Combined Course Material

Non-destructive Testing for Failure Analysis and Prevention
24th February 2023

Dr. Siddhartha Roy
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Kharagpur
Definition of Nondestructive Testing (NDT)
NDT is the examination of an object with technology that does not affect
the object‘s future usefulness.
- American Society of Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
Some alternate expressions commonly used are:
 Nondestructive examination (NDE)
 Nondestructive inspection (NDI)
 Nondestructive evaluation (NDE)
2
Destructive vs. Non-destructive testing
 Destructive testing has been defined as a form of test of materials
whereby certain specific characteristics of the material can be
determined quantitatively
 The information that is obtained through destructive testing is quite
precise, but it only applies to the specimen being tested
 As the specimen is destroyed or mechanically altered, it is unlikely that it
can be used for other purposes beyond the mechanical test
3
Key benefits of destructive testing are:
 Reliable and accurate data from the test specimen
 Data obtained can be used for design purpose
 Data obtained is usually quantitative
 Typically, various service conditions are capable of being measured
 Useful life of the component can generally be predicted
4
Main limitations of destructive testing are:
 Data applies only to the specimen being examined
 Most destructive test specimens cannot be used once the test is
complete
 Many destructive tests require large, expensive equipment in a
laboratory environment
5
Key benefits of non destructive testing are:
 The part is not changed or altered and can be re-used after examination
 Every item of a batch or a large portion of a component can be examined
with no adverse consequence
 Parts can be examined while in service
 Many NDT methods are portable and can be taken to the object to be
examined
 It is overall cost effective
6
Main limitations of non destructive testing are:
 It is usually quite operator dependent
 Some methods do not provide permanent record
 NDT methods do not generally provide quantitative data
 Orientation of the discontinuities must be considered
 Evaluation of some test results are subjective and subject to dispute
 Some test methods, such as radiography can be expensive
 Defined qualified procedures are essential
7
Visual Testing (VT)
Visual Testing (VT)
VT is broadly classified into two groups:
 Direct visual testing
 Indirect visual testing
9
Visual Testing (VT)
Direct visual testing
 In case of direct visual testing, the component to be inspected is tested
by an inspector. Testing, analysis and assessment are carried out by one
person
10
Visual Testing (VT)
Indirect visual testing
 In indirect VT, the area to be inspected is captured by a camera and
displayed on a screen
 The test image can be subjected to further work steps → enlarging,
highlighting etc.
 As the image is displayed on a screen, several people can judge
 Equipments used are cameras, videoscopes etc.
11
Visual Testing (VT)
Remote visual testing
Remote visual testing (RVI) is a NDT technique that uses various types of
videoprobes, video borescopes, remotely operated cameras, robotic
crawlers and other specialized tools in order to examine components for
defects.
In its most basic form an RVI system is made up of a lens and an
illuminating light source, both of which are connected to a light transmitting
extension, at the end of which is attached an eyepiece.
12
Visual Testing (VT)
 „Borescopes“, also referred to as „endoscopes“ were the first to be
developed, and they were originally used to inspect the bores of rifles or
canons using a hollow tube and mirror
 Due to their rigid structure, endoscope are however limited to straight line
access.
13
Visual Testing (VT)
Photo of a rigid borescope

