The scientist is a practical [person] and [has]

practical aims. [One] does not seek the

ultimate but the proximate…On the whole
[one] is satisfied with [one’s] work, for while
science may never be wholly right it certainly
is never wholly wrong; and it seems to be
improving from decade to decade.
Gilbert Lewis
 Chem 105
Winter 2019
Lecture 12
Section 4.1-4.2, 4.6
 Quiz Question
Ionic interactions are strong because
A. the two bound ions have opposite charges
B. the electron density between the two atomic nuclei
is high
C. sharing electrons is always better
D. non-bonding electrons are placed out of the way in
lone pairs
E. metals like to gain electrons and non-metals like to
lose them
3
Covalent Bond: Energies as 2 H Atoms Come
Together
 Metallic Bonds
• Positive nucleus of each atom in
solid is attracted to electrons of
atoms around it
• Attractions coupled with overlapping
valence-shell orbitals results in
metallic bond formation
• Shared electrons form a “sea” of
mobile electrons that flow freely
among all atoms
• Cu = [Ar]3d104s1 example

• Each Cu atoms touches 12 other Cu

atoms
Naming Ionic Compounds: Metal
Cations
• Almost all binary ionic compounds formed by
main group elements contain a cation from group
1,2 or 13 with an anion from groups 15-17
Rules
• The first word is the name of the cation, which is
simply the name of its parent element
• The second word is the name of the anion, which
is the name of its parent element, except that the
ending is changed to –ide.
 Naming Ionic Compounds:
Metal Cations

Na1+ sodium ion

Mg2+ magnesium ion
Al3+ aluminum ion

Transition metals M2+ or M3+ are common

Fe2+ iron(II) ion Charge in Roman numeral

Fe3+ iron(III) ion within parentheses
 Naming Nonmetal Anions

Group 4A Group 5A Group 6A Group 7A

C4–,carbide
N3–, nitride O2–, oxide F–, fluoride

S2–, sulfide Cl–, chloride

Br–, bromide

names of monotomic ions I–, iodide

end with -ide
 Ionic Compounds
• Macroscopic salt crystals are neutral:
• total + and – charge must be equal
Na+ + Cl– ⟶ NaCl sodium chloride
2K+ + O2– ⟶ K2O potassium oxide
Al3+ + 3Cl– ⟶ AlCl3 aluminum chloride
2Fe3+ + 3O2– ⟶ Fe2O3 iron(III) oxide
• name the ions (cation anion)
• do not indicate how many ions there are – the ionic
charges dictate that
• Trick: Use charge on each ion as subscript to counter
ion
 Quiz Question

What is the correct formula for

magnesium phosphide?
Hint: phosphide = P3- and Mg2+
A. MgP
B. Mg2P3
C. Mg3P2 3Mg2+ + 2P3– ⟶ Mg3P2
D. MnP
E. Mn3P
 Ionic Compounds: Acids
• A simple approach to acids is to treat them as ionic
compounds
Rules
• Add the prefix hydro- to the name of second
element
• Replace the last syllable in the element’s name with
–ic, followed by acid.

H+ + F– ⟶ HF hydrofluoric acid
H+ + Cl– ⟶ HCl hydrochloric acid
H+ + Br– ⟶ HBr hydrobromic acid
H+ + I– ⟶ HI hydroiodic acid
 Polyatomic Ions

Groups of atoms with a charge

MEMORIZE the names and formulas

Table 4.3, p. 149 has the most common

Here’s a good chart that I will email to you:
Common Polyatomic Cations:

Common Polyatomic Anions:

same pattern applies to

Br and I oxoanions
Naming Polyatomic Ionic Compounds
• Use parentheses as needed:
– 3NH4+ + PO43– ⟶ (NH4)3PO4
– 2Fe3+ + 3SO42– ⟶ Fe2(SO4)3

• Naming rules are the same

– (NH4)3PO4 = ammonium phosphate
– Fe2(SO4)3 = iron(III) sulfate

• Trick: Use charge on each ion as subscript to

counter ion
 Oxoacids and Carboxylic Acids
• Rules:
– ClO4- (perchlorate) 🡪 HClO4 perchloric acid
– ClO3- (chlorate) 🡪 HClO3 chloric acid
– ClO2- (chlorite) 🡪 HClO2 chlorous acid
– ClO- (hypoclorite) 🡪 HClO hypochlorous acid

• Acetate CH3CO2-
• CH3CO2- + H+ ⟶ CH3CO2H acetic acid
 Naming Binary Covalent
Compounds
• Covalent compounds formed when two
nonmetal’s combine
Rules
• The first word is the name of the element in
the formula
• Second word, change the ending of the name
to –ide
• Use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms
of each type (do not use mono- with the first
element in a name)
 Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
mono=1, di=2, tri=3, tetra=4, penta=5, hexa=6,hepta=7, octa=8, nona=9, deca=10

