^Appendix 1

Review erf Maonometrij

1.1 ANGLES AND RADIAN MEASURE

We begin by drawing the unit circle—the circle with radius 1 centered at the origin (see
Figure 1). Angles are measured starting at the positive x-axis. An angle is positive if
it is measured in the counterclockwise direction, and it is negative if it is measured in
the clockwise direction. We measure angles in degrees, using the fact that the circle
contains 360°. Then we can describe any angle by comparison with the circle. Some
angles are depicted in Figure 2. In Figure 2e we obtained the angle - 90° by moving

(0,-1)

FIGURE 1
A2 APPENDIX 1 REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

Y 0 1 *

(b)

*-÷

FIGURE 2
in the negative (clockwise) direction. In part (f) we obtained an angle of 720° by
moving around the circle twice in the counterclockwise direction.
Figure 2 illustrates the great advantage of using circles rather than triangles to
measure angles. Any angle in a triangle must be between 0° and 180°. In a circle there
is no such restriction.
There is another way to measure angles, which, in many instances, is more
useful than measurement in degrees. Let R denote the radial line which makes an
angle of 0 with the positive x-axis. See Figure 3. Let (x, y) denote the point at which
this radial line intersects the unit circle. Then the radian measure of the angle is the
length of the arc of the unit circle from the point (1, 0) to the point (x, y).
Since the circumference of a circle is 2-ðô, where r is its radius, the circumference
of the unit circle is 277. Thus

360° = 2ôô radians. (1)

FIGURE 3
 1.1 ANGLES AND RADIAN MEASURE A3

Then since 180° = j(360°), 180° = \(2ð) = IT radians. In general, È (in degrees) is to
360° as È (in radians) is to 2ð radians. Thus (0/36O)(degrees) = (0/27r)(radians), or

180
È (degrees) = È (radians) (2)
77

and

7Ã
È (radians) = —— È (degrees). (3)
180

We can calculate that 1 radian = 180/ôô ~ 57.3° and 1° = ôô/180 « 0.0175 radians.
Representative values of È in degrees and radians are given in Table 1.
TABLE 1
È (degrees) 0 90 180 270 360 45 30 60 -90 135 120 720

3ð 7Ã IT — 7Ã 3TT 2ð
È (radians) 0 ÔÃ 2ôô 47Ã
2 2 4 6 3 4 3

The radian measure of an angle does not refer to "degrees" but, instead, refers
to distance measured along an arc of the unit circle. This is an advantage when
discussing trigonometric functions that arise in applications having nothing at all to do
with angles (see Section 7.3).
Let Cr denote the circle of radius r centered at the origin (see Figure 4). If OP
denotes a radial line as pictured in the figure, then OP cuts an arc from Cr of length L.
Let È be the positive angle between OP and the positive x-axis. If È = 360°, then L =
27JT. If È = 180°, then L = irr. In fact, it is evident from the figure that

6>° L
(4)
360° Éôç'

or

FIGURE 4
 A4 APPENDIX 1 REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

è° = 360° 7 Ã - . (5)

27JT

If we measure È in radians, then (4) becomes

È L
-z- = -z-, (6)
2ð 2éð
or
2ð1 L
«
0 = — = -. (7)
277T r
Finally, rewriting (7), we obtain

L = rd. (8)

That is, if È is measured in radians, then the angle È "cuts" from the circle of radius
r centered at the origin an arc of - length r6. Note that if r = 1, then (8) reduces to
L = È, which is the definition of the radian measure of an angle.

EXAMPLE 1 What is the length of an arc cut from the circle of radius 4 centered at the origin by an
angle of (a) 45°, (b) 60°, (c) 270°?
Solution. From (8) we find that L = 40, where È is the radian measure of the
angle. We therefore have the following:
IT ΤΓ 4-ΤΓ iTT
(a) L = 4 · - = 7Ã (b) L = 4 · - = — (c) L = 4 . — = 6ôô ■

PROBLEMS 1.1
In Problems 1-6, convert from degrees to radians.
1. È = 150° 2. È = - 4 5 ° 3. è = 300°
4. È = 72° 5. È = 144° 6. è = 1080'

In Problems 7-12, convert from radians to degrees.