14
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Using PT effectively requires:
 Discontinuities that are open to the surface of the part. Subsurface
discontinuities or surface discontinuities not open to the surface are not
detected
 Special cleaning of the parts
 Good eyesight
16
Basic principle and process description
 In PT, cracks or surface discontinuities are made visible by a penetrant –
a material that seeps into and out of the surface discontinuity
 To be seen, the penetrant must have a strikingly different colour
(contrast) from the surface and must exit the discontinuity under
appropriate conditions.
 Relative to some other NDT methods, PT requires less training and skill,
but one needs to pay careful attention to cleanliness and procedures.
17
Basic principle and process description
 After the dwell time, the excess penetrant on the surface is removed by
cleaning and another substance, called developer is applied to the
surface
 The developer draws some of the penetrant from the discontinuities and
provides a contrasting background to make the penetrant easier to see
 After interpreting and recording the indications from PT, the surface is
thoroughly cleaned to remove the developer and any remaining
penetrant.
18
Fundamental aspects
Fundamental to PT is the ability of the penetrant to wet the specimen
surface completely, and subsequently to penetrate the discontinuities open
to the surface. The most important aspects are:
 Surface tension & surface energy
 Contact angle and surface wetting
 Capillarity
 Dwell time
19
Contact angle & surface wetting
The forces acting on the interface between a liquid, solid

and a gas are the surface tensions between the
respective materials
20
Contact angle and surface wetting
 The contact angle θ is a function of the material properties of the
contacting materials & it indicates the degree to which the fluid wets the
surface
 Fluids typically for penetrant testing have contact angles in the range of
10°
21
Dwell time
 To detect a crack of a given size, the penetrant fluid requires a lapse of
time for capillary action to draw the penetrant into the flaws. This time
between applying the penetrant and removing the excess fluid is called
the dwell time
 Empirically determined dwell times are generally mentioned in tables
 The most effective manner of determining the minimum required dwell
time is to perform a procedure qualification on parts having known
discontinuities.
22
Steps involved in a penetrant test
1. Performing a detailed VT of the part to be tested
2. Preparing the specimen surface
3. Verifying the temperature of the penetrant surface and the penetrant
4. Applying penetrant to the specimen surface
5. Dwell time
6. Removing excess penetrant from the test surface
7. Applying developer to the test surface
8. Locating and interpreting the indications
23
Steps involved in a penetrant test
Schematics of penetrant testing: (a) application of penetrant to

the clean surface, (b) dwell time, (c) removal of excess
penetrant, (d) application of developer to the surface and (e)
observation and interpretation of indications
24
Effective characteristics of penetrant
 Be able to penetrate small surface openings
 Be relatively easy to remove from the surface during the removal step
 Be able to remain in the discontinuities until they are withdrawn during
the development step
 Be able to bleed from the discontinuities when the developer interacts
with it and have the ability to spread out in the developed layer
25
Effective characteristics of penetrant
 Have excellent colour and the ability to be displayed as a contrasting
indication in order to provide the necessary sensitivity
 Exhibiting no chemical reaction between the penetrant materials and the
test specimen
 Not evaporate or dry too rapidly
 Additionally, they should be non-flammable, odourless, nontoxic and
possess stability under the storage conditions
 They should not be too expensive
26
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Magnetic particle testing (MT)
Basic theory
 MT is a NDT method for detecting discontinuities that are primarily linear
and located at or near the surface of ferromagnetic components and
structures
 MT is governed by the laws of magnetism and is therefore restricted to
the inspection of materials that can support magnetic flux lines
 In terms of magnetic properties, metals are classified as:
 Ferromagnetic
 Paramagnetic
 diamagnetic
28
Advantages
 Accurate, reliable & simple to operate
 Indications are produced directly on part surface
 Little operator training necessary
 Almost no limitation on size and shape of the part
 Works well through thin coatings of paint or other nonmagnetic coverings
 Detects cracks filled with foreign materials
 Low cost and forgiving of mistakes
 Some subsurface sensitivity
 Lends itself well to automation
29
Disadvantages
 Requires ferromagnetic material
 Only detects surface breaking and near surface cracks
 For maximum sensitivity the surface needs to be thoroughly cleaned and
dried
 Demagnetization is often necessary
 For very large castings often very large currents are necessary
 Can heat and burn the part at the point of contact
 Some parts require multiple inspections
30
Distorted field & leakage field
 Provided the material is homogeneous, the lines of force in the internal

