r p r t f th
c a e co ec e o e n o ce e . e ea e a o e
b t tr p f E r p
es oo s o T rk y d th
u o e an hi h ul d l bu e , an ose , w c co a on e e
se rvi b l i rr ti g th p r g r of th i v d will r t i ly
cea e n a es n e o e ss e n a e rs, ce a n
b d fi i t
e e th i
c en i on All t h s C h i ft i
oc c as on who h v . ose e a ns, a e
ac q ir d th ir p w r ith r b y
u e e oq t e i h r it
e e will h v c on ue s or n e an c e , a e
no h it ti es i t r i g th ir
a on tt
n tiu n n t it p r t t i i p e a en on o s o ec on , n re

Th Y
1
k e h m d
uru s, w o are h i fly a b f no d i ha rac e , are n ow c e to e oun n t e
C h l id i p i
a c l d v h i m ll mb r — E DI T IA L N T
c e n n su a, an e en t e re n s a nu e s OR O E .
334 APP END I X
fe r e nce t o th e vain r g th t tt r i g G r m t
h op e of sup p o t in e o e n ove n en
of C t ti p l
on s an no e .

Th t h r e V iz i ree f Al b i i p r t i l r wh
e s o th y
an a th n a cu a , en e se e e
e ne my r t h ir
so n e a t wil l ly thi k f
e c oas s, t r t i g t h ir on n O c on c e n a n e
str g th f th d f
en or e f t h ir p r p r
e e nc e o t h r it y d th e r o e au o , an e suc c ou s
th y m y
e a d will se n t ly b t rdy d d fi i t i p i t f
no on e a an e c en n on o
n umb r b ut b i g u
e s, mp i d b y
e n y l d r f w ig h t w ill
nac c o an e an ea e o e

O pp ose a f b l eed d iv i d
e and r i t t t h i r d
e i ip l i d m
e s s an c ei o e sc ne e ne e s.

Alr dy h I m il B y h w
ea as s d t r mi t i
a e s t t f ll w t h
e n a e e na on n o o o o e

dir ti ec h h
on e i d t mas re c e ve f rw r d t th f r t i r o ove A d o a o e on e s . n

Al i P h as h a w i th p ro se e s n t ri i p r b b il it y f dv
e e se n i g c s s a o a o a an c n
hi s auth r ity o d t b l i hi g hi i d p
an es a d s nm i t t s ly n e en e n c e , se e s n en on
on oc c u p y i g th n V ti e pl e x- th e ne t r an t d ac e s on e we s e n c oas , an

ext di g h i q ui iti t w r d th M r
en n s ac s on s o a s e o ea .

M u P h f S l i wh
o sa as a o w t fma on c a d m y willose an o e n an on e
no t dmit h i
a h wi g s s e yr i t n t th an r d r f th P r t i
e s s an c e o e o e s o e o e s

p r p i g w ith g r t u w ill i g
e ar n ea t m r h t th f r ti r
n n n e ss o a c o e on e s as
S r ki r
e as e H . i t th e m t im
s a d v ur i g t p l
e sa e th e en ea o n o ac e e
b tt r i f S l o i i
a e es o a t t n ca f d f n b t th w t f m
a s a e o y e e nc e u e an o on e ,

amm it i un on , d r till ry m
c an n on an w ill r d r h i ff r t
a e -
en en e s e o s un
v il i g d u h i th f b l tr u t r f th tiq f r tifi t i
a a n , an s c s e ee e s c u e o e an ue o ca on s
o f S l i a on c a, th t I d t thi k
a ll th ir ff r t
o no l d v th ity
n a e e o s c ou sa e e c

fr mo t i b ut i
a c on r if t
on , R i one m f or h ul d wo uss an en o w ar s o
ar r iv t d m d it
e o e an .

Th J i r i e f th
an ssa ity es o h m t t e c b t f r th , w d o a oun o a ou ou ousan ,

b i g ll
e n a t iv na f th p l es o d m t f th m e g g d i tr d
ac e , an os o e en a e n a e,
or th
o iv i l
er c p t i oc c u a t b x p t d t
on s, c an n o ff r d m u h e e ec e o a o c
i t
ass s an c e t th G v r m t i
o e pp i g
o e n f r igen my n B t O os n a o e n e ne . u
th y mig h t p r h p m k
e e v ry tiv u f th ir r m i p l u d r
a s a e a e ac e se o e a s n n e

i g
n andm r i g th p
assac n b l R y h if t h p r t i
e e ac e a f e a a s, e o e a ons o w ar
h ul d p p r
s o a h th i q u r t r
oac f th s E mp ir aIt m y e o b e e . a e ve n e
a pp h d d t h t t h
re en e , E r p a m r h t e t b li h d i
u o e an th e c an s, es a s e n e

g t mm r i l iti w l d t b q it
re a co e c a c e s, ur f r m th
ou no x e u e se c e o e e c e sse s

o f th Turk i h
e ldi ry if th S ult h ul d m t with y l r mi g
s so e , e an s o ee an aa n

r b ut m r p r ti ul rly if y f th th r S r ig f
re ve se s, o e a c a , an o e o e ove e ns o

Eur p o e, e n ag gi g i th n t t h n l d g i th p p l r
e c on e s , t s ou ve e eo e e ason o
su p s t
ec rt d d ig
a c on c e e th p r t f t h C h r i ti
es n on P w r t e a o e s an o e s o
di m mb
s e th Turk i h Emp i
er e I m ti s th b r tire . en on e se o se va on s, as
th e no ti h on bt i d as o id r b l
a ne r dit i S l ic on s d th
e a e c e n a on c a, an e
adj t p r t of M
ace n a d i
s ace on a .