7. 17712 8. 7ð/12 9. ôô/8
10. 3ôô 11. -(ôô/3) 12. 5ÔÃ/4

13. Let C denote the circle of radius 2 centered at the origin. If a radial line cuts an arc of length
ð [starting at the point (2, 0)], what is the angle (in degrees) between this line and the
positive x-axis?
14. If the radial line in Problem 13 makes an angle of 75° with the positive x-axis, what is the
length of the arc it cuts from the circle?
 1.2 THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND BASIC IDENTITIES A 5

1.2 THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

AND BASIC IDENTITIES

We again begin with the unit circle (see Figure 1). An angle 0 uniquely determines a
point (x, y) where the radial line intersects the circle. We then define

cosine 0 = x and sine 0 — y. (1)

These are the two basic trigonometric (or circular) functions, usually written cos 0 and
sin 0. Since the equation of the circle isx 2 + y 2 = 1, we see that sin 0 and cos 0 satisfy
the equation

2 2
sin 0 + cos 0 = 1 . (2)

$x,y) - (cosö, sir>0)

y = sinfl

FIGURE 1

We emphasize that cos 0 is the x-coordinate of the point (x, y) and sin 0 is the
y-coordinate. As 0 varies, cos 0 and sin 0 oscillate between + 1 and - 1 . For example,
if 0 = 0, then the radial line intersects the circle at the point (1, 0), and we have cos 0
= 1 and sin 0 = 0. If 0 = 90° = ð/2, then the radial line intersects the circle at the point
(0, 1), and we have cos 90° = cos till = 0 and sin 90° = sin TJ72 = 1. If 0 =
45° = -Ð-/4, then the radial line is the line y = x. Since x 2 + y 2 = 1 and y = x at the
point of intersection, we. see that x 2 + x 2 = 2x2 = 1, or x = y = É/ë/2 = ë/2/2. Thus
cos 45° = cos 7Ã/4 = V2/2 and sin 45° = sin ð/4 = V2/2. It will be shown in Appendix
1.4 that cos 30° = cos ð/6 = V3/2, sin 30° = sin TJ76 = \, cos 60° = cos ôô/3 = \, and
sin 60° = sin ð/3 = V3/2. The most commonly used values of cos È and sin È are given
in Table 1.
Some basic facts about the functions sin È and cos È can be derived by simply
looking at the graph of the unit circle. First, we note that if we add 360° to the angle
È in Figure 1, then we end up with the same point (x, y) on the circle. Thus

cos(0 + 360°) = cos(0 + 277-) = cos 0 (3)

and
A6 APPENDIX 1 REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

TABLE 1

ð 3ôô
τ
7Γ 7Γ
è 0 2ôô
1 4 3 2
ΤΓ

V3 V2 1
cos 0 -1
2 2 2
1 ν^ V3
sin θ 0
2 2 2

sin(0 + 360°) = sin(0 + 2ð) = sin 0. (4)

In general, if a is the smallest positive number such that/(x + a) = f(x), we say that
/ i s periodic of period a. Thus from (3) and (4) we see that the functions cos È and
sin È are periodic of period 2ð.
A glance at Figure 2 tells us the sign of the two basic functions. With all the
information above we can draw a sketch of y = cos È and y = sin È. This sketch is
shown in Figures 3 and 4.
t
X = cos Θ < 0 i i X = COS È > 0
sin 0 > 0 / = sin 0 > 0
0—■

" " V ^ + K^l

I
II

K
( \ ' ,
0
III

■ * »

x = cos 0 < O x = cos È > 0

v = sin 0 < 0 / = sin È < 0
FIGURE 2

/
, L

K-1
^ * N ^ K = cos x
1 1
« i-
f
XjL^
-2ð -37T X -7Γ / -It 0 /*3π 2ôô 6irVΛ 3ôô 4ð
2 >
< 2 2 2 f
2

