COURSE TITLE: GENERAL

BIOCHEMISTRY I
COURSE CODE: BCH 211
CREDIT UNIT: 3
COURSE LECTURER: MRS. H.S.
ABDULLAHI
COURSE OUTLINE
 Vitamins and their coenzymes functions.
 Introduction to spectrophotometry and colorimetric
analysis.
 LECTURE NOTE
Introduction
Nutrients are grouped into two major classes: macronutrients and micronutrients.
Macronutrients are nutrients that are needed by the body in large amounts while
micronutrients are those needed by the body in minute amounts. Macronutrients
such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids provide molecules for the structural
and metabolic activities of the human body, while micronutrients (vitamins and
minerals) are essential for the body’s proper functioning. The need for
micronutrients depends on the metabolic activities as well as on the life cycle of
an individual. Even in intrauterine life, the need for micronutrients is essential for
the normal development of the fetus. In particular, vitamin D, iodine, iron, and
folic acid deficiencies could lead to congenital disorders or even death. The daily
requirements of these micronutrients are not fixed, although many scientific
papers have mentioned the daily-required allowance of various vitamins and
minerals.
Vitamins
Vitamins are essential substances for the normal functioning and development of
the body. There are two classes of vitamins namely: Fat-soluble and Water-
soluble vitamins. The known vitamins include A, C, D, E, and K, and the B vitamins:
thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6),
cyanocobalamin (B12), biotin, and folate/folic acid.
Fat-Soluble
Vitamins as earlier mentioned, vitamins can be classified as either a water-
soluble or fatsoluble vitamins. The fat-soluble vitamins are very vital for the
smooth functioning of the body. Their deficiencies have been implicated in
several health disorders. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of the fat
soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K is 8000–1000 μg/day, 8000–5000 μg/day, 8–
10 μg/day, and 70–140 μg/day respectively. The RDA for water soluble vitamins
including thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, niacin, biotin, ascorbic acid, and
pantothenic acid are 1 mg/day, 1.2 mg/day, 2–2.2 mg/day, 13mili-equivalents,
100–200 μg/day, 60 μg/day, and 4–7 mg/day respectively.
Table showing various classes, functions, sources and deficiency and requirements of vitamins

Vitamins Types and Functions Food Deficiency Require

subclasses source ments
Fat Vitamin A Vision, growth and Milk, Butter, Night Adult
Soluble (Retinol) development, Immune Eggs, Liver, blindness, 5000 IU,
Vitamin function Reproduction, Red Green Keratinization Children
blood cell formation, Skin leaves, ripe of epithelium, 1500-
and bone function. yellow Follicular 5000 IU,
fruits, hyperkeratosis Pregnan
tomato. , skin and t
mucus women
infection, 6000 IU
Xeropthalmia,
faulty tooth
formation.
Vitamin D2 Maintains bone health, Fortified Faulty bone Adult
(Ergocalcif muscle and nerve milk, Fish growth, 100 IU,
erol) contraction and and general oils Rickets, Pregnan
cellular function in all cells Osteomalacia cy and
of the body. Lactatio
n 400
IU,
Infants
and
Children
200 IU
Vitamin D3 Control neuromuscular Fish, liver, Osteomalacia, 10 mcg
(Cholecalci function, Bone metabolism muscles. Ricket for adult
ferol) per day
Vitamin E Antioxidant, formation of Nuts, Hair loss, Adult
(Tocoferol) blood vessels and boosting vegetable muscle cramp, 25-30
of immune function oils, such as infertility, mg,
sunflower gastro Children
etc intestinal 3-7 mg
disease.
Vitamin K Forms prothrombin by liver, Green leafy Osteoporosis, 90 mcg/
(Phylloquio constituent of blood vegetables Coronary day
nine) responsible to blood Heart disease
clotting, bone metabolism (CHD)
and regulation of blood
calcium levels.