field of a magnetized material tend to distribute themselves evenly
through the material
31
 Presence of a discontinuity presents an interruption to the field and an
increase in reluctance
 The lines of force prefer the path of least reluctance and will therefore
redistribute themselves in the material by bending around the
discontinuity
 The magnetic field becomes “distorted” by the discontinuity
 As a discontinuity gets larger, the remaining metallic path in the part
becomes more restricted and the magnetic flux approaches saturation for
that part of the material
32
 For some of the magnetic field lines in that region, a path through the air
or across the discontinuity provides a lower reluctance than the
remaining metallic part
 Consequently, some flux lines break out of the surface of the metal into
the air → generation of a leakage field
 The very small north pole on one side of the discontinuity and the south
pole on the other side are capable of attracting finely divided magnetic
particles to form an outline of the imperfection → effectively, the particles
provide a high permeability bridge for the magnetic field lines to travel
across
33
 A defect will create a leakage field only if it is perpendicular to the
magnetic field
 If a crack is at an arbitrary angle to the magnetic field, then its
component perpendicular to the field will create a leakage field, while the
other component will be undetected
 Generally, defects at less than 30° from the magnetic field are not
detectable
 To create the leakage field, the defect must also be at or near the surface
of the material
 A scratch will not disturb the magnetic field and hence is not detected by
MT 34
35
Process variations
Type of magnetizing current
Several different types of current flowing in a conductor are available to
generate the magnetic field:
 Direct current (DC)
 Alternating current (AC)
 Half-wave direct current (HWDC)
 Full wave direct current (FWDC)
36
Direct current (DC)
37
Direct current (DC)
 As in a battery, the current produced over time is constant in amplitude
and direction
 As the current penetrates deeper, this method provides both moderate
surface and subsurface sensitivity
 Due to their expensive nature, DC currents from a battery source are not
very common now
38
Alternating current (AC)
39
Alternating current (AC)
 An alternating current (AC) is a current that continuously varies in
amplitude and also reverses in flow direction (i.e. polarity) several times
per second.
 The actual number of cycles per second is known as frequency –
typically 60 Hz
 As the magnetic field within the ferromagnetic material is created by the
alternating current, the polarity of the alternating field also alternates
 The alternating polarity “shakes” the particles, thereby increasing their
mobility and attraction to the leakage field
40
Influence of AC & DC currents
 AC current, due to its cyclic nature, tends to vibrate the particles thereby
increasing their movement toward the area of flux leakage
 Due to its higher depth capability, DC current is preferred for detection of
manufacturing induced discontinuities, as they may occur anywhere in
the part
 AC current is preferentially used for in-service inspection, as the
discontinuities tend to be surface breaking like fatigue cracks
Generally, deeper the discontinuity is below the test surface, the broader
and less distinct will be the indication
41
Demagnetization
After MT testing, it is generally necessary to demagnetize the component,
as otherwise the remnant magnetic field may
 affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component
 Interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass
 Create a condition known as “arc blow” in the arc welding process
 Cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and
increase wear
42
Demagnetization
 A more commonly used method to completely demagnetize is →
subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic field
 This is accomplished by pulling the component out and away from a coil
with AC passing through it
 As a result the magnetic dipoles
obtain a nearly random orientation
throughout the material
 A field meter is often used to verify
that the residual flux has been
removed from the component
43
Typical examples of applications
Gear with service induced cracks
Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method
44
Typical examples of applications
Drive shaft with heat treatment induced cracks
Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method
45
Radiographic Testing (RT)
Radiography Testing (RT)
Basic introduction to x-rays
 X-rays are electromagnetic waves with an energy that is 100 – 100000
times higher than the visible light
47
Interaction between penetrating radiation and matter
 When x-rays or g-rays are directed into an object,
some of the photons interact with the particles of
the matter & can be absorbed or scattered →
attenuation
 Other photons travel completely through the
object without interacting with any of the
material‘s particles
 The number of photons transmitted through the
material depends upon the thickness, density and
atomic number of the material and the energy of
the individual photons
48
For a narrow beam of mono-energetic photons, the change in x-ray beam
intensity at some distance in a material is expressed as:
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝜇𝑥
where I = intensity of photons transmitted across distance x
I0 = initial intensity of photons
x = distance travelled by the photons
m = the linear attenuation coefficient
49
 The linear attenuation coefficient (m) describes the fraction of a radiation