K = -1

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 4
 1.2 THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND BASIC IDENTITIES A7

Now look at Figure 5a. We see that in a comparison of 0 and - 0, the

*-coordinates are the same while the y-coordinates have opposite signs. This suggests
that

cos(-0) = cos 0 (5)

and

sin(-0) = —sin 0. (6)

To obtain another identity, we add 180° = ð to 0 (Figure 5b). Then the x- and
y-coordinates of 0 + ð have signs opposite to those of the x- and y-coordinates of 0.
Thus

cos(0 + 180°) = cos(0 + TT) = -cos 0 (7)

and

sin(0 + 180°) = sin(0 + TT) = -sin 0. (8)

Several other identities can be obtained by simply glancing at a graph of the unit circle.

>-x

(-X, -V)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 5

We now obtain another identity that is very useful in computations.

Theorem 1

cos(0 + ö) = cos 0 cos ö - sin 0 sin ö.

Proof. We prove the theorem in the case 0 and ö are between 0 and IT/2. We will
leave another case as a problem (see Problem 16). From Figure 6 we see that the
arc Ñ×Ñ3 has the same length as the arc P2P^ (they are both equal to the radian
measure of the angle 0 + ø). Then the distance from Ñô to P3 is the same as the
distance from P2 to P4. Using the distance formula [see equation (1.3.2)], we
obtain
A8 APPENDIX 1 REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

FIGURE 6

PjPjt = V(c - af + (d + bf = V(e - l) 2 + f = P2Pi (9)

But

cos È = a, cos ö = c, cos(0 + ö) = e,

(10)
sin È = b, sin ö = d, sin(0 + <p) = f.

Then we square both sides of (9):

c2 - 2AC + a2 + d2 + 2bd + b2 2e + 1 + / 2 .

Since a2 + b2 = c2 + d2 = e2 + f2 = 1 (why?), we have

-lac + 2bd + 2 = -2e + 2,

or

e = ac — bd. (11)

Substituting (10) into (11) proves the theorem.

There are many other identities that can be proved by using Theorem 1. We
indicate in Table 2 some of the identities we will find useful in other parts of this text.
The proofs of these identities are suggested in the problems. We use x and y instead
of È and ö in this table. These identities will be very useful to us when we discuss
techniques of integration in Chapter 8.

tThe symbol P^P3 denotes the distance between the points P^ and P3.
 1.2 THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND BASIC IDENTITIES A9

TABLE 2 BASIC IDENTITIES I N V O L V I N G cos x

A N D sin x
(i) sin2 x + cos 2 x - 1
(ii) c o s ( - x ) = cos x
(iii) sin( — x) = - s i n x
(iv) cos(x + ð) = — cos x
(v) sin(x + 77) = — sin x
(vi) cos(7T - x) = —cos x
(vii) sin(-7T — x) = sin x

(viii) cosl— + x) = — sin x

'77
(ix) s i n | - + x

77
(x) c o s i -

(xi) sin = cos x

(xii) cos(x + y) = cos x cos y — sin x sin y

(xiii) sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
(xiv) cos(x - y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
(xv) sin(x - y) = sin x cos y - cos x sin y
(xvi) cos 2x = cos 2 x — sin2 x = 2 cos2 x - 1 1-2 sin2 x
(xvii) sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
1 + cos x
(xviii) cos — = ±
2 >- The half angle formulas
(xix) s i n ^ = cosx

1 + cos 2x
(xx) cos2 x =
2
1 — cos 2x
(xxi) sin 2 x =

„ . x + y . y
(xxii) cos y 2 sin ——^ sin —
2

(xxiii) sin x - sin y = 2 sin x +y

■cos

PROBLEMS 1.2
In Problems 1-15, use the basic identities to calculate sin È and cos È.
1. 0 = 677 2. È= -30° 3. È = 777/6
4. È = 577/6 5. È= 75° 6. È = 15°
7. È = 1377/12 8. È= -150° 9. È = -77/12
10. È = 77/8 11. È= 77/I6 [Hint: Use the result of Problem 10.]
lo
12. è = 3ôô/8 13. È= 67 14. È = 777/24
15. È = -7\°
AlO APPENDIX 1 REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