Water_ Vitamin B1 Cofactor for several Oilseeds, Disturbances 0.5 mg/
Soluble (Thiamine) enzymes involved in energy pulses, of digestive 1000
Vitamins metabolism, plays central cereals, system, nerve calories
role in cerebral metabolism. milk, beans, disturbances,
liver, pork, Nausea,
nuts, fruits, Vomiting,
vegetables. Constipation,
Beri beri.
Vitamin B2 Converts carbohydrates Cereals, Eye problems, 0.6 mg/
(Riboflavin) into glucose for energy liver, pulses, Photophobia, 1000
production, neutralizes free nuts, milk, skin changes, calories
radicals hence acts as anti- eggs, radish swollen
oxidant. leaves, tongues
Sitaphal
Vitamin B3 Helps lower LDL Yeast, Liver, Pellagra, 6.6 mg/
(Niacin) cholesterol, lowers risk of Sheep, Diarrhoea, 1000
cardiovascular diseases, Ground nut, Dermatitis, Kcal of
eases arthritis. Coenzymes Fish, Pulses, Dementia, Skin energy
in tissue oxidation to Vegetables itching, CNS
produce ATP, nervous, and Fruits, affected,
digestive, skin health. Flesh food, Dizziness,
Cereal. mental
depression.
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid is a key Liver, Dermatitis, 10
(Pantothen component of CoA, a wheat, scaly skin, mg/day
ic acid) cofactor that carries acyl peanut, egg. degeneration
groups for many enzymatic of nerve
processes, and of tissues.
phosphopantetheine within
acyl carrier proteins, a
component.
Vitamin B6 Acts as a critical co-factor Wheat, Anemia. 2
(Pyridoxine for a diverse range of Corn, meat, mg/day
) biochemical reactions that liver,
regulate basic cellular cabbage,
metabolism. carrot,
Part of enzyme system peanuts.
which removes Co2 from
acid group of certain amino
acid, CHO, protein and fat
metabolism.
Vitamin B7 Biotin is a water-soluble egg yolk, Skin lesion, Microbe
(Biotin) vitamin and serves as a almonds, Scaly skin, synthesi
coenzyme for five sweet deterioration ze as
carboxylases in humans. potatoes, of nerve fiber. non-
 It helps to convert food into mushroom, essential
glucose, which is used for cauliflower, .
energy production. It also cheese,
helps to produce fatty acids spinach.
and amino acids (the
building blocks of protein).
Biotin activates
protein/amino acid
metabolism in the hair
roots and fingernail cells.
Vitamin B9 Helps in DNA replication, Green Pernicious and 0.4
(Foliate) metabolism of vitamins and vegetables, megaloblastic mg/day,
amino acids, proper cell Nuts, beans, anemia. pregnan
division. Folic acid helps to Liver. cy 0.8
reduce risk of spina bifida mg/day,
(neural tube defects) in lactation
neonates when taken by 0.5
pregnant mothers. mg/day
Vitamin Plays a significant role in meat Pernicious 2.4
B12 cellular metabolism, (especially anemia mcg/ad
(Cyanocob especially in DNA synthesis, liver and ult/day,
alamin) methylation and shellfish), 1.6 mcg-
mitochondrial metabolism. eggs, and pregnan
It helps in brain function milk t, 2.8
and synthesis of red blood products. mcg
cells. lactation
Vitamin C One of the important Amla, Scurvy, Adult 60
(Ascorbic properties of vitamin C is its Guava, Megaloblastic, mg/day,
Acid) antioxidant activity. drumsticks, anemia, Infants
Vitamin C functions in Cabbage, delayed 35
enzyme activation, Amaranth, wound mg/day,
oxidative stress reduction, Orange, healing, Children
and immune function. Papaya, susceptible to 40
Antioxidant activity of Pineapple, fever and mg/day
vitamin C helps to prevent tomato, red infections.
certain diseases such as peppers,
cancer, cardiovascular kiwifruit,
diseases, common cold, strawberries
age-related muscular and
degeneration and cataract. cantaloupes,
greenleafy
vegetables
suchas
broccoli,
 fortified
cereals.
MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic elements that cannot be synthesized in the body but
obtained from the diet. They are naturally present in soil and water. Some are
essential to living organisms while some are very toxic. Plants absorb significant
amount of minerals from the environment and usually passed them along the
food chain to animals. The deficiency of such nutritionally important minerals
usually proves fatal.
Minerals are key elements of the body. They are needed in the buildup and
function of important biomolecules in the human body. Although, minerals are
not a source of energy in the body but they are necessary for the maintenance of
normal biochemical processes in the body.
Minerals are divides into two groups on the basis of their concentration in the
body.
Classification of minerals (According to concentration in the body)
A. Major minerals/ Macro-minerals (≥ 100 mg) Calcium, Phosphorous,
Potassium, Sulphur, Sodium, Chlorine and Magnesium.
B. Minor/ micro/ trace minerals Manganese, Iron, Copper, Iodine,
Cobalt, Zinc, Fluorine, Chromium, Selenium, and Molybdenum.
C. Essentiality Unclear: Vanadium, Silicon, Nickel, Tin, Cadmium,
Arsenic, Aluminum and Boron
Table showing various minerals with their functions, sources, deficiency and
requirements
Minerals Function Sources Deficiency Requirement
Helps in the Fe is widely Anemia
Iron (Fe) formation of distributed in organ
heme proteins meats, red meats
needed for the (30–70% is haem
transport of iron), egg yolks;
oxygen to the red legumes; dried fruits;
blood cells, flavor dark, leafy greens;
proteins and iron-enriched breads
other enzymes. and cereals; and
fortified cereals; fish;
poultry; shellfish
Copper (Cu) Part of many Foods high in copper Hypocupremia (low Adults 1.5-3
enzymes including include liver, kidney, serum copper level), mg, Infants
metalloenzymes; shellfish, wholegrain Wilson’s disease 0.4-0.7 mg,
needed for red cereals and nuts. Soft Children 1.5
blood cell or acidic water mg
formation, passing through
connective tissues copper pipes can also
contribute copper to
the diet.
Zinc (Zn) It plays main roles Meats, fish, poultry, Impaired wound Adults 15
in the cell- oysters, leavened healing, mg, Infants 5
mediated whole grains, Hypogonadism, mg, Children
immunity, bone vegetable Hypogeusia and 10-15 mg
formation, tissue hyposmia
growth, brain
function, growth
of the fetus and
child. It also has
roles in
pathogenesis of
some
dermatological
disorders.
Iodine (I) Growth and Seafood, foods grown :Goiter (enlarged Adult men
development, in iodine-rich soil, thyroid gland in the 10 mg, Adult
Metabolism, iodized salt, bread, adult), Cretinism (in women 15
Reproduction, dairy products children) mg,
Thyroid hormone Pregnancy
production and lactation
15-30 mg,
 Infants 6-10
mg, Children
10-15 mg
Selenium (Se) Anti-oxidant; Meats, seafood, Keshan disease (form Adult 55-70
Selenium is grains. Cereals, of heart disease), mcg, Infants
needed for the seafood and meat Keshin_beck disease 10-15 mcg,
proper products are the (bone and joint Children 25-
functioning of the richest sources of Se disease), Male 250 mcg
immune system, and are the main infertility
and appears to be contributors to the
a key nutrient in daily Se intake,
counteracting the whereas vegetables,
development of fruits and beverages
virulence and are generally in Se.
inhibiting HIV
progression to
AIDS. It is
required for
sperm motility
and may reduce
the risk of
miscarriage.
Chromium (Cr) Chromium acts as Dietary sources of Diabetes mellitus
an antioxidant. It chromium include
also helps to brewer’s yeast,
decrease insulin cheese, pork kidney,
resistance in whole grain breads
diabetic patients and cereals,
molasses, spices and
some bran cereals.