I h th h r to b ave e on ou e
My L r d o
Y ur L r d h ip m t b di t
’
o o s s os o e en

h mb l rv t u e se an

WI IA M MA T N L LL R I E AK E .
 TA B L E OF SE R BI A N AND

M O N TE N E G R I N R U LE R S

S ER B I A N MED I E VAL R U L E RS

V last imir, rlr u e of Z e ta an d R ash k a.

S t e ph e n V oislav , K ing of Z e ta .

B odin, Ki g
n of Z e ta .

S t e phe n N e man ya, G r an d Zupan of R ash k a.

S ERB I A N K I NG S
S t e ph e n t h e F ir Cr w st - o ne d.

S t e ph e n R d l v
a os a .

S t e phe n V l di l v
a s a .

S t e ph e n U rosh 1.

S t e ph e n D ragut in , j oin t ki g n a f te r 1 2 82 .

S t e ph e n U I O sh 11. M
( iliut in ) (pr ac t c ai lly l
so e

K ing ) .

S t e phe n U rosh

{
re x ve t e ranus.
2 2 —31
1 3
S t e ph e n Du h s an, re x 1 uve n1 s.

S t e ph e n Du h s an, r r f S rb
E mpe o o e s and Romans .

S t e ph e n U ros h E mp r r
, e o .

( Mal k o K ralj e v it c h K i g f Pr iln d o e

, p ,
. 1 394 .

K ne z L az ar K in
, g f N h S r bi d
o OI t e a, .
 S E RB I A N MOD E RN RUL E R S
1 804
,
-
1 3 K ar a G e or g e , S up r e me C hi f e .

PR I NC ES
*
Milosh ( fir st t ime ) .

* Mil an .

*
Mic h ae l ( fir st t ime ) .

A l e x ande r K arage orge v it c h .

*
Milosh ( r e st or e d) .

* Mi h ae l
c
( r e stor e d) .

Re g e nc y .

K I NG S
*
Mil an ( K ing f r om

Re g e nc y .

* A l e x and e r l
, ast of t h e O bre novit c h e s .

Pe t e rK arage or e v it c h .
g
Re g e nt , Cr w o n r
P inc e A l e x ande r K arage orge vit c h .

RU L E RS OF MO N TEN E G R O
l
B a sh a d y nast y .

S t e ph e n Tc he rn oj e vit c h .

I v an Tc h e rnoj e vit c h .

End of Tc h e rnoj e v it c h d y nast y bl

V ladikas e st a ish e d .

V L A D I KA S

D ilan o Pe t r vi
o tc h .

Sa v a.

Pe t e r 1.

Pe t e r 11 .

C ES PR I N

D il [V l dik ill
an o a a t

Ni h l [K i g
c o as n ,

Ob re n ov it c h in e l .
340 B I BL I O G RAPHY OF S ER B I AN H I ST O RY
B E N G E S CU G
b i b l i g p h iq — E ssai l Q i d ’
un e n ot i c e o ra ue su r a u e st on
P ri 8 7
.
,
’
8
d Ori e n t 1 21 a s, 1 9
[F r d B l gi b
.

ly ]
,

h k enc an e an oo s on
L G AND E t H G UY — B i b li gr p h i lb i P ri 9
.

E R e S o a c a an a s e a s, 1 1 0.
r
. .

y
,

[5 h 1 t c entu to
R Y A L S E BIAN A C A D EM Y — E
O R i d bi b li gr p hi f r c i l ssa e o a e an a se sur es
S rb Cr B l gr d
.

l e ( 554 es et 9 es oa t e s 1 e a e 1 00
A — P l b ib l i g fi d M gr d di i
, .

T E N N E RON I O , . R m er a o ra a e on t e n e o . an e t on . o e,
8 61 9
T NDINI C — N i — l b ib li g p h i d M e egr P ri 88
.

O ot c e sur a o ra c u on t n o a s, 1 9
V M Th N r E t
. . .
,

Y OV A N OV I TC H , Q i ( 48 B l e ea a s e rn u e st on 1 1 e
gr d 9 9
.
. .

a e, 1 0
[F IL]
.

11 . L ANGUAGE AN D O R I G I NS OF TH E S L AVS
Th e li t r e atu e r on t h i s su bj ect is eno rm ous , an d th e f ll wi g b
o o n ook s
a re on ly a few su gg e s t i on s .

B R ti C K N E R A — U rsi t z e de r S a e n un d D e u t sc h e n , A rc hi v f ur s l avi sc he lw
x
.
,

Ph il ologi e , v ol x ii
V r lb
. .

" AG I C — V e rw an d t sc h a f t s v e rh al t n isse i nn e h a d sl av i sc h e n
J er
r vl xx xx
.
,

S p a c h e n A rc h i v f ur s l avi sc he P h il ol ogi e o s x ix ii
g K r
.
, , .

Z ur E n st e h un gs e sc hi c h t e d e r irc h e n sl av i sc h e n S p a c h e D e nk
sc h ri f te n K a i se rl i c he n A kade mi e de r Wi sse n sc h af te n v ol l ii xv
V
. .
,

ie n n a
EF V E Gr l v g ry r
.

