Forest Fire Management

Forest fire through ages

Fire has been a major influencing factor on the development and Management of many of

the world's forests. Some forest ecosystems have evolved in response to frequent fires from natural

causes, but most others are susceptible to the effects of wildfire. Each year millions of hectares of

the world's forests are consumed by fire, which results in enormous economic losses because of

burnt timber; degraded real estate; high costs of suppression; damage to environmental,

recreational and amnesty values; and loss of life.

Forest fire- the major cause of forest degradation

Forest fire is a major cause of injury and loss to forests. With the population increase, the

frequency and subsequent damage due to forest fire is increasing day by day. The impact of the

fire is diverse on the forest ecosystem. Besides directly damaging the forest trees, the fire also

adversely affects forest regeneration, microclimate, soil erosion, and wild life etc. In most of the

Cases, the forest fire causes retrogression of forest vegetation. Forest fire is one of the major

degenerating factors, which extensively damages the growing stock and its generations and making

area vulnerable to Erosion. It has wide-ranging adverse ecological, economic and social

implications. Forest fires in India are generally ground fires. About 35 million hectares of forest

area is affected by fires annually. About 95 per cent of the forest fires are caused by human beings,

especially to promote new flush of grasses, collection of minor forest produce or to prepare land.

Every year, millions of hectares of forests are consumed by fire, with loss of human

and animal life and substantial economic damage along with loss of biodiversity and release

of carbon to the atmosphere. Generally it is said that the human activities are depleting these

green carbon stocks and releasing Carbon-di-oxide into the atmosphere.

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 Forest fires are considered as one of the major causes of degradation of forests

worldwide. Fire depending on where, when and why it occurs can be either an essential factor

or otherwise in the ecological cycle it is a destructive unnatural threat. The positive effects of

fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. The negative

effects of fire include hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution, and water

contamination. Though some forest ecosystems have adapted to frequent fires and benefit

from them, others are damaged by them.

The biggest effect fire has on wildlife is the change in their habitats. Wildlife habitats, the

forests, are not static; they evolve and respond to disturbances as do other natural systems. Fire

changes the proportion, arrangement, and characteristic of habitats across the landscape.

Immediately after a fire, there can be temporary loss of food and shelter. Fires can cause the

displacement of territorial birds and mammals, which may upset the local balance and ultimately

result in the loss ofwildlife.

Burned forests become impoverished of small mammals, birds and reptiles, and carnivores

tend to avoid burned over areas. The reduction in densities of small mammals such as rodents can

adversely affect the food supply for small carnivores. Fires also destroy leaf litter and its associated

arthropod community, further reducing food availability for omnivores and carnivores.

In forests where fire is not a natural disturbance, it can have devastating impacts on forest

vertebrates and invertebrates - not only killing them directly, but also leading to long-term indirect

effects such as stress and loss of habitat, territories, shelter and food. The loss of key organisms in forest

ecosystems, such as invertebrates,pollinators and decomposers, can significantly slow the recovery rate of

the forest.

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Causes of fire

Forest fires may be caused by many different types of factors. Some of these cause include-

Natural causes - fires caused by lightning, and fires caused by volcanic eruption, which are rare in

Indian context.

Manmade — fires caused by both intentionally and unintentionally. In India, about 99% of forest

fires are human related and most of the forest fires are caused by the people deliberately and have a

close relationship to their socio- economic conditions

Intentional causes include-

1. Fire set in an attempt to encroach forestlands

2. For renewal of pastures at the expense of forests

3. Fire caused by poachers, timber smugglers etc

4. To destroy evidences of illegal activities

For concealing the illicit felling - Smugglers and poachers many times start forest

fires to hide the stumps of illicit felling. The poachers Use forest fires for terrorizing wild

animals and hunting too.

5. Fires caused by the burning of waste in illegal dumps etc

6. Fire caused by adjoining land owners to avoid forest fire entering their lands.

7. Fire by grazers for fresh growth of grass for their cattle.

To get good grass / fodder crop- Forest fires are also caused intentionally to meet

the need of fodder for grazing cattle. In the country although some 12.5 million hectares of

land is officially classified as permanent pasture or grazing land, most of this area is

virtually devoid of grass. Thus a major portion of the grazing requirement is met from

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 forest area by setting fires to produce new flushes of grass in the dry Season.