that is attenuated per unit thickness of the material
 Linear attenuation coefficients can be used to make a number of
calculations:
 Intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the
incident x-ray intensity, the material & the material thickness is known
 intensity of the incident x-ray energy when the transmitted x-ray
intensity, material & material thickness are known
 Thickness of the material when the incident & transmitted intensity &
material are known
 The material can be identified by determining the value of m 50
Primary test variables
 Energy
 Exposure time
 mA (x-ray) or curies (gamma ray)
 Material type and density
 Type of film and screes used
 Film processing (development time & temperature etc.)
 Film density
 Distance from the radiation source to the object
 Distance from the object to the film
 Physical size of the target (x-ray) or source (g-ray) 51
Evaluation for discontinuities – welding discontinuities
Cold lap
 It is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the
base metal or the previous weld pass material
 The arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly
molten puddle to flow into the base material when bonding
52
Porosity
 It is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal
 Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as
dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters,
or in rows
 Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may appear to have a tail
 All porosity is a void in the material and it will have a higher radiographic
density than the surrounding area
53
Porosity
54
Slag inclusions
 Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or
between weld and base metal
 In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or
along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions
55
Cracks
 Many different types of cracks are classified by their orientation and
location
 Cracks always appear as dark, irregular, linear indications (often very
faint) in a radiograph and are the most serious of all discontinuities
 They are generally tight and often are not detectable by radiography
unless their orientation is in the same plane as the direction of the
radiation
56
Cracks
57
Tungsten inclusions
 Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode
in tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding
 If improper welding procedures are followed, tungsten may get entrapped
in the weld
 Radiographically, tungsten is denser than aluminum or steel. Hence, it
shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph
58
Tungsten inclusions
59
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
60
 Ultrasonic testing (UT) is one of the most widely used NDT methods
 UT uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and
make measurements
 Sound waves are simple vibrations of the particles making up a solid,
liquid or gas → Since for propagation of sound waves there must exist
something to vibrate, sound waves cannot exist in vacuum
 Hearing is the only human sense that can detect sound waves. This is
restricted to a relatively narrow range of vibration frequencies → audible
range
 The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) → One cycle of vibration per second
61
Basic overview of technique
 A transducer transforms a voltage pulse into an ultrasonic pulse
 The transducer is placed onto a specimen and the pulse is transmitted
into the test object
 The pulse travels through the object, responding to its geometry and
mechanical properties. The signal is
 Either transmitted to another transducer (through transmission
technique)
 Or reflected back to the original transducer (pulse echo technique)
 Either way, the signal is transformed back into an electrical pulse, which
is observed on an oscilloscope
62
Several material characteristics can be determined from the propagation of
ultrasound within a solid:
 The ultrasonic wave velocity in or thickness of the material
 The presence of a flaw, defect or delamination and its size, shape,
position
 Material elastic constants such as Young‘s modulus, shear modulus,
Poisson‘s ratio etc.
 Part geometry or the nature of the component
 Transducer scan across a surface can be used to create a 2D or 3D
image of the specimen
63
Two basic methods of transmitting and receiving ultrasound:
Pulse echo
Through transmission 64
Main modes of wave propagation
The various ways in which sound can propagate are usually described in
terms of the direction of particle motion in relation to the direction in which
the sound wave travels.
Compression or longitudinal wave: Waves in which the particle motion is
in the same plane as the direction of propagation
65
Main modes of wave propagation
The various ways in which sound can propagate are usually described in
terms of the direction of particle motion in relation to the direction in which
the sound wave travels.
Shear wave: Waves for which the particle motion is at right angles to the
direction of propagation. They can only propagate in solids (not in liquids
and gases, as only solids possess rigidity, i.e. Resistance to shear loads)
66
Factors affecting sound waves - Velocity
 Sound travels at different speeds through different materials
 Sound travels faster in liquids than in gases, while the speed of sound is
for solids is generally higher than in liquids
 Speed of sound in different metals is different → there is a distinct speed
of sound for each material
67
 Apart from density and Young‘s modulus only, Poisson‘s ratio also affects
the sound velocity
 For a given material, the velocity of longitudinal wave is given by
𝐸 1−𝜇
𝑉𝑙 = ∙
𝜌 1 + 𝜇 1 − 2𝜇
Vl = longitudinal sound velocity in a material

