Surveying I: 1 Introduction, IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

EG 525 CE SURVEYING I (Year/Part: II/I)

Lecture: 3 hrs/week Field work practical: 3 hrs/week
Total Lecture = 45 hrs Total Field works practical = 45 hrs
Final: 80 Marks Practical (Internal) = 25 Marks
Assessment: 20 Marks Practical (Final) = 25 Marks

Books:
1. Bannister, S. Raymond: Surveying, ELBS
2. Paul R. Wolf, Russel C. Brinker: Elementary Surveying, Harper Collins College
3. Aloke De: Plane Surveying, S. Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi
4. SK Duggal: Surveying, Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

1.0 INTRODUCTION (2 hours)

[History of surveying; Principles of surveying; Disciplines of surveying; Scales, conventional symbols]

General
Surveying may be defined as the science and art of determining the relative positions of the
features on the surface of the earth, and the end product is presented in the form of
drawings (plans, maps etc.). The relative positions of the natural and man-made features are
determined by measuring horizontal distances, vertical distances (elevations), horizontal
angles, and vertical angles accurately using various surveying instrument. The result of
survey (observing, recording, computing, and plotting) is presented by making plans or
maps.
The purpose of surveying is to prepare plans or maps to show the relative positions of the
objects above, on or below the surface of the earth. Plan depicts only two dimensions
(horizontal distances), whereas map depicts three dimensions including vertical distances.
On map, vertical distances are shown or represented by contour lines. The plan or map is
drawn to some suitable scale.
Surveying is the starting point for any project. Surveying is required for the planning and
construction of engineering projects such as roadways, railways, bridges, dams, tunnels,
canals, buildings, factories, water supply, and sewerage systems etc. The principle and
practices of surveying is important and basic to civil engineer.

1.1 History of surveying

History of surveying is as old as human civilization. Surveying has been practiced since
ancient time. History reveals that the practices of surveying were used even in the primitive
age to distinguish (recognize) one person’s land from that of another. Old records show that
surveying had its origin in ancient Egypt, and it was used in ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome.

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 Surveying I: 1 Introduction, IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

The Babylonians practiced some type of surveying as early as 2500 B.C. Some form of
surveying was used in India and Egypt to divide the land for taxation purpose in 1400 B.C.
Some of these plots used to be swept away by the floods of Nile every year. Surveying
methods were used in the Nile valley civilization to reestablish the boundary using ropes
with markers at unit distance. Ropes were used for layout of the sides and checking the
square of the rectangles. The amazing precision with which the pyramids were set out
indicates the existence of good surveying techniques.
Romans developed new improved methods of surveying such as measuring wheels called
odometers for measuring distances, and cross-staff for layout of right angles. In first century
A.D., Frontinus was the best known among the Roman surveyors.
Many ancients believed that the earth was flat. It was realized later that it is a curved body
by noting the earth’s circular shadow on the moon and watching ships gradually disappear
as they sailed toward the horizon. The determination of the true shape and size of the earth
then became the question to be solved. Eratosthene of Greece was one of the first to do so.
Even with the crude methods of time, he computed a value of 25,000 miles for the earth’s
circumference, surprisingly close to the true value. Today a more precise value is established
using better instrument.
Significant advances were made in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Telescope was
invented in the 19th century that caused rapid development in surveying. Methods of
surveying and invention of survey instrument were further improved in 20th century. Optical
theodolite, and precise leveling instrument were invented. Electronic distance measuring
(E.D.M.) instrument was introduced for very accurate measurement of distances.
Photogrammetric survey has been developed. Modern techniques of surveying at present
are EDM equipment, laser devices, remote sensors, and computers.

1.2 Principles of Surveying

Principles of surveying are:
1. Working from whole to the part.
First of all surveyor should establish widely spaced large main framework or major control
points (A, B, and C) with great precision for the whole area to be surveyed. After
establishing major control points, measurement of subsidiary framework or minor control
points (D, E, and F) can be established in between these control points to a relatively less
precision to locate detail points. This principle “Working from whole to the part” helps to
prevent the accumulation of errors.
A

D G
E

I H
F
B C

Figure: ABC: Main framework; DEF: Minor framework; GHI: Smallest framework

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 Surveying I: 1 Introduction, IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

2. Fixing a point with reference to two fixed points.

On any area to be surveyed, it will always be possible to choose two points and to
measure the distance between them. Two fixed points are selected and the distance
between them is measured accurately. The two measurements from two fixed points can
be:
a. Linear measurement (two distances)
b. Angular measurement (two angles)
c. Both linear and angular measurement (one distance and one angle)
C C C

