Trigonometry

Chapter 1: The Trigonometric Functions

The word “Trigonometry” is a combination of three Greek words tri which means three, gonia which means
angle, and metria which means measurement. From these three Greek words, we can say that trigonometry is
a branch of mathematics which deals with the geometric figure with three angles, the triangle. Trigonometry is
used to solve problems of astronomy, geometry, navigation, physics and other branches of mathematics.

1.1. Angles

An angle is a plane figure formed by two rays which have a common endpoint. The two rays are called
sides of the angle and the common endpoint is called the vertex. In the figure below, the sides are labeled A
and B while the vertex is labeled O.

1.2. Measuring Angles

One way of measuring an Angle is by considering the amount of rotation (about the vertex) needed to
make one side coincide with the other, say rotate OA about O to coincide with OB or rotate OB about O to
coincide with OA.

Another way of measuring an angle is by considering the length of the arc of a circle with centr at O and
intercepted by the rays OA and OB.

A third method of measuring angles is by considering the number of times that a point goes around the
circumference of a circle.

Placing our angle on the rectangular coordinate system will help us understand angle measurement.

1.2.1. Angles in Standard Position

Recall that in algebra, we used the

rectangular coordinate system to locate points in a
plane. This system consists of two perpendicular
lines, one horizontal called the x-axis and the
vertical called the y-axis. Their point of intersection
is called the origin.

The two lines are also known as the Coordinate

Axes. They divide the plane into four parts called
quadrants which are numbered counterclockwise I, II, III,
and IV starting from the upper right quadrant.
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 We locate a point on this coordinate system by its distance and direction from each axis. The
distance and direction of a point from the y-axis called Abscissa while that from the x-axis is called
Ordinate.
The Abscissa x and the ordinate and the ordinate y are called coordinates of a point and are
represented by (x,y), and is also referred to as ordered pair, meaning the first number must be the
abscissa and the second, the ordinate.

If we place the angle AOB on the rectangular coordinate system so that its vertex is at the
origin and OA is one the positive x-axis, angle AOB is said to be in standard position (see the first
figure).

If we rotate OA to coincide with OB in the second figure above, the direction of rotation is
counterclockwise, and this is taken to be positive. If the rotation is clockwise as in the third figure, the
direction is negative. The arrows in the figures indicate direction of rotation. The ray OA is termed
initial side while OB the terminal side.
1.2.2. The Degree Measure
Consider ray OA on the positive x-axis. If we rotate it counterclockwise about O and back to its
original position, the rotation is equivalent to one revolution (see figure below).

We know form geometry that the measure of an angle of one revolution on the circumference
of a circle is 360 degrees (written as 360°), hence an angle of one degree is an angle whose vertex is
at the center of the circle and whose sides subtend an arc of length 1/360 of the circumference of the
circle.

1.2.3. The Radian Measure

The measure of a central angle Ɵ subtended by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle is
equal to one radian (see figure below).

1.2.4. Revolutions, Degrees and Radians

As mentioned, 1 revolution=360 ° , this is the measure of the whole central angle of a circle. If we
consider the arc s that subtends the 360° angle, s is the circumference of the circle. In geometry,
C=2 πr , or s=2 πr , and since s=r , we have
1 revolution=2 π radians
Or
1 revolution=360 °=2 π rad

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 180°
360 °=2 π rad ⟹ 180° =π rad or 1 rad=
π
From these relationships, we can convert revolutions to degrees, degrees to radians, revolutions
to radians, and vice versa.

EXAMPLE 1: To convert 1.24 revolutions to degrees, multiply the number of revolutions by the number of
degrees per revolution, that is,
360 °
1.24 rev x =446.4 °
rev
EXAMPLE 2: To convert 1.24 revolutions to radians, multiply the number of revolutions by the number of
radians per revolution,
2 π rad
1.24 rev x =2.48 π rad
rev
π
EXAMPLE 3: To convert 250° to radians, multiply the number of degrees by ,
180°
π 25 π
250 ° x= rad= rad
180 ° 18
Or 4.36 (rounded off to two decimal places).
180°
EXAMPLE 4: To convert 2.6 rad to degrees, multiply it by ,
πrad
180°
2.6 rad x =148.96 ° ≈ 149°
πrad
1.2.5. Arc Length and Central Angle
From the definition, we know that the central angle of a radian intercepts an arc equal to the radius
(see figure below).

s
Then the number of radians Ɵ in a central angle is given by θ= .
r
EXAMPLE 1: Find the central angle of a circle of radius 9.2cm subtended by an arc of length 20.4cm long.

Solution: Given: s=20.4 cm;r =9.2 cm

Find Ɵ.
Substituting directly in our equation,
s 20.4 cm
θ= = =2.22 cm
r 9.2cm

EXAMPLE 2: What is the length of an arc subtended on a circle of radius 15cm by a central angle of 38°?

Solution: Given: θ=38° ; r =15 cm

Find s.
Since in our formula, Ɵ must be in radians. We must first convert 38° to radians. Thus,

38 °=38 ° ( 180°
π
)= 38180π rad= 1990π rad
Then we have
19 π s
=
90 15
and

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 s=15 ( )
19 π 19 π
90
=
6
.