L E R A — e m a in s e t S a e s Ori i n e s e t c o an c e s Pa is, 1 903

EGE l g l v P r
. . .

y
,

R , L — L a m t h o o ie S a e
‘L a i s 1 90 1
M IN N l v r l
. . , .

S, E H — Th e S a s ( a t ic e i n E nc yc lop e di a B ri tan n i ca, 1 1 t h

d
. .

e i t i on v ol
G dl g Al r
.
,

‘N I E D E RL E , L — ’
de r sl av i sc h e n
J Pe i sk e r s N e ue run a en te
xx
. .

t um sk u n de A rc h i e f un s l avi sc he P h i l ol ogi e v ol x i 1 91 0 , . . .

A l
,

‘PE xs K E R — rt ic e i n C a mbri d e M e di e va l H i stor , c x iv v ol 11

J , g.
y . . .

1 91 3
Gr r g rd
lg
.

[R e the a e m a n s a s t h e mi ss ion a i e s of i h t ]
s
g l w l w i h
.

1 Z ur II
e sc h i c h t e de s S a i sc h e n Pfl u g e s D i e Al t s o -
e n sc e
I I I D i S rbi h Z dr g F r h g S zi l
. . .

Z p u a d e e sc e a u a -
o sc un en z ur o a un
Wi h h f g hi h d Sl w Gr z 8 6 9
. .

rt sc a ts e sc c te er a en a 1 9 1 00 -

D i al r B zi h g d Sl w T k T r d G rm
. .
,

e te en e e un en er a en z u ur o- a t a e n 11 n e an e n
d ih r
un zi l g hi h li h B d g S gr
e so 5 a — e sc c t c e e e u t un t u t t a t 1 90
Ph D ( F r h r l i b y E D ENI )
. .

A N dS
,

PY PI N W an PA S O I CZ , enc t an s a t on S
l i é r r l v — l B l g — S rb C r
. . . . . .
, ,

Hi i dst o re s es tt atu e s s a es ou a re s e o oa t e s
g R — P ri 88
.

Y ou o- usse s a s, 1 1
P S l wi h ( G rm
. .

‘SAF A R I K, Al t th ii m t l i ) a sc e er er e an rans a t on
L ip z i g vl
. .

e 843 44 1 — . 2 o s .
,

III . S ERB I A ( M E D I E VA L )
1. S ou r ce s

MI K L O S I TC H F -
Mo nu me n t a S e rbi ca Vi e n n a, 1 85 8
SAF A R I K I V AN r
. . .

l
,

-
E e n c h u s a c t oru m sp e c t an t i u m ad h i st o i a m S e rb orum
r v
.
,

e t re li q u oru m S l av orum m e ri di on al ium q ua e i n a c hi o V e n e t iaru m

lg d
,

re p e ri un t u r Be ra e 1 85 8
d b di i by N r
. .
,

ZAK O N I K — ’
D ush a n 3 Co e —Th e e st e t on i s ov ak ov i é , b ut t h e e
v r l G rm r l
.

a re se e a e an t an s a t i on s .
 B IBLI O GRAPHY OF S E RB IAN H I ST O RY 341

Th e f o ll wi g
r r w id r b l l igh t
o n c h roni c e s a n d lr h i s t o i an s t h o c on s e a e on
th S rb e e s

C J HAN N E V I M ig v l iii i
A N TA C U ZE N O S O S ne o s c —c v
C N TAN TI N V I I ( P p hy g i ) D h m b
. . .
, .

O S E d dm i i or ro e n tus e t e a ti us e t e a n
r d i mp Ed B kk r v x i i — xiii
. .

s t an 84 O M g l o e rI O e e 1 0 r I ne, o s c c
r y b y J B ‘B r y B y i i h Z i h if 9 6
. . . . . . .

C mm o e n ta u z a n t n sc e e tsc r t, 1 0
J HANN E M g l v ii
. . , .

D U CAs l O S I ne vo c
Mig v ii
. . .
,

L V L— T
EO i l ac t c a. ne , vo . c .

N I C E PH O R A S G R E G O R A s B on n , 1 86 5 . .

PA C H Y ME R E S B on n 1 85 5
P C PIU ry zg O Mi g
. .
,

RO O S Ed H au L e ip i 1 90 5 l l r ne vo x x x vu .
I LL IA TY E M g xx
. . . , . .
,

W M OF R i n e v ol c i . , . .

N ote — Th r i v t r l it r r d l i g wi h
e e s a as sou c e - e at u e ea n t Ra g usa. an d
r wh i h i i l d d h r
.

C oa t i a , c s n ot nc u e e e .

2 . G e ne ral

GE N E A L H R —C v i g m t f h p r i d
i sTO R I E s o er n os o t e e o
F IN L A Y GE G — Hi r y f Gr 86 4 E d H F T z
. .

‘ OR i ll E st o o e e ce t 1 o e r.
7 v l O x f rd
. . .
, .

877
o s o 1
d d f ll w h r i l r t l ly b i ll f v l ]
. .
,

[A iq nt ua t e an o o s c on c e s oo c ose ut s t o a ue
BE N E V I LL E Ox f rd
, , .

F OR S, Ed Th B l k 9 5 e a a n s. o 1 1
‘GIBB N E — D l i Ed ‘B r y
. . .

d F ll
,

O f h R m E mp i
ec ne an a o t e o an re . u
7 v l d
. .
, .

L o s on on , 1 9 00
v l bl ]
.