16. Prove Theorem 1 in the case 0° < È < 90° and 90° < ö < 180°.
17. Prove that cos[(7r/2) + x] = - s i n x .
18. Show that sin[(W2) + x] = cos x. [Hint: Use Problem 17 to show that sin|> + (ôô/2)] =
— cos(x + 7J-) and then use identity (iv).]
19. Use Problems 17 and 18 to show that sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y. [Hint: Start
with sin(x + y) = -COS[(TT72) + x + y] and then apply Theorem 1.]
20. Prove identities (xiv) and (xv). [Hint: Use Theorem 1, Problem 19, and identities (ii) and
(iii).]
21. Prove identities (vi), (vii), (x), and (xi). [Hint: Use Problem 20.]
22. Prove identities (xvi) and (xvii). [Hint: Use Theorem 1 and Problem 19.]
23. Prove that cos(x/2) = ±V(1 + cosx)/2. [Hint: Use identity (xvi) to show that cos x =
2 cos2(x/2) - 1.]
24. Prove identity (xix). [Hint: Use identity (i) and Problem 23.]
25. Prove identities (xx) and (xxi). [Hint: Use identities (xviii) and (xix).]
26. Prove that cos x - cos y = 2 sin[(x + y)/2] sin[(y - x)/2]. [Hint: Expand the right side by
using identities (xiii), (xv), and (xix).]
27. Prove identity (xxiii).
28. Graph the function y = 3 sin x. The greatest value a periodic function takes is called the
amplitude of the function. Show that in this case the amplitude is equal to 3.
29. Graph the function y = — 2 cos x. What is the amplitude?
30. Show that the function y = sin 2x is periodic of period IT. Graph the function.
31. Show that the function y = 4 cos(x/2) is periodic of period 4ôô. What is its amplitude? Graph
the curve.
32. Graph the curve y = 3 sin(x/3).
33. Graph the curve y = sin(x - 1). [Hint: See Section 1.8.] Show that its period is 2ð.
34. Graph the curve y = 2 sin[(x/2) + 3]. What is its period? What is its amplitude?
35. Graph the curve y = 3 cos(3x - 5). What is its period? What is its amplitude?

1.3 OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Besides the two functions we have already discussed, there are four other trig­
onometric functions, which can be defined in terms of sin x and cos x :

sin x
(1) tangent x = tan x = for cos x ¥= 0
cos A;
COS*
(ii) cotangent x = cot x for sin x Ö 0
sinx tan*
1
(iii) secant x = sec x = for cos Ï ^ O
cos*
1
(iv) cosecant x = csc x - for sin x Ö 0
sinx

Each of these four functions grows without bound as x approaches certain values.
When x —> 0 + , cot x and csc x approach + 00; and when x —» 0 ~, cot x and csc x
 1.3 OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS A l l

approach — oo. This is true because sin x > 0 for x near 0 and positive, and sin x < 0
for x near 0 and negative (see Figure 4 in Appendix 1.2). Also, cos x is near 1 for x near
0. Similarly, we obtain

lim tan x = + °°, lim tan x = — °°,

÷->ðÉ2~ ÷-+ðÉ2+
lim sec x = + °°, lim sec x = - oo,
X->TT/2-

These facts hold because cos x is positive for x < 7r/2 and x near ð/2, and cos x is
negative for x > 7J72 and x near till. (See Figure 3 in Appendix 1.2).
We also observe that

sinO 0 n 7Ã COS(TT72) 0
tan 0 = = - = 0 and cot- = , , ' = - = 0.
cosO 1 2 sin(7r/2) 1

We note that since - 1 < sin x < 1 and - 1 < cos x < 1, we have | sec x| > 1 and
|csc x| > 1. That is, sec x and csc x can never take values in the open interval ( — 1, 1).
In addition,

sin(x + 7T) -smx s m x = tan x,

tan(x + 7J-) =
cos(x + 7J-) -cosx cosx

so that tan x is periodic of period ð. Similarly, cot x is periodic of period ð. Also,

1 1
sec(x + 277·) = sec x,
cos(x + 2TT) COS x

so that sec x (and csc x) are periodic of period 2ð.