8. Fire to facilitate easy Non Timber Forest Produce collection.

Collection of NTFP by tribal or other local habitants residing near the forest has

been one of the major causes of forest fire. To facilitate collection of NTFP the collectors

ignite fire, which accidentally may spread in the forest, resulting into major fire. While the

intention is only to clear a small patch beneath a single tree, these fires often spread out of

control.

9. Fire thrown after honey collection

10. To scare away / flush out animals to hunt

Villagers residing in or near the forest many times light up fire in the forest to keep

the wild animals away from their crop and cattle. Sometimes when this fire is not put out

completely, it may result in a disastrous forest fire.

Hunting by tribals- Forest tribal for searching wild animals and their nests/ homes

often set wild grass on fire. For preventing growth of Leeches also, fires are ignited by

local inhabitants.

11. Incendiary fires against forest officials/policies etc

In some cases forests may also be set on fire by some miscreants in order to settle

scores with the forest department or its staff.

12. For cleaning forest paths by the villagers

Many times villagers set small fires to clear off path from dry litter i.e. Tree twigs,

branches, leaves etc. This fire, when becomes uncontrollable, turns disastrous.

13. Charcoal making and illicit arrack distillation in the forest

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 Small and medium scale charcoal making industries (both legal and illegal) and

illicit arrack distillation are common in Indian forests. Parks from these activities may lead

to fires in the forest.

14. Sparks from the house kitchens near the forest

Habitations are common within or near the forests in India. The households residing

here use fire wood as fuel for cooking and other purposes. Sparks from such burning may

sometime result in fire in the nearby forest.

15. Heating coal tar for road construction

During road construction in forest areas, the charcoal heat to smelt coal tar may

light up the dry Litter resulting in huge forest fire.

Unintentional/negligentcauses include-

1. Fire leftover by travelers, campers and picnickers

Careless throwing of cigarettes, bidi stubs, match sticks by Grazers/ travelers-

Travelers, picnickers, nomadic grazers, villagers or even forest labourers some time throw

un-extinguished cigarettes, bidis, and match sticks in the forest areas. When accompanied

by little/ strong winds, this may result in fires capable of destroying valuable timber worth

lakhs of rupees.

Negligence in camp fires and working operations near camping Ground and fairs -

Un-extinguished camp fires of trekkers, labour camps, nomads moving through the forest

with their animals or the fires of road side charcoal panniers, when not put out properly

lead to devastating forest fires.

2. Fire that escape from neighboring agricultural lands while clearing agricultural residues

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 After a harvest, farmers set fire to their Agricultural fields. Many times, when these

fires are not put out completely, may spread to the adjoining forest areas.

3. Fire that escape from prescribed burning/control burning etc.

Just before the onset of the fire prone season, forest department do controlled

burning in forest areas. Controlled burning is done to burn all the combustible material in

the forest before the dry season to prevent major forest fires. Sometimes due to carelessness

this fire may spread and result into large inferno.

4. Sparks from transformers or vehicles passing through the Forest-

The sparks from transformers installed in the forest or near it may sometimes results

into fires in forest. Similarly the sparkles from the vehicles passing through the area may

also ignite fires in the forest Areas.

Natural causes

Natural causes, that originate the Forest Fire, can be summarized as follows: -

1. Lightning during thunderstorms may lead to the occurrence of Forest fires. Many forest

fires start from natural causes such as lightning which set trees on fire. Periodic lightning

induced fires have been recorded throughout history from India. But this will be an isolated

fire as other fuel loads may be wet or in unfavorable conditions mostly.

2. In dry season, friction leading to sparks by rolling stones in the mountainous areas may

lead to forest fires. This occurs only when there is considerable combustible material is

present on the floor. Even small sparks are enough to generate a fire, which may be fanned

by strong winds. The dry grass worked as a fuel, fast blowing wind supplied oxygen in

plenty resulting in speedy spread of fire and according to the villagers falling of hard

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 quartzite stones Produced sparks which ignited the fuel.