[S i ll m
.

t ost a ua e
— Th S rv i P p l i p gl ry d
.

H L
R B E LI A N O V I C H , A ZA R OV I C H e e an eo e : ts a st o an

pr t d ti y d 9
.

L
e se n es n on on , 1 1 1
g d d l f mi ll i f rm i h rwi
. .

[C i on t a n s a oo t ea o sc e a n e ous n o a t on ot e se no
ib l h
a c c e ss q i d w i h Sl ve i l
to t g g ] ose u n ac ua n t e t a on c an ua e s
‘ C C — G h i h d B l g r Pr g 876
J I RE EK, t e sc c e er u a e n. a ue , 1
G h i h d S rb V l 1 G h 9
. .

e sc c te
37 er e en o to 1 1 ot a, 1 1 1

[Th fi r ly d m d w r k d l i g mp r h i v ly wi h
. . . .

mp l
e st c o e te oc u e n te o ea n co e e ns e t
h m di v l St e h r Sl v ] e ae a ou t e n a s
DE LA J N Q U I E E V A — Hi t ir d l E mp i O t m vl
.

’
O R TE s o e e re to an e 2 o s
d P
.
, . .

N i i ew i 9 4 e t on ar s , 1 1
G A N — G hi h t d O m i h R i h 5 v l (G
. .

‘J OR e sc h dc e es s an sc en e c es o s e so er

) f lly d d G
, . . .

E S ur m ta ate n h 8 3 u oc u e nte ot a, 1 90 —1

J — G hi h d O m i h R i h 7 v l
. . .
.

l"
Z I NKEIS EN , W — e sc c te es s a n sc en e c es o s.
G h 84 6 3
. . .

ot a, 1 0

[S m wh t t d]
.

ti q o e a an ua e

3 S p e c ia
. l Pe iods r
B O RC H G R AV E E E DE — ’
MI L
L E mp e re u r Et i e n n e D ouc h an : L a S e rb i e e t
bl
.

l a p é mn sul e
’
a k an iq u e a u X I V siec e B a ll do I A c a d royal e de
°
l
v r l
, . .

B e l gi q ue v ol ii i B u sse s 1 884
r lg lg r
. . .

yl
, ,

‘B R U Y J B — C h on o o ic al C c e of t h e B u a i a n s B yz an t i n i sc he
, . .
,

Z e i tsc h ri/t v ol x ix
ry r vl
. .
,

H i st o of t h e E a s t R om an E mp i e 2 o s 1 889 1 9 1 3 -

T w r ly lg l v yz r bl
. . .

[ h ro s a n e n t i e new i h t on a l l S a a n d B an t i n e
p o e ms
t o t h e t e n th c e n t u ] ry
G U IN r lg r Pr
.

ER S O N G E ON — H i st oi e de l a B u a i c ( 485
-
a is 1 9 1 3
l r d
.

l
, .

[U se f u p op u a a ap t a t ion ]
342 B I BLI O GR APHY OF S ERB I AN H I ST O RY
M I LL E R W , . M e diae v l
— a S e r i an b E mp ire .
Quarte rly R e vi e w , Oc t o br e

91 6 1
v d
.

L a t in s i n t h e L e an t L on on 1 90 8
DD Pri vl d
. .

A
,

RO S ir R — Th e nc e s of c h ai a 2 o s L on on , 1 90 7
[G d m p ]
. . . .
,

oo a
d G hi h B rbi
.

TH ALL o s —S t u i e n z ur e sc c te osn i e n s ti n d Se e ns im
Mi t t l l r Gr r l Mu
.

e a te ( e man t a n s a t i on ) . n ic h , 1 91 4 .

4 K ossovo Pe iod
. r
B OWR IN G rvi P p l r P r y L d 8 7
SIR J — Se an o u a oe t on on , 1 2
h r d hi r d ri g
. . .

p p il f V k K
,

[Th e au t dgi h
o w as a u o u ara tc an s en e n s a re

p rh p i ll h b i E g li h ]
,

e a s st t e e st n n s
— Th H r i A C m b i dg
.

C H A D w rc x g 9 e e o c e a r e, 1 10
r d ix K v
. .

i i l pp
.

[C i ] on t a n s a c t ca a en on osso o
KA P P E S IE G F IED—— D i G a g d S b
R, v l L ip zig 85
R e es n e er er en 2 o s e 1 2
OW E N l g f S rbi L d
. . . .
,

M S b ki P m N ti es on a son so on on ,
§6
E RE D 1 IL . er s e. a e a .

1 1

[S p i r i t d d p
.

i ] e a a t a t on s
E L —K d 88
.

M I J ATO V I C H , L ossov a on on , 1 1

[Th i i r l ti f th f m y l f p m m i ly th li
. . . .

s s a t an s a on o e a ous c c e o oe s, a n on e ne s
f P i h o w r k Ag m av tc
’
s o ra
D O FE L — Ch t d G rr d l S b i P ri 9 6
’
R R, EO
,

an s e ue
,

e e a er e a s, 1 1
l p m f t h H yd k p r i d ]
. .

[C i on t a n s a so oe s o e e u e e o

5 P r i d f T rk i h C q t . e o o u s on ue s

B AIN R N — Si g f B l gr d E g H t R i Ap r i l 89
e e o e a e, n is ev ew, 1 2
B E C K MAN N K mp f K i S igm d g g di w d d
. . . . .
,

G — D
’
er a a se r un s e en e er e n e
W l m h d O m
,

G th 9
.

e t 3 437 ac t er s an e n , 1 92 1 -
o a, 1 02 .
B AU N E Br l
.