NO nitrogen monoxide nitric oxide

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide
H2O dihydrogen monoxide water
SF4 sulfur tetrafluoride
SF6 sulfur hexafluoride
Covalent Bonds – A Simple Model

Lewis electron dot structures

Keep track of valence electrons

BONDED PAIRS: pair of electrons shared

with another atom
LONE PAIRS: pair of electrons not shared

(Later) Predict shape and properties

G. N. Lewis
1875 - 1946
 Lewis Symbols and Structure

• Element symbol, + 1 dot for each

valence electron
Na = [Ne]3s1 =

N = [He]2s22p3 =

F = [He]2s22p5 =
 Structures for Compounds
• Ions: add or remove electrons to achieve an octet
configuration (8 valence electrons)

Na+ = [Ne]

N3– = [He]2s22p6 = [Ne]

For Cl- ? Cl- = [Ar]

For NaCl ?
 Structures for Compounds
• Nomenclature
– Bonding pairs: represented by dashes

– Single Bonds: a single pair of shared electrons

– Double Bond: two pairs of shared electrons
– Triple Bond: three pairs of shared electrons

– Lone pairs: pairs of electrons not being shared

 Steps for Drawing Lewis Structures

1. Determine # valence electrons

2. Arrange elements with skeletal structure
connected with single bonds
3. Complete octet (except for H)
4. Compare # valence electrons in Lewis
structure to the # determined in step 1
5. Complete octet on central atom
(by making double or triple bonds)
 Practice Drawing Lewis Diagrams
• Draw Lewis diagrams of these
molecules
– PCl3
– HCCl3
– CH2O
– HCN
– CO32- (carbonate ion)
• Usually first atom listed in
molecular formula is central
atom unless it is hydrogen
• Work: NH3 and NH4+
Compare with your neighbor
1. Determine # valence
electrons
2. Arrange elements with
skeletal structure
connected with single
bonds
3. Complete octet (except
for H)
4. Compare # valence
electrons in Lewis
structure to the #
determined in step 1
5. Complete octet on
central atom
(making double or triple
bonds)
 Bond Order
# of bonds between a pair of atoms

Double bond Single bond

Triple
bond
Double and even
H2CO
triple bonds are
commonly observed
for C, N, P, O, and S
(used to fulfill octet
rule)

SO3

C 2F 4

C 2H 2
Nonpolar covalent bonding
• H2 example
• Equal sharing of
electrons =
nonpolar covalent
bond
• Formed when two
atoms with similar
electronegativity's
react

• Cl2, F2, O2, N2

26
 Polar Covalent Bond
HCl is POLAR (has a significant dipole
moment)
Electrons are not equally shared.
HCl has + end and – end.

Cl has a greater share of

bonding electrons than does H.

Dipole
moment
 Trend: Electronegativity
Trends can be explained
with Zeff

🡺 🡺

Typical rules of thumb for difference in electronegativity (∆χ):

∆χ<0.4 = non-polar 0.4≤∆χ≤2.0 = polar ∆χ≥ 2.0 = ionic
Not perfect, but a good approximation in most situations.
Vibrating Bonds and Greenhouse Effect
• Covalent bonds are not rigid
• Atoms stretch and bend relative to one another
• As polar bonds vibrate, the strengths of the
electrical fields produced by separation of charges
fluctuate at same frequencies as vibration
• These frequencies are identical to IR light
frequencies
• http://scied.ucar.edu/molecular-vibration-modes
 Greenhouse Effect
• CO2 can absorb IR light coming from earth
(black body emitter)
• http://scied.ucar.edu/carbon-dioxide-absorbs-a
nd-re-emits-infrared-radiation
• Energy can be used to heat surrounding gases
• IR light emitted from earth (blackbody) is
absorbed keeping it from going back into
space
• Net result = atmosphere gets warmer
 Lewis Structures: Resonance
Lewis structure for
O3

Resonance structures: same arrangement

of atoms but have bonding electrons and
lone pairs of electrons in different positions
 Resonance
1. A resonance structure is a Lewis
structure that by itself does not
accurately describe a molecule.
Several resonance structures can be
drawn to better represent it.
 Resonance
2. Resonance structures are not in
equilibrium with each other. That
means that the real molecule does
not look like one of the resonance
structures some of the time and
another resonance structure a
different time.
 Resonance
3. The actual molecule is a hybrid, a
weighted average, of all the
resonance structures.
4. The real hybrid molecule is more
stable than any of the individual
“fictional” resonance structures.
The molecule is said to be
resonance-stabilized.
How good is our Lewis structure?

• The observed structure of

ozone has
– …O—O bonds that are the
same length.
– …a formal charge of −1/2 on
both outer oxygens.
(What is a formal charge?)