3. In bamboo areas, forest fires may occur by the rubbing together of clumps of dry bamboos.

TYPES OF FOREST FIRE

Forest fires are not always same; they may differ, depending upon its nature, size, spreading

speed, behavior etc. Basically forest fires can be sub grouped into four types depending upon their

nature and size –

SURFACE FIRES

Surface fire is the most common forest fires that burn undergrowth and dead material along

the floor of the forest. It is the type of fire that burns surface litter, other loose debris of the forest

floor and small vegetation. In general, it is very useful for the forest growth and regeneration. But

if grown in size, this fire not only burns ground flora but also results to engulf the undergrowth

and the middle storey of the forest. Surface fires spread by flaming combustion through fuels at or

near the surface- grass, dead and down limbs, forest needle and Leaf litter, or debris from

harvesting or land clearing. This is the most Common type of fire in timber stand of all species. It

may be a mild, Low-energy fire in sparse grass and pine needle litter, or it may be a very Hot, fast

moving fire where slash, flammable under story shrubs or other Abundant fuel prevails. A surface

fire if spread may burn up to the taller Vegetation and tree crowns as it progresses.

UNDERGROUND FIRES

The fires of low intensity, consuming the organic matter beneath and the surface litter of

forest floor are sub-grouped as underground Fire. In most of the dense forests a thick mantle of

organic matter is found on top of the mineral soil. This fire spreads in by consuming such material.

These fires usually spread entirely underground and burn for some meters below the surface.

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 This fire spreads very slowly and in most of the cases it becomes very hard to detect and

control such type of fires. It may continue to burn for months and destroy vegetative cover of the

soil. The other terminology for this type of fire is Muck fires.

GROUND FIRES

These fires are fires in the sub surface organic fuels, such as duff layers under forest stands and

organic soils of swamps or bogs. There is no clear distinction between underground and ground

fires. The smoldering underground fire sometime changes into ground fire. This fire burns root

and other material on or beneath the surface i.e. Burns the herbaceous growth on forest floor

together with the layer of organic matter in various stages of decay. They are more damaging than

surface fires, as they can destroy vegetation completely. Ground fires burn underneath the surface

by smoldering combustion and are more often ignited by surface fires. Thus a ground fire

consumes the organic material beneath the surface litter of the forest floor. A true ground fire

spreads by a slowly smoldering edge with no flame and little smoke. These fires are often hard to

detect and are the least spectacular and slowest moving. Fighting such fire is very difficult.

CROWN FIRES

Crown fire is the most unpredictable fires that burn the top of trees and spread rapidly by

wind. In most of the cases these fires are invariably ignited by surface fires. This is one of the most

spectacular Kinds of forest fires which usually advance from top to down of trees or shrubs, more

or less interdependent of surface fires. In dense conifer stands with a brisk wind, the crown fire

may race ahead of the supporting surface fire). Since it is over the heads of ground force it is

uncontrollable until it again drops to the ground, and since it is usually fast moving, it poses Grave

danger to the fire fighters becoming trapped and burned.

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FIRESTORMS

Among the forest fires, the fire spreading most rapidly is the firestorm, which is an intense

fire over a large area. As the fire burns, heat rises and air rushes in, causing the fire to grow. More

air makes the fire spin violently like a storm. Flames fly out from the base and burning ember spew

out the top of the fiery twister, starting smaller fires around It. Temperatures inside these storms

can reach around 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit

Along with nature and behavior, the forest fires can also be categorized according to human

management action. On this basis, fires in forest may be

Categorized as management ignited Fires and prescribed natural fires.

Management ignited prescribed Fires are ignited in order to meet a Land management plan

objectives, Such as debris removal or wildlife Habitat improvement. Prescribed natural fires are

those that are allowed to burn under an approved plan and preserve the natural role of fires in the

ecosystem. Besides these, the fire may further be categorized based on their peculiar behavior.

There is specialized vocabulary used by the wild fire community for describing different

types of fire behavior.

• A fire is said to be running when it is spreading rapidly it is creeping when it is spreading

slowly with low flames

• A fire is smoldering when it burns without a flame and is barely spreading.

• A fire is said to be spotting when it is producing sparks or embers that are carried by the

wind or by the combustion column caused by the fire and start new fires beyond the main

fire. The new ignition points are called spot fires.

• A fire is torching when it moves from one crown to another fire into the crowns of

individual trees, but not necessary from one crown to another.

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 • It is crowning when it spreads from tree to tree usually in Conjunction with, but sometimes

completely independent of the surface fire.

• A flare-up is a sudden acceleration of fire spread or intensity, of relatively short duration

for a portion of the fire.

• A blowup, on the other hand is a dramatic change in the behavior of the whole fire, the

point of rapid transition to a severe fire.