R A D i S h l h b i Ni p l i
R, — 876 e c ac t e co o s e s au , 1
f Gi bb
. .

li d F ll
.

BU Y J B — V l
'
*
R ii D N o d pp v o on s ec n e an a ot e s a n a en
di f g — v l
. . . .
, .

ces o h O m C q re a t a u e on t e t to an on ue s t
d i f h O m E mp i Ox f rd 9 6
.

* G H A
1 B B O N s, F oun a t on o t e tto an re o 1 1

[F r h d vi g r
. . . .
,

] es an o ou s
* J GA N — G hi h t d O m i h R i h
OR e scV l 1 G h 98 c e es s an sc en e c e s. o ot a, 1 0
R AMBA U D A E T R AMBA U D Hi Gé é r l ( 8
.
, . . .

i L n AV I S S E st n a e 1 2 2
P r
.
, ,

V l iii i o 89 4 a s, 1
S ID N I U P r i r t d l E mp i O t m t p é i l m t
. . .

S —L
'
O S es at a ca s an s re t o an e s c a e en
Eg yp P r
.
,

en i 9 7 te a s 1 0

Z A G K I V F — R ék
. .

* ORS l i i ifi q t p l i iq d l a 1 et a re n a ssan c e sc e n t ue e o t ue e a
P i 99
. .
,

C i pp 8 —8
roa t e , ar s, 1 0
7 . 1 1 . .

6 . S oc ia l , e tc .

CO HNG — G e me in de rsc h a f t 11 n d H a us e n osse n sc h af t S t u t t a t 1 89 8 -

g gr
b Z dr g
. .
, , .

MA R K O V I é M — D i e S er i sc h e H a usc omm un ion ( a u a )

Z dr g
.
, .

N O V AK OV I C S —On t h e a u a I n S e rb i an A c a de my Proc ee di n gs ,
xx v
. .
,

v ol i
rb Z dr g Gr z
. .

PE I S K E R T D ie S e i sc h e a u a a -
1 89 6 —1 900
PE T V I T CH r Tl g d rb
. . .
, ,

RO W O I S L Av M — H e o a e s an d L e e n s of t h e S e s -

d
.
, .

L on on 1 9 1 4
x ll l r
.
,

[An e c e e n t p’op u a ac c oun t ]

Th e s t an a o k on D u sh a n s d rd w r
a k on i k or C o e i t se f t h e most Z d l
v l bl rb r ld by
, ,

a ua e Se i an h i s t o i c a oc um e n t i s N ov ak ov ié , .
344 BI BLI O GRAPHY OF S E RBIAN H I ST O R Y
*
SE1 0N -
WAI S O N R W — Th e S ou t h e r Sl v Q n a ue s t i on L on d on , 1 91 I
TE E D b rg M r h y L d
. . .
, .

*
S H W — Th e H ap s u on a c on on , 1 9 1 2
by dw rd L d
. . . .
,

“711 1 1 15 , S I R W — Li f e H S E a . . . s . on on , 1 892 .

2 . S p e c ia l
C U N I B E R TI F —L a S e rbi a e l a D i n a s t ia d g li e Ob re n ov i t c h ( 1 804
T ri
.

u n, 1 89 3
G rbi h A f d 87 Vi
.

K A L L AY B , . v .
— e sc h ic h t e de s S e sc en u st an e s, 1 0 -
IO . e nna,
1 91 0
g r—y i h Eigh r y C mbridg 9 8
.

‘MA R C ZA L I H — H un a n t e h C te e n t e n tu a e, 1 0
AN D i W i d rg b r d S rb i h I8 4
. .

ST
, .

"N O V A K OV I TC H , OJ e e e e u t es e S sc en t aat e s 0
S r j v
.

a a e o, 1 9 1 2
U Q U HA T D A V ID —F r g m ry f S rv i d 843
.

R R a ent o f h Hi t e st o o L e a on on , 1

[A
. . .
,

n t i - R u ssi an ]
Y A K S C H I TC H G R — L ’E uro e l a R esurre c t i on de l a S e rb ie
p et ( 1 804
Pr
.
,

a i s 1 90 7 , .

W AR AN D PE AC E OF 1 877—78
Et a t -
M j or
gé é r l d
a m é S rb G rr d l n a e e
’
l ar e e e— ue e e a S e rb ie c on t e r la
T r q i ( F r —h r l i ) P ri 879
u u e e nc t a n s a t on a s, 1
P H B T M h wi h T h i fi i rv i d
. .

S AL U S B U R Y , . . . w o on t s t c e rn a e n Se a . L on on
877 1
W E T H EI M E E —Gr f J l i A dr a y 3 l gr
.

*
R R, . V . a . u us n ss . vo s . S t ut t a t, 1 91 3 .

S IN C E 1 880
b lg r rb
B I L I ME K H —D e r u a i sc h se i sc h e ie i enn a -
g V Kr 886 1
H LE A P d g rr b lg r rb P ri 89
. .
, , .

C O I C R B IL — E t u e sur l a
’ ‘
ue e u a o se -
e a s, 1 1
GE G E V I rb rg gr
. . . . .
, .

OR C V —D i e S e i sc h e F a e S t ut t a t 1 9 0 9
d zg
, . . .
,

D a s E n e de r Ob re n ov i t c h L e ip i 1 90 5
r r r r d r v l gS rt ]
.

