MBGE102/BIOE207

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND

GENETICS / INTRODUCTION TO
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND
GENETICS
Peyman Pınar Ince
 Molecular Biology
• Molecular Biology is the field of biology that studies the
composition, structure and interactions of cellular molecules – such
as nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) and proteins – that carry out the
biological processes essential for the cell's functions and
maintenance.

• Molecular biology also teaches us how the interactions between

these molecules are regulated.

• Since the late 1950s and early 1960s, molecular biologists have
learned to characterize, isolate, and manipulate the molecular
components of cells and organisms which include DNA, the
repository of genetic information; RNA, a close relative of DNA;
and proteins, critical and complex molecules that have various
functions in a cell (structure, support, regulation)
 What Can Molecular Biology Be Used For?
1. For the identification and understanding of diseases
2. For the diagnoses and treatment of diseases (gene therapy)
3. For understanding protein functions
4. For understanding the genomes and evolution of organisms
5. For the genetic manipulation of animals and plants
6. Forensic science
7. Virology
8. Food industry (microbial safety)
9. Environmental sciences
MANY MORE!
What does a molecular biologist do?
https://www.careerexplorer.com/
careers/molecular-biologist/
Timeline of Molecular Biology
 The Central Dogma

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZHs-TZtWKQ
The Central Dogma
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• DNA is a nucleic acid that contains
the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all
known living organisms and some
viruses.

• Stores biological information in units

known as nucleotides.

• DNA has a double helical structure

and is made up of two strands.

• The strands are made up of

nucleotides, which have a
nitrogenous base, sugar group and
phosphate group.
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

DNA
alphabet:
G, C, A, T

Sequence of
bases/nucleotides
specify which
proteins an
organism will make.
 Genes
• Genes are DNA segments or specific
sequences of nucleotides that carry
genetic information.

• Genes code for all proteins in our cells.

• Genes hold the information to build

and maintain an organism's cells and
pass genetic traits to offspring
Genes
DNA to Proteins
DNA to Proteins
Structure and Characteristics of Nucleic Acids
Genetic Information is Carried in DNA
 Locations of DNA and RNA in a Cell
• DNA is found in the nucleus of • DNA is also found in small amounts in
eukaryotic cells. mitochondria (mtDNA) and chloroplasts.

• RNA is everywhere in the cell.

 Characteristics of Nucleotides (DNA)

2 parts of a Nucleoside

Nitrogenous
Base

Pentose Sugar
1) A nitrogenous (nitrogen containing) base 1) A nitrogenous (nitrogen containing) base
2) A pentose sugar- deoxyribose (a monosaccharide 2) A pentose sugar -deoxyribose (a
with 5 carbons) monosaccharide with
3) One or more phosphate groups 5 carbons)
Characteristics of Nucleotides (DNA vs RNA)

OH OH
Characteristics of Nucleotides Continued
Nitrogenous bases come from two parent groups of
compounds; pyrimidines and purines.
Characteristics of Nucleotides Continued

• Purines consist of a six-membered

and a five-membered nitrogen-
containing ring, fused together.
• Adenine (A) and guanine (G) bases are purines
• They are found in both DNA and RNA.

• Pyrimidines have only a six-membered

nitrogen-containing ring.
• Uracil (U), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) are
pyrmidines
• Cytosine is found in both DNA and RNA.
• Uracil is found only in RNA.
• Thymine is normally found in DNA
Carbon Numbering of Sugar Groups
 Base Pairing in DNA

• Each base is paired with a specific

base partner in DNA
A is always paired with T
G is always paired with C
Purine with Pyrimidine

• Thus, the sister strands are

complementary but not
identical
 Base Pairing in DNA

• Each base is paired with a specific

base partner in DNA
A is always paired with T
G is always paired with C
Purine with Pyrimidine

• Thus, the sister strands are

complementary but not
identical
 What are the bonds in DNA?
DNA’s double helix is held together with
bonds:

1) COVALENT BONDS
• Found between the sugar group of one
nucleotide and the phosphate group of
another nucleotide
• Also called ‘Sugar phosphate backbone’

2) HYDROGEN BONDS
• Found between the bases
• 2 Hydrogen bonds between A=T
• 3 Hydrogen bonds between G=C
 DNA Strands are Antiparallel

• The sister strands

of the DNA molecule
run in opposite
directions
(antiparallel)
 Chromosomes
• Chromosomes are thread-like
structures located inside the
nucleus of animal and plant
cells.

• Each chromosome is made of

protein and a single molecule of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

• Passed from parents to

offspring, DNA contains the
specific instructions that make
each type of living creature
unique.
 Chromosomes
• The unique structure of
chromosomes keeps DNA tightly
wrapped around spool-like
proteins, called histones.

• Without such packaging, DNA

molecules would be too long to
fit inside cells.

• For example, if all of the DNA

molecules in a single human cell
were unwound from their
histones and placed end-to-end,
they would stretch 6 feet.
 Chromosomes
• The number of the chromosomes
varies between species.

• Eukaryotes have sets of

chromosomes from both parents
and are diploid (2n)
One from mom and one from
dad

• Prokaryotes and sex cells have one

set and are haploid (n)

• Matching pairs of maternal and

paternal chromosomes are called
‘Homologous Chromosomes’
 Human Chromosomes
Humans have 46 chromosomes
• 46 chromosome means 23 sets
of chromosomes
• 22 sets are homologous pairs
• 1 set is sex chromosomes
• 1 set of sex chromosomes is
composed of XX in females,
while it in males it is XY

Other living things?

• Fruit flies have 4 pairs of
chromosomes
• Rice plant has 12 pairs of
chromosomes
• Dogs have 39 pairs of
chromosomes
Human Karyotype