E = Young‘s modulus of the material
ρ = density of the material
µ = Poisson‘s ratio of the material
68
 Shear waves exist in solids and their propagation velocity in a material is
different from that of the longitudinal wave velocity
 This is because, shear modulus is the controlling factor for shear wave
velocity and it is lower than the Young‘s modulus → shear wave velocity
in a material is always lower than the longitudinal wave velocity
𝐺
𝑉𝑠 =
𝜌
Vs = shear wave velocity in a material
G = Shear elastic constant of the material
ρ = density of the material
69
Reflection of sound wave
 When a beam of sound travelling through a material encounters a
discontinuity such as crack, void etc., there is an interface
 At this interface some energy will be reflected and some transmitted
 If the discontinuity side is air, 100% energy will be reflected
 Even for a non-metallic inclusion in a metal, most of the energy will be
reflected → principle behind detection of discontinuities by UT
70
Couplant
 The property of sound wave reflection may become a problem as when a
transducer is placed on a part, there must be an air gap, however small
 As a solid-air interface creates 100% reflection, so the sound goes
straight back into the transducer without transmitting into the solid →
there needs to be a way to exclude air using a medium that matches with
the acoustic impedance of the material
 As the medium must also allow the transducer to be scanned over the
surface of the material, it needs to be a liquid, grease or paste
 Such a substance is known as couplant
71
Couplant
 Many suitable substances can be used as couplant
 The main criteria being the best possible match and no adverse chemical
reaction between the couplant and the metal
 Most couplants only allow limited matching as liquids in general have a
low acoustic impedance
 Most couplants permit between 10-15% sound transmission → glycerine
is the best with 15% sound transmission
 Commonly used couplants are:
Water, kerosene, oil, grease, wallpaper paste, glycerine, specially
designed gels etc.
72
Displaying ultrasonic information – A scan
 A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy
as a function of time
 The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the Y-axis and
the elapsed time is displayed along the horizontal axis
 In the A-scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated
by comparing the signal amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to
that of a known reflector
 The reflector depth can be determined by the position of the signal on
the horizontal axis
73
 In the illustration of the A-scan presentation to the right, the initial pulse
generated by the transducer is represented by the signal IP, which is
near time zero
 As the transducer is scanned along the surface of the part, four other
signals are likely to appear at different times on the screen.
74
 When the transducer is in its far left position, only the IP signal and
signal A, the sound energy reflecting from surface A, will be seen.
 As the transducer is scanned to the right, a signal from the backwall BW
will appear later in time, showing that the sound has traveled further to
reach this surface.
 When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear at a point on the
time scale that is approximately halfway between the IP signal and the
BW signal.
 When the transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in
time since the sound travel path is shorter and signal B will disappear
since sound will no longer be reflecting from it. 75

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Non-destructive Testing for Failure Analysis and Prevention

24th February 2023

Photo of a rigid borescope

The forces acting on the interface between a liquid, solid

Schematics of penetrant testing: (a) application of penetrant to

 Provided the material is homogeneous, the lines of force in the internal

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Vl = longitudinal sound velocity in a material

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