Spherical Trigonometry

“Solution of triangles on the surface of a

sphere”

Keith Miller
Department of Geomatics Engineering and Land Management
Why spherical trigonometry
The Earth can be approximated as a sphere.
In surveying we measure distances and
angles.
Over large distances the Earth cannot be
assumed to be flat.
To solve trigonometric problems on the
surface of the Earth we need spherical
trigonometry.
The Sphere
Constant radius (R).
Where are meridians?
R
Where are parallels?
What is a great circle?
What is a small circle?
Considering meridians and
parallels, which form great
circles and which small circles?
Geographic coordinates
North pole Consider point P, then:
Longitude of P is the angle in
♦P
Greenwich
the equatorial plane between the
φ
Greenwich meridian and the
λ meridian of P.
Equator Latitude of P is the angle
between the equatorial plane and
the parallel of P, measure in the
South pole
meridian of P
Conventions on the Earth
North pole Longitude is degrees East or
rotation
West of Greenwich. What is the
Greenwich range of values?
West
Latitude is North or South of
East (+ve)
(-ve)

the Equator. What is the range

North (+ve)
Equator
South (-ve)
of values?
What defines Greenwich?
South pole
What defines the Equator?
Using geographic coordinates 1

X
Provide coordinates in
latitude and longitude
for the white X’s on
X the image.

X
Using geographic coordinates 2

Provide coordinates in
X latitude and longitude
for the white X’s on
the image.

X
Distance on a spherical surface 1
If two points lie on the same Meridian,
one at 40˚ North and the other 25˚ South,
what is the distance between them on the
spherical surface?
Take R as 6378 km
Is this on a great circle or a small circle?
Is it on the line of shortest distance?
Distance on a spherical surface 2
If two points lie on the 40th Parallel, one
at 40˚ West and the other 25˚ East, what is
the distance between them along the
parallel on the spherical surface?
Take R as 6378 km

Is this on a great circle or a small circle?

Is it on the line of shortest distance?
Circles and coordinates
Great circles and small circles are formed
when a plane intersects with a sphere.
What special circumstance generates a
great circle?

When working in 3D space we are

defining points using just 2 coordinates,
latitude and longitude. How is this?
Distances on a sphere
On an Earth of radius 6378 km, what is
the length of 1 degree of arc in latitude?
What is the length of 1 minute?
Why is this question specific in asking
about latitude? How does the length of 1
degree of longitude vary across the Earth?
Spherical Triangles
A spherical triangle is
formed when three great
circles intersect.

Every side of a spherical

triangle is an arc of a
great circle.
Angles on a spherical surface
B Angles A, B and C are on
c
a
a spherical surface and are
A
formed between three
b C
great circles.
Distances a, b and c are
lengths along great circle
arcs, but they are given as
angles subtended at the
centre of the sphere.
Angles in spherical triangles
C Consider the spherical
triangle formed by the
equator, Greenwich and
B
90˚ meridian.
A

What are the internal

angles A, B and C?
What is the sum of the
angles in this triangle?
Spherical Excess A

b
Spherical excess (ε) is the C
difference in the sum of the a
c

internal angles from π radians.

Note A+B+C is always more B

than π.  = (A + B + C ) − 
And, in terms of external angles:
tan 2 1
4  = tan 12 s tan 12 (s − a ) tan 12 (s − b ) tan 12 (s − c )
where: s= 1
2 (a + b + c )
Area of a Spherical Triangle A

For the internal angles of a b

spherical triangle: C
c

180   ( A + B + C )  540  a

The area of a spherical triangle is: B

R 
2
A=
180
where R is the radius of the sphere in metres.
The sine and cosine rules A

b
C
c
a
sin A sin B sin C
Sine rule: = =
sin a sin b sin c B

Cosine rule: cos b = cos a cos c + sin a sin c cos B

cos A = − cos B cos C + sin B sin C cos a
Variations obtained
Variations: cot c sin a = cos a cos B + sin B cot C
cot c sin b = cos b cos A + sin A cot C

Other formula may be derived, for example:

1 (A + B)
tan 12 (a + b )
cos
tan 12 c = 2

cos 12 ( A − B )
Napier’s rule for right angled spherical
triangles (with C being a right
90-B
angle)
sine of middle part=product of
90-c a tangent of adjacent parts
sine of middle part=product of
90-A b cosines of opposite parts
e.g.
sin (90 − B ) = tan a tan (90 − c )
c
B
A

sin (90 − B ) = cos b cos(90 − A)

b
a
C
Reconsider this problem
If two points lie on the 40th Parallel, one
at 40˚ West and the other 25˚ East, what is
the distance between them along the great
circle path on the spherical surface?
Take R as 6378 km
Distances and directions
A ship sails from Trinidad:
10º 44’ 09” North 61º 47’ 02” West
To Barbados:
13º 06’ 31” North 59º 38’ 08” West
What course should it steer?
If it travels at 8 knots how long will the
passage take?
What is the course for the return journey?
Map distances and directions
Grid coordinates for the point in Trinidad are:
423627.269 m East, 1186660.229 m North
And for Barbados:
656331.697 m East, 1450201.742 m North
What is the direction?
What is the distance?
How do these values compare with those on
the spheroidal surface?
Use of different rules
What is the direction diagonally across a 1º by
1º graticule with one side on the equator?

What is the direction diagonally across a 1º by

1º graticule with one side on a meridian at 45º
North?
Students should now be able to:
Define geographical coordinates and
circular lines of intersection between a
plane and a sphere.
Be able to apply spherical trigonometry
to solve problems involving angles and
distances on a spherical surface.