Values of tan x, cot x, sec x, and csc x are given in Table 1. Putting this
information all together and using our knowledge of the functions sin x and cos x, we
obtain the graphs given in Figure 1.

TABLE 1
■ð 3ôô
X 0
1 ~3 ~2
17
τ 2ôô

tan x —^ 1 V3 undefined
V5
1
V3 1 0 undefined 0 undefined

2
V2 2 undefined -1 undefined 1

2
csc x undefined 2 V2 1 undefined -1 undefined
VI
 A12 APPENDIX 1 REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

i
i,

1 1 '
J
|
/l
)
^Απ -ð /"
-2ir 2 / \f* ¥/ ^ÔÃ

1 1/
(a) y = tan x \l / /

(c) v = sec x (d) v = cscx

FIGURE 1

There are many identities involving the four functions introduced in this section.
However, for our purposes there are two that will prove especially useful:

1 + tan 2 x = sec2 x, (1)

1 + cot x — csc x. (2)

Both can be obtained by starting with the identity

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1

and then dividing both sides by cos2 x to obtain (1) and by sin2 x to obtain (2).

PROBLEMS 1.3
In Problems 1-15, calculate tan x, cot x, sec x, and csc x.
1. x = 6-iT 2. x = -30° 3. x = 7TT76
4. x = 5TT/6 5. x = 75° 6. x = 15°
7. x = 13-Ð-/12 8. x = -150° 9. x = -T7-/12
10. * = T7-/8 11. x = TT-/16 12. x = 3<n78
13. x = 67f 14. x = 7-Ð-/24
7-7Ã/24 15. x = -7?

In Problems 16-21, find the period of the given function and sketch the graph of the function.
16. y = tan 2x 17. y = 3 sec x/3 18. y = 4 cot(4x + 1)
 1.4 TRIANGLES A13

19. y = 2 csc 6x 20. y = - 2 tan(^ + l j 21. y = 8 sec(5x + 5)

22. Using the corresponding formulas for sine and cosine, show that
tanx - tan y
tan(x - y)
1 + tan x tan y
23. Show that
tanx + tan y
tan(x + y) =
1 — tan x tan y
24. Show that
x 1 — cos x sin x
tan
"^ = : = ~, ·
2 sin x 1 + cos x

1.4 TRIANGLES

In many elementary courses in trigonometry the six trigonometric functions are intro­
duced in terms of the ratios of sides of a right triangle. Consider the angle È in the right
triangle in Figure 1. The side opposite È is labeled "op," the side adjacent to È (which
is not the hypotenuse) is labeled "a," and the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right
angle) is labeled "h." Then we define

opposite _ op _ adjacent _ a
sin È cos È
hypotenuse ~h' hypotenuse h'
opposite _ op _ adjacent _ a
tan È = cot 6»
adjacent a opposite op '
hypotenuse _ hypotenuse _ h
sec È = csc È
adjacent opposite op

FIGURE 1

Of course, these definitions are limited to angles between 0° and 90° (since the sum of
the angles of a triangle is 180° and the right angle is 90°).
We now show that these "triangular" definitions give the same values as the
"circular" definitions given earlier. It is only necessary to show this for the functions
sin È and cos È, since the other four functions are defined in terms of them. To verify
this for sin È and cos È, we place the triangle as in Figure 2. We then draw the circle
with radius h that is centered at the origin and draw the unit circle. The triangles 0ÁÂ
A14 APPENDIX 1 REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

x2 + y2 = 1 x2+y2
FIGURE 2

and 0CD are similar (since they have the same angles). Therefore the ratios of corre­
sponding sides are equal. This fact tells us that

op I and a x
~h 1

But op/h is the triangular definition of sin 0, while y/1 = y is the circular definition of
sin È. Thus the two definitions lead to the same function. In a similar fashion, we see
that the two definitions of cos È lead to the same function.
Let L be any straight line. Its slope is the tangent of the angle È that the line
makes with the positive x-axis. To see this we look at the line parallel to the given line
that passes through the origin, and we draw the unit circle around that new line (see
Figure 3). Then the slope of the new line (which is parallel to L) that contains the
points (0, 0) and (cos 0, sin 0) is given by

*y sin g - 0
m = Ax = tan È.
cos È - 0

x2 + y2 = 1

FIGURE 3

Triangles are often useful for computations of values of trigonometric functions.