Factors that influence forest fire and its severity

Factors that influence forest fire and its severity are:

1. Forest type and density:

The availability of flammable material induces fire. All kind of plant residues, trees, shrubs,

grass forms the fuel load or base for fire. In a forest environment, Forest type and density

contributes for the fuel load.

2. Climatic factors:

The climatic condition influences vegetation type and density of a particular locality and

hence the climatic condition plays a role in the availability of fuel load. Warmer climate

allows fuels to dry faster, adding to the rate of fire incidents; while moisture lower the rate

of fire incidents. Precipitation has a direct impact on fire prevention.

3. Topographic factors:

The lay of the land has a direct influence on forest fire behavior. Elevation, Aspect and

Slope affect the microclimatic condition and indirectly influences vegetation. Slopes,

exposed to direct rays of sun are more vulnerable to catch fire. Depending upon the slope,

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 fire travels uphill much faster than downhill. In higher elevations the velocity of wind will

be high, which influences the spread of fire.

4. Human influence:

Human interference leads to increased incidents of forest fire. The proximity of forests to

roads and settlements provide chances for both willful and accidental fire.

Weather

Fire intensity and behavior are intricately linked to weather and climate. Day-to-day

weather influences the likelihood that fires will ignite, grow, and spread.

Seasonal weather patterns influence the onset, Duration, and severity of the fire season.

Over the longer term, shifts in climate caused by anthropogenic Global warming may

further alter India’s forest Landscape and fire regime.

Weather conditions in the summer months serve as more immediate predictors of shorter-

term fire danger in the coming days or weeks. Detailed RF-level analysis using monthly

weather data and satellite fire detections reveals that weather during the previous weeks or

months in the summer can potentially negate the longer-term effects of above- or below-

average monsoon rainfall during the previous year.

The analysis

Also shows that a marginal increase in precipitation or wet days in previous months without

higher rainfall during the current month can also lead to higher odds of fire. One possible

explanation is that higher precipitation in earlier months may stimulate the growth of

grasses and other vegetation and increase the availability of fine fuels later. If rainfall

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 continues to be higher than normal, then the added moisture during the present month will

decrease the odds of fire.

Drought

Lack of moisture leads to the enhanced flammability of fine fuels such as dried-out grasses

and decaying organic material such as buried roots.

Impacts of forest fire

Forest fires cause wide ranging adverse local, regional and global, social, economic and

ecological impacts like

• degradation of water catchment areas resulting in loss of water,

• Soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production,

• Change in micro climate of the locality and altering living conditions,

• Loss of valuable timber resources and production

• Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover,

• Loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals

• Loss of wildlife habitat global warming

• Depletion of carbon sinks increase percentage of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,

resulting in a rise in temperature etc.

Adverse impacts of forest fire

Forest fires are a major cause of degradation of forests/ environment. Despite lack of

reliable information about forest fire, it is clear that the acreage of forest area burnt today

is much more than ever before, all over the world.

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FOREST FIRES

In about 95 percent cases are anthropogenic and result into wide ranging adverse

ecological, economical and social impacts.

The Forest Survey of India data on forest fire attribute around 50 Percent of the forest areas

as fire prone. This does not mean that fires affect country's 50 percent area annually.

Only 6.17 percent of the Indian forests are subjected to severe fire damage annually. In

absolute terms, out of around 63 million hectares of forests, an area of around 37.3 Lakhs

Hectares can be presumed to be affected by fires annually.

Uncontrolled fires not only burn down the vegetation, but also the surface organic matter,

increasing the frequency of flooding and causing soil erosion. In addition, wildlife patterns

and habitat are also disrupted by fire. The situation is exacerbated by lack of fire protection

planning knowledge and incentive.

Impact of fires on forests even after decades includes diseases, insect attacks, and

watershed damages. If one restricts consideration of damage due to forest fires only to loss

of lives, then fires do negligible damage and that is why damage due to fires does not get

the attention it deserves. Fortunately, the whole world is now concerned about climate

change and one of the culprits of climate change is forest fire.

Uncontrolled fires affect forest resources in a variety of ways. Regeneration is killed or

dies back, thereby delaying the establishment of a new crop and extending the rotation.

Although in older crops the trees develop thick bark, which protect them from small fires;

intense fires may destroy them too.

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 Repeated burnings result into destruction of the ground flora, ultimately leading to site

deterioration and thus changes in soil nutrient status and accelerated erosion. This also

reduces the vegetative growth rate.