EXAMPLE 3: Find the radius of a circle where an arc of 55.7cm subtends a central angle of 12.8.

Solution: Given: s=55.7 cm;θ=12.8

Find r.
55.7 cm
12.8=
r
55.7 cm
r= =4.35 cm
12.8
1.2.6. The Unit Circle Center at the Origin
Circle is defined as the set of all points in a plane which are equidistant from a fixed point called the
center.

Take P as a point on the circle with coordinates (x, y) and C with coordinates (h, k). Then, by the
distance formula,
PC =r= √(x −h) +( y−k)
2 2

Squaring both sides,

2 2 2
(x−h) + y−k =r
in standard equation of a circle with center at (h, k) and radius r. If we let r = 1, the resulting equation
is the equation of a unit circle with center at (h, k). If we move the center to the origin, the equation
becomes
2 2
x + y =1
which is the equation of the unit circle centered at the origin.

1.3. The Trigonometric or Circular Functions

The subject of trigonometry depends heavily on the ratios which can be formed when an angle is
placed in standard position. In the figure below, we label the angle Ɵ, then take a point P on its terminal
side with coordinates x and y, and drop a line segment from P perpendicular to the x-axis.

We now have a triangle with sides x, y and r. From the figure, we define six trigonometric ratios as

ordinate y
sineθ ¿ ¿ sin θ=
radius r
abscissa x
cosine θ ¿ ¿ cos θ=
radius r
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 ordinate y
tangent θ ¿ ¿ tanθ=
abscissa x
abscissa x
cotangent θ ¿ ¿ cot θ=
ordinate y
radius r
secant θ ¿ ¿ sec θ=
abscissa x
radius r
cosecant θ ¿ ¿ csc θ=
ordinate y

1.4. Algebraic Signs of Trigonometric Functions

When an angle is in standard position, the algebraic signs of the trigonometric functions depend
on the quadrant where its terminal side lies. If for example the terminal side of an angle Ɵ is in the
y
fourth quadrant, the algebraic sign of tanθ is negative since by definition, tanθ= , and the sign of y
x
is negative while that of x is positive. The algebraic signs of the trigonometric signs of the
trigonometric ratios are summarized in the figure below.

For the functions sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant, we need to find the distance from the
origin (0, 0) to P(x, y). The distance between two points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) is given by the formula
d= √ (x ¿ ¿2−x 1)2 +( y 2 − y 1)2 ¿ . In this case, P1(x1, y1) is P1(0, 0) so we have d= √ x 2 + y 2 and squaring
both sides, d 2=x 2 + y 2, which is the Pythagorean Theorem. We also called d the radius vector and
denote it by r.

1.5. Finding Trigonometric Function Values Given Certain Conditions

If we are given the value of one function, we can find the other five function values using the
definitions of the functions and the Pythagorean relation between the abscissa, the ordinate and the radius
vector of a point on the terminal side of the angle.

Reference Angle
Since the terminal side of an angle in standard position may lie in any of the four quadrants, it is
convenient to express the functions of angle greater than 90° in terms of the functions of an acute angle.
We do this by the use of the concept of a reference angle.

If an angle greater than 90° has its terminal side in any of the second, third, or fourth quadrant, the acute
angle between its terminal side and the x-axis is called the reference angle. The right triangle formed by
dropping a perpendicular from a point on the terminal side to the x-axis is the reference triangle and this is
a right triangle. In the figure below, the reference triangle is formed by the negative x-axis, the dotted line
which is the perpendicular, and the line segment joining P(-4, 3) to the origin.

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 −3
EXAMPLE 1. If tan θ= and 90 ° <θ<180 ° , find the values of the other trigonometric functions.
4
Solution: 90 ° <θ<180 ° means that the angle is in the second quadrant. Since by definition,
y y −3
tanθ= , then = , y=3, y is positive in QII and x=-4, x is negative in QII. Plotting
x x 4
the point on the rectangular coordinate system, we have values shown in the figure
above.

To find r, r =√(−4)2+ 32=5, positive because r is always positive. Hence the other
trigonometric functions are
3
sin θ=
5
−4
cos θ=
5
−4
cot θ=
3
5
csc θ=
3
−5
sec θ=
4

If we are given only the value of one function, we must consider two quadrants where
the angle possibly lies, and find the trigonometric function values in both quadrants, as
in the next example.
12
EXAMPLE 2. If sin θ= , find the values of the other functions.
13
y
Solution: Consider that sin Ɵ is positive in the first and second quadrants and since sin θ= , we
r
have y=12 and r =13, and by the Pythagorean relation, x=√ 132−122=∓ 5 . Next, draw
the possible locations of the angle Ɵ as shown in the figure below.

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In QI In QII
13 13
csc θ= csc θ=
12 12
5 −5
cos θ= cos θ=
13 13
13 −13
secθ= sec θ=
5 5
12 −12
tanθ= tanθ=
5 5
5 −5
cot θ= cot θ=
12 12

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