For example, we can use a triangle to prove that sin 30° = \. Look at the equilateral
triangle in Figure 4. Let the sides of the triangle have lengths of 1 unit and let BD be
the angle bisector of angle B, which is also the perpendicular bisector of side BD (this
can be proven since the triangles ABD and DBC are congruent). The length of side BD
 1.4 TRIANGLES A15

/3O 0 30°\
1/ S.1

/60° 60° \

is, from the Pythagorean theorem, equal to V3/2. Then

sin 30° =
°V _ \ _ ! _ a V3/2
„ » 3 0 0- = - = _ =
V3
_
h 1 2'

and so on. Another use of triangles is given in Example 1.

EXAMPLE 1 If sin 0 = f, calculate cos 0, tan 0, cot 0, sec 0, and csc 0.

Solution. We draw a triangle (see Figure 5). Since sin 0 = op/h = \, we set op =
3 and h = 5. Then a = V 5 2 — 3 2 = 4, and from the triangle, cos È = f, tan 0 = 1, cot
0 = | , sec 0 = f, and csc 0 = f. There is another possible answer. The function sin 0
is positive in the second quadrant. In that quadrant cos 0 is negative, tan 0 is negative,
cot 0 is negative, sec 0 is negative, and csc 0 is positive. Thus another possible set of
answers is cos 0 = - \, tan 0 = - 1 , cot 0 = - 3, sec 0 = - 1 , and csc 0 = f. In order
to get a unique answer, we must indicate the quadrant to which 0 belongs. ■

FIGURE 5

The procedure outlined in Example 1 will be useful in Chapter 8. There are many
other things that can be discussed by using triangles and are covered in any trig­
onometry course. Two interesting rules, the law of cosines and the law of sines, are stated
in Problems 11 and 13.

PROBLEMS 1.4
In Problems 1-10, the value of one of the six trigonometric functions is given. Find the values
of the other five functions in the indicated quadrant.
cos È = n; first quadrant 2. tan È = 3; first quadrant
sec È = 2; fourth quadrant 4. cot È = — 1; second quadrant
A16 APPENDIX 1 REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

5. csc è = 5; second quadrant 6. sin È = - §; third quadrant

7. sin È = - §; fourth quadrant 8. sec È = - 7; second quadrant
9. tan È = 10; third quadrant 10. cot È = 3; first quadrant

*11. Let A, B, and C be the vertices of a triangle and let a, b, and c denote the corresponding
opposite sides (see Figure 6a). Then the law of cosines states that

c2 = a2 + b2 - Tab cos C.

Prove this result. [Hint: Place the triangle as in Figure 6b. Use the circular definition of the
functions sin x and cos x to show that the coordinates of the vertex A are (b cos C, b sin C).
Then use the distance formula to find c = AB. ]

(a) (b)
FIGURE 6
12. The sides of a triangle are 2, 5, and 6. Use the law of cosines to calculate the angles of the
triangle.
13. Let ABC be the vertices of a triangle. The law of sines states that
a _ b _ c
sin A sin B sin C '

Prove this result. [Hint: Drop a perpendicular line from A to the side a (see Figure 7a or 7b).
Show that, in either case,

h . „ ft . „
- = sin B and - = sin C
c b
(in Figure 7b we need the fact that sin(7r - C) = sin C). Use these facts to complete the
proof.]

(a) (b)
FIGURE 7

14. Two angles of a triangle are 23° and 85°. The side between them has a length of 5. Use the
law of sines to find the lengths of the other two sides.