A
,

[ u t h o w a s a n e x p e m i e a n d i m p i son e f or e e a in -
tate se c e s
*
r Tr y b
PR 0 1 1 6 S — Th e S e c e t
.
e at .et een Se i a an d w rv A ri H g r y u st a- un a ,

F ortn igh tl y R e v i e w M a y 1 90 9
T EAD rv b y rv d
.
,

S A — Se ia the Se ia n s L on on 1 909
fi l l
. . .
, ,

[O f c ia a n d st a t i st ic a c omm un iq ué s ]
V I IAN rv Tr g d y d
.

V H — Th e S e i an
,
a e. L on on 1 9 04 .
, .

B ALKAN WA RS , 1 91 2 —I
3
b[ Th e se ook s are al l c on t o e si a r v r li n t on e or f ac t .
]
B AL K A N I C U S s — A ir
a t ion s of B u a a on on 1 9 1 5 lg ri L d
p
AI L Y V rb rb P r
.
, .

— ’
B H , L e s i c t oire s S e
. e s ; B re ga l n i t sa ; L e 0 é e S e
p p e a is .

1 91 6
G rr r b l Pr
.

*
B OU C A B E I L L E L I C OL P La ue e tu co a k an i q u e a is 1 9 1 2
- - -

I P L MAT I T r rd
. . .

l
, .
, .

D O S — N a t ion a i sm an d W ar i n t h e N e a E ast E d Lo
r y r g dw v l bl d x rd
. . .

C ou t n e C a n e i e E n o m e n t ( a ua e .oc um e n t s ) O fo .
,

5 1 91
GIBB N H A —N M p f E r p L d
.

O S, 4 ew a o u o e on on , 1 9 1
W E Th B l k L g d
. . . .

G L — ue
U E S H OF F , 5 e a an ea o n on , 1 9 1
d r M d i M d r d B i H rz g vi
. . .

[Al
.

so u n e ac e on a o e n an osn a -
e e o na ]
R p r
e f I
o t o r i l C mmi i i q i i n te n a t on a o ss on to n u re n t o c a use s a n d c on d uc t
of t h e B a k an l W ar . W ashi n gt on ,
1 91 4 .
.
 B I BL I O GRAPHY OF S E RBIAN H I ST O RY 345

3 R e l g ious, S oc ia
. i l ,
a nd E c on om ic

M ALLA T J — L a S e rb i e c on t e m p o a i n e r 2 vl
o s P ri a s, 1 902
rg ly
. . . .
,

mi ] [L a e e c on o c

S rv i d h S rv i d
.

*
I\ T C C
I J A TO V I L -
e a an t e e an s on on , 1 908
é F ATH E N I CH LA rbi
. .

l y
, .

V E L I MI R O V I R hg d N R O S -
e 1 0n an a t i on a i t in S e a
l f S rbi L d
.
,

h S t e 5 6 ou o e a on on , 1 9 1 — 1
V I V IAN H S rv i h P r M P r di L d
. .

— ’
, . e a, t e oo an s a a se . on on , 1 89 7 .

4 M d i d 0 1d S rb i . ac e on a a n e a

G E N E R AL A N D . ?MO D E RN

AB E O T G F — T0ur i n M ac e d on i a L on d on , 1 9 03
A D M d i P ri 9
. . . .
,

B ER R V — La ac é o ne a s, 1 00
M d i L d
. . .
,

P ro 3 ac e on a on on , 1 90
B AI L F DHN M d i i r d h ir f t r d
. .

"
R S OR L — ac e 0n a , ts ac e s, an t e u u e on on , 1 90 6
[F ll m d r r m ]
. .
, . .

u o e n t e at ent
é J V AN b l k iq P ri
.

— u e s t on s
*
C VIJ I Q i O 5 a an ue s a s, 1 91
L M éd i r éf rm P ri
. . .
,

D R AG A N O F F l — 6 a ac o ne e t es o es s, 1
a 90
D U H AM M E B rd d 95
. .

f h B lk
. .

*
R L — u en o t e a an s on on , 1 0
H i g h Al b d
. . . .
,

i L an a on on , 1 90 9
Th r gh h L d f h S rb L d
. .

ou 4 t e an o t e e on on , 1 90
E LI T S T r k y i E r p R vi d di i L d 9
. .

"
O C IR — u e n u o e e se e t on on on , 1 07

[Of gr vl f M d i ]
. . .
, .

e at a ue or ac e on a
M kd d A l S rb i Vi
.

G C
OP E V I é S R — 88 a e on 1 e n u n t -
e en. e nna, 1 9
O b r Al b Li g L ip z i g
. .
,

i e d i 88 a n e n un se n e a e 1 1
M ILLE W — Th M d i C l i m
.
, .

R, C mp yR i 9 e ac e on a n a an t s, on te orar ev e w , 1 03
N I C LAIDE C — L M éd i B r li
. .

O S, 8 a ac o ne e n, 1 99
O E T EI C H i dr u k d V i l j K v A bk m d d
. . .

S R R i .
— e se e n c e a . . a et oso o, c . er K K .

G g ph h g
e o ra ll h f i 8 9 zsc en e se c a t, 1 9
M k d i G g ph h Z h / x 9 4
. .

' '

a e on e n , e o ra z sc e e z tsc rz t, 1 0
M U CH E R p p r l m r h
. .