ө
A B A B A B
a. Linear measurement, D measure BC, ө
measure AC, BC Measure CD at right angles to AB, AD is known
C c. Both linear and angular measurement

Ө1 Ө2
A B
b. Angular measurement, measure Ө1,
Ө2
Figure: Fixing a point ‘C’ with reference to two fixed points ‘A’ and ‘B’

3. Independent
, Check
Errors can still occur in the finished plan even with all the checking procedures the
surveyor employs, for this reason final independent checks are required. For example,
the three angles of a triangle would be observed although only two are required to
define the shape. The third angle could be deduced but, when measured, acts as
independent check. Similarly, although two measurements are sufficient to locate a
station from the two reference point, a third measurement is taken to serve as a check.
4. Consistency in work
The degree of precision of work should be consistent.
5. Required Precision/Accuracy within the permissible limit
Precision: Precision denotes the degree of agreement between several measures of a
quantity. If a quantity is measured several times and the values obtained are very close
to one another, the precision is high. However, it does not necessarily mean that
accuracy is high, because the values though close to one another may not be close to the
true value.
Accuracy: Accuracy denotes the closeness or nearness of a measurement to its true or
actual value. If the measured value is very close to its true value, it is very accurate.
Accuracy indicates the nearness to the true value. Accuracy is the degree of perfection
achieved in measurement.
Permissible limit of error in linear measurement = greater than 1: 2000

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 Surveying I: 1 Introduction, IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

1.3 Disciplines of Surveying

Surveying is divided primarily into geodetic surveying and plane surveying.
Geodetic surveying: In geodetic surveying, large area of the earth’s surface is involved such
as a whole country. Owing to the curvature of the earth’s surface, the measured distances
on the earth’s surface are actually curved. Hence, earth’s curvature must be considered in
geodetic surveying. High accuracy measurement techniques are associated with geodetic
surveying, and measurements must be taken to the highest possible standard.
Points associated with geodetic surveying are:
1. Curved shape of the earth is taken into account.
2. Measurements for geodetic surveys are made to a higher order of accuracy.
3. Geodetic surveys are used for the production of accurate maps of large areas.
4. Geodetic surveys are used for establishing precise points of reference. These points
serve as control points for surveys covering small area.
5. Directions of plumb lines at various points are different.
Plane surveying: In plane surveying, relatively small area is involved and earth’s surface is
assumed to be as flat. Actual field measurements (horizontal angles and distances) when
plotted will represent the projection on the horizontal plane. A horizontal plane is one which
is normal to the direction of gravity. But owing to the curvature of the earth such a plane will
in fact be tangential to the earth’s surface at that point. If a large area is considered, a
discrepancy will become apparent between the area of the horizontal plane and the actual
curved area of the earth’s surface.
Area up to 250 km2, plane surveying can be used in civil engineering projects as the
discrepancy is not serious. Degree of accuracy in plane surveying is comparatively low. Plane
surveying can be used when great accuracy is not required. In plane surveying, a line joining
any two points is considered to be straight. The triangle formed by any three points is
considered as a plane triangle and the angles of the triangles are considered as plane angles.
Points associated with plain surveying are:
1. Plane surveying ignores the curved shape of earth.
2. Plane surveying is used for small areas.
3. Curved line on the surface of the earth is considered as mathematically straight.
4. Directions of plumb lines at various points are assumed to be parallel to one another.
5. Spherical angles are considered as plane angles.
6. Standard of accuracy is lower than that in geodetic surveying.
Surveying may be classified in a variety of ways:
A. Classification based upon the nature of the field of survey:
1. Land survey 2. Astronomical survey
3. Hydrographic, Marine and Navigation survey
B. Classification based upon the purpose of the survey:
1. Archaeological survey 2. Engineering survey
3. Geological survey 4. Military survey
5. Mine survey

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 Surveying I: 1 Introduction, IOE class notes 2011, compiled by: Vishwa Nath Khanal

C. Classification based upon the methods of survey:

1. Triangulation survey
2. Traverse survey
D. Classification based upon the use of instrument:
1. Chain survey 2. Compass survey
3. Leveling survey 4. Plane table survey
5. Theodolite survey 6. Tacheometric survey
7. Photogrammetric survey 8. Aerial survey
9. EDM survey

Land survey: Land survey may be further classified as:

1. Topographical survey
2. Cadastral survey
3. City survey
4. Engineering survey
Engineering survey are made for civil engineering works like design of hydropower, roads,
buildings, bridges, dams, water supply and sewerage systems etc.