Lean beef, oysters,
eggs, and turkey are
sources of chromium
Manganese (Mn) It activates whole grains, clams, Neurological disorder Adults 2 mg,
numerous oysters, mussels, Infants 0.3-1
enzymes — such nuts, soybeans and mg, Children
as hydrolases, other legumes, rice, 1.5 mg
transferases, leafy vegetables,
kinases, and coffee, tea, and many
decarboxylases — spices, such as black
and is a pepper.
constituent of
some enzymes.
Manganese also
plays a role in
blood clotting and
hemostasis in
 conjunction with
vitamin K.
Flouride (F) It is involved in Drinking water Dental caries, Adults 1.5-4
formation of (either fluoridated or Osteoporosis mg, Infants
bones and teeth; naturally containing 0.1-1 mg,
helps prevent fluoride), fish, and Children 0.5-
dental decay and most beverages, from 2.5 mg
caries oral tooth pastes as
well.
Molybdenum ) Functions as a Legumes; nuts, Adults 75-
(Mo) cofactor for at breads and grains; 250 mcg,
least four leafy greens; leafy, Infants 15-40
enzymes: sulfite green vegetables; mcg,
oxidase, xanthine milk; liver Children 25-
oxidase, aldehyde 250 mcg
oxidase, and
mitochondrial
amidoxime
reducing
component.
Sulphur (S) Maintain protein Food sources: Egg, Cystinuria (Excessive Diets
structure, energy Meat, Nuts, Legumes. urinary excretion of adequate in
metabolism, cystine), Renal protein
detoxification. calculus contain
adequate
Sulphur
Chlorine (Cl) Osmotic balance Table salts Gastrointestinal Adults 750
of body fluid, Acid disorder mg, Infants
base balance, (hyperchloremic 180-300 mg,
maintain gastric alkalosis) Children
acidity 350- 750 mg
Potassium (K) Potassium helps Bananas, Vegetables, Hyperkalemia, Adults 200
in carbohydrate Meat, Milk Paralysis, mg, Infants
metabolism Hypokalmia, 500- 700 mg,
Hypertension Children
1000-2000
mg
Calcium (Ca) Bone and teeth Milk (120-200 mg), Tetany(decreased in Adult; 800
formation, Blood Dairy products, Eggs, ionized serum mg/day,
clotting, Stability Pulses (60- 150 mg) calcium), Pregnancy
to the fibrin Osteoporosis and
threads, Muscle (abnormal thinning Lactation;
contraction and of bone tissue in 1200
relaxation, Cell older person), mg/day,
membrane Rickets and Infants: 400-
permeability and osteomalacia. 600 mg/day,
enzyme activation Children
 800-1200
mg/day
Phosphorous (P) Forms bones and sources: Nearly all Rickets, Same as
teeth, Absorption foods (Milk, Cheese, Osteomalacia Calcium
of glucose and Meat, Eggs, Cereals,
energy Legumes
metabolism 17
Magnesium (Mg) For enzyme to Potatoes, Fruits, Weak muscles, Adult 280
function, Whole grains, Green Convulsion, Inhibits mg,
Maintain muscle vegetables, milk, function of muscle Pregnancy
and nerve cheese, meat and nervous systems 320 mg,
functions, Lactation
Carbohydrate and 355 mg,
Protein Infants 40-60
Metabolism mg, Children
80-400 mg
Sodium (Na) Nerve function, Meat, Table salt, Muscular cramps Adult 500
Osmotic balance Dairy products, mg, Infants
of body fluid, Acid Carrots, Beet 120-200 mg,
base balance Children
225- 500 mg,
Adults 200
mg, Infants
500-700 mg,
Children
1000-2000
mg
Cobalt (Co) Components of Vitamin B12 No Report
Vitamin B12 and
formation of RBCs