R G
O B I L A N T, L C L EN e t T -
OL A O a o t sur a a c e de la
r e rg i i d l G d r m ri d r i v i l y d R
. . .
, ,

o a n sa t on e a en a e e es t o s a e ts e ou m e l i e

( 4 P1 r i 90 a s, 1 90 8
V I LL A I L —Th B l k Q i d 95
.

R , . L e a an ue s t on . on on , 1 0 .

V M ON T E N E G R O
.

r l Mo t e ro d ri
’
CH I U D I NA G -
S t 0 i a de t mp in en a e an t i c h i fi no a n ost
l
.
, .

S p a ato 1 880
gr
.

M
,

C OQU E LL E P -
H I st oire du on t en e o e t de l a B osn i e de p ai s se s
rg P r i 8 —5
.
,

o i in e s a s, 1 9
EN T N gr P r y L d
.

M pl
.

D O \V — d Hi 87 7 on t e n e o eo e an sto on on , 1
GLA D T N E W E — M gr — S k h G l i g
. .
, .

S O l i on t e n e o a e tc — e an n s, vo v
d
. .
, . .

L on on , 1 91 2
T rk m gr i i h r Kr i g 876 78 Vi
.

G C
OP EV IC S D .
— er u o- on t e n e n sc e e 1 — e n na
, , .

87 1 9
S T E V EN N F S — Hi r y f M gr L d
.

SO st o o on t e n e o on on , 1 912
[U f l mm r y ]
. . .
, .

se u su a

W IL K IN N S gr vl L d
.

J G D lm i
SO d M ,
IR . .
— a at a an on t e n e o . 2 o s . on on
48 1 8
T x f C i i f 5 P bli h d by E M P
.

t o on s t t u t on R o 1 —
e 90 u s e AG L I AN O, e vue
P ri 9 6
. . .

d d p bl d l
a i p li q N
roz t u w et e a s c e nce o t z ue , O . 2 . a s, 1 0 .
346 BI BLI O GRAP HY OF S E RB I A N H I ST O RY
T H E R N S L AV S VI .
— S OU

G rl 1 . e ne a

D ENI E — L GrS, d S bi P r i 5 a an e er e a s, 1 91
LEG E L — S rb Cr B lg r P r
. . .

R, i 9 3 e e s, oa t e s , e t u a es a s, I I
S AMA A P —
. .
.

* DSS V Olk im H b b g er e rs t re I t a s u r e rs t aa t 910 1

S E T N W AT N R W —Th S h r S l v Q i d
. .
, .

* O -
SO e ou t e n a ue s t on L on on 1 9 1 I
TH E S UT H E N S LA V L IB A Y D rip i v p mp h l r g
. . . ,
,

O R R R — e sc t e a e t s, i n t e e st in b ut
r i ly p r p g di
.

n e c e ssa 5 o a an st . 1 91 .

L TE R I A RY
*
J A G I C, V V —D i e S l av i sc h e n S p r ac h e n Gg wr D ie K ul t u r de r e en a t
T i l i— B r l i
. . . .

e 8 e n, 1 90
Li r r Gg wr Ku l t u r
. .

MU R K O M D S ii d l i h 1e s a v sc en te d at u e n er e en a t
P r i — i p 94 B r li
. . .
,

t se c t —2 8
1 44 e 1 90
P J G hi p d
a x n
Li r r 3 B d Pr g
. . . . . , .

SAF A R IK, . . e sc c te er s ii d l i h
s av sc en te at u . e . a ue ,
1 86 4 .

2. B osn ia H e rz e go vi na

I T I AL
H S OR C AN D GE N E RAL
* K L AI C VJ —
, . G e sc hi c h t e B osn i e n s . L e ip i zg , 1 885 .

PE R O D I 1 878— 1 907
AU T IA N GENE AL S T A —D i Ok k up t i B i u d d H rz
S R R FF e a on osn e n s n er e e

V
.

g i i 87
ov n a9 8 e n n a, 1 — 0.

E V AN A — Th gh B i d H r z g v i o f t L d
.

S S, IR . r ou osn a an e e o na n oo . on on ,
876 1
Illy r i L t t r L d
.

878 an e e s on on , 1
G AV IE GA T N — L Q t i gr ir B mi Qu ti di p t C l
. .

R R, S O . a ue s on a a e en os e, es on s . e o .

D 9 ec 1 1 1
M A C K EN IE G M AN D A P I B Y —Tr v l i S l v i Pr v i
. .

Z R a e s n a on c o n c e s.
Pr f— W E G l d t 3 d diti d 87 7
. . . .
,

e ac e , L a s on e r e on on on , 1

S C H L UT E g r i h Ok k up ti g bi t d
. . . . .

Di O t i hi h
R . e e s e rre c sc e un
-
a sc e a on s- e e un
i K ii tse n l d G g Z i t h if t i 9 5 s e n an eo e sc r x 1 0
Et d d ip l om t iq
. . .
, ,

*
S C M —
PA L A I K 0V I L B i t l H g i a osn e e a e rz e ov n e , u e a ue
P ri 899
.
, .

a s, 1

[M d r t P S rb ]
.

o e a e ro -
e

S T I LL MAN W J — H r z g v i p ri i g d o 877
.

d th l t
,
L
. . e e o n a an e a e u s n . on n, 1 .

1 908—1
9 4 1

CV I J I C J ov
* — ’
L An n e x i 0n de B osn i e e t l a q u e st i on S e r e a i s 1 90 9 b Pr
rb
. . .
, ,

[B e s t S e st a t e m e n t ]
*F O R U NIE K V
R A — W i e w i r z u B osn i e n ame n i e n n a 1 90 9
gr A r l r gl w ll r
. .
, , .

B i h — an t i E n i sh a s e a s a n t i S e b
[ y a e a t u st an sc o a ] - -

*
MA S A R Y I<P T ROF G rg Pr g
V a sié F o ac h A e h re n t h al a ue 1 91 1 -

d b Tr v r l l i V
. . .
,
, , .
, .

l"
R I E D I R — S an sc h a k ah n un d a n s e sa nie i e n n a , 1 90 8 -

A r
. . . .
,

[S e mi offi c i a l us t i an ] -

E T N AT N r lv d
.

*
S O W S O R W —Th e S ou t h e n S a Q ue st i on Lon on 1 9 1 1
-

il ll b b l gr y r l
. . . .
, ,

[D e t a s a n d f u i i o ap h of F ri e dj un g t i a ]
Gr l v M gy r d
.

e man S a an d a a L on on 1 9 1 6 . , .
 I ND EX
A bd l H mid S l t
u a 11 u an , 2 6 5 2 76 , A g r b t t l of
n o a, a e 1 04, 1 0 9 , 1 1 5
f S rb i lg r i
.

A
, ,

n na o Q e a, ue e n of B u a a,
A bd l M j id S l t
u 8 e u an , 2 2 6 68 2,
A t L rd t h S l v A tiv r i C th li
, . .

c on , o on e a s, 80 n a a o c, 1 8 20, 2 7, 31 ,
Ad k l h I l d 46
.
, , ,

a a e s an 2 1 52
r y 43
.
,

d p tioi t th on s eo A p ol l om a 330
r lg l d f 5
, . , .

dri a n op l e 7 5 , 96 1 1 3 2 09 , 2 6 7, A c h ip e a o i s an s o 20
Ar
.
, , , , ,

32 2 32 8 330 m e n ia 45
Tr y Ar y
° , .
! :

e at of 9 21 22 1 223 m 88
Ar
. .
, , ,

JE g 33
aean , 1 n a u t s,
4 3 9 1 1 0
A gr m ( Z gr b ) 3 5 Ar P ri r h f S rbi 7
. .
,

a a e 2 2 se n at a c o e a, 12
k rm v i f
.
, ,

e C an , on e n t on o 2 09
A i Mi r 9 5 6
.

Al d Di
a- a 7 -
n, 1 0 n s a no 10
Al b B l g r i ( B lgr d ) 5 r 5 3 56
. .

d l
, ,

a u a ca e a e 0 A rt a n e t te s, —
Al b i 7 8 ( S rb i ) 5 A r 7 4 94
. .
,

—1 ta.
an a , 1 e s n 2, 53
Ah M
, , .

59 6 5 68 69 7 7 93 0. 1 97 t os , 5 5 3 7 33 oun t , 2 2

3 ( T rk i ) Ar ii 3 33
.
. . . . . . . , ,

1 1 6 37 u s n 1 1 1 1 39 t oc t e s, 2 2— 2 .

B lk
, , , ,

49 1 5 8 I 79 32 0 32 2
I 32 3 a 4 an , 2 11
d
.

— M
. . , , . »

i —
3 3 3 4 3 7 3 8 on an , 1 — 1
334 ac e 1 1
— T r ki h S rb i
, .

C a t h oh c rsm 1 11 2 7—2 8 5 3 u 97 s on e a n s, 1 2 02 ,
Al b
.

Al
, , , ,

an ian p s 5 20 1 1 4 1 1 5 333
Al b rb g T r k i h 3 —3 3
.
, , , ,

a n i an s i n O ld S e ia 2 2 n Y ou n u s 22 2
w G l i h f 86 7 5 6
. .
, ,

A l e k si n a t s ( a t o n ) 2 1 1 2 6 6 2 70 A u s- e c o 1 2
A ri ri H g r y 7
. .

Al d A
, , , ,

e ssi o 40 us t a an us t a- un a
Al x d r r w Pr rb
.
, , ,

e an e C o n i n c e of S e i a ,
, 1 2 7, 1 2 8, 1 32 , 1 46 , 1 6 8 , 1 6 9,
16 1 2 42 , 2 7 5
, 2 76 2 77 2 80 , , , ,
1 86 , 2 09 , 222, 2 2 9 , 2 30 , 32
2 ,

2 82 2 33» 2 38. 2 39 . 2 44 2 5 8 1370 "

Al x d r C z r f R i
. . »

e an e a o u ss a , 2 2 2 73 2 2 76 , 2 81 2 86 30 8, -
31 4
Al x d r K g g i t h Pr i
.
, , , ,

e an e ara e or e v c nce , 31 8
A r Ar d
,

6 22 u s t ia c h u k e of 6 8
Al x d r Ob i t h Ki g A r g
, , .

e an e re n ov c n 26 3 u st o R u ssian -
W ar a a i n st
Tr y
, , ,

u ke ( 1 7 88 1 76
P Av r
.

Ali I a n i n a , 332 334

a sh a of a s th e 1 2, 1 3
r b w Av g
.

A l
.
, , ,

mp h ip o is ( n e a Y e n ik la f e t e e n i n on 76
r Avl G l V l
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M c d on ia g e ogr ap h ic al l imi t s
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M ORR I S ON 8! G IBB LM
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