The cumulative loss of annual increment depends on the severity of the fire, but generally

lies in the range of one to three years' growth. Timber quality is affected by scorching from

the base of the tree, which damages the cambium, leading to defective butt logs. Fungal

infection may occur through the damaged tissues and cause rot.

Loss of valuable timber resources

Forest fires cause indispensable loss to timber and deteriorate its quality. Valuable timber

species like teak, rosewood etc are adversely affected by fire.

Degradation of water catchments areas resulting into loss of water-

After forest fire, soil moisture is decreased and litter decomposition becomes almost

negligible, which creates a possibility of forest fire in future. Just after fire, the chemical

and physical changes in upper layer of soil make it impervious and thus reduce water

infiltration. The removal of litter also decreases water holding capacity of soil and most of

the rainwater is washed away removing top fertile soil of the forest resulting into loss of

soil fertility.

Loss of wildlife habitat and depletion of wildlife-

Forests are the habitat of many wild animals. Sometimes the local people put the fire and

drum beats to keep the wild animals away, but when fire becomes uncontrolled, the

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 problem of survival of animals and their habitat arises. Wildfire along with killing wild

animals also destroys their habitat and thus makes their survival at stake.

Forest fire dramatically impacts the animal life. Animals are first to lose their lives due to

heat generated. Eggs of birds and insects are destroyed due to fire impact. Some animals

have a natural threat warning system and usually migrate from the danger areas. The birds

also save themselves by migration, but their eggs are usually destroyed. Such migration of

birds and the animals in normal condition is not permanent and they return back when the

conditions are normalized.

Loss of natural vegetation and reduction of forest cover-

As a result of fires, millions of hectares of the forest area turn to ashes and remains of no

use. Among various degradation factors, forest fire is also one of the major factors for

overall loss in forest cover. The wild fires have adverse impact on forest tree growth.

Global warming-

One of the major culprits of climate change is forest fire. The immediate effect of

vegetation burning is the production and release of gases including carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide, Methane, non-methane hydrocarbons, nitric oxide, methyl chloride and various

other gases, which are released and returned to the atmosphere in a matter of hours. The

burning of forest also destroys an important sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Hence,

burning has a significant role in the world’s carbon dioxide budget. If the burned ecosystem

regrows, the carbon dioxide is eventually removed from the atmosphere through

photosynthesis and is incorporated into the new vegetative Growth. Other gaseous

emission, however, remain in the atmosphere.

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 The depletion of ozone layer gets started as a result of these noxious Gases. This ozone

layer depletion not only results in various adverse impacts but also further increases the

chances of forest fire in future.

Green house gases released during the combustion of vegetations lead to an increased

warming of the earth or human induced global climate change. Studies suggest that

biomass burning has increased on a global scale over the last 100 years and calculations

indicate that hotter earth resulted from global warming will lead to more frequent water

related calamities and larger fires.

Microclimate change:

The changed microclimate caused by removal of litter and duff, opening of the canopy by

killing over storey shrubs and trees and darkening of the soil surface by residual soot and

charcoal can increase insulation causing temperature increase. As a result the changed area

becomes unhealthy for living of both wild habitats and local people.

Soil erosion:

The scientific studies indicate that erosion of the soil from the forest land depends on many

factors i.e. the soil porosity, its mineral composition, the texture, the gradient of the land

and length etc. All these factors decide the ease with which the individual soil particles are

detached. Though the erosion of soil during low scale forest fire is a natural phenomenon,

yet during severe fire conditions, this process turns into more serious problems, both for

environment and habitat. Anthropogenic activities such as fire suppression, logging and

road construction in forest areas have adversely affected the soil stability. The fire impact

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 on forest floor may vary from just removing the litter to the total consumption of the forest

fuel and alteration of the soil mineral structure.

The most intense forest fire always has a direct heating effect on the soil at the depth below

7 to 10 cm. As a result, the soil of the fire affected area loses its water holding capacity and

becomes vulnerable for erosion. Due to consumption of the forest organic residue by fires,

the mineral soil is exposed and consequently its infiltration and water holding capacity are

automatically reduced. Burning of vegetation also reduces the amount of rain fall

infiltration by the forest canopy and reduces evaporation by the forest vegetation.

The soil and water response to wild fire is often a function of fire severity and occurrence

of hydrologic events. For a wide range of severities, the impact of hydrology and sediment

loss can be minimized if the precipitation is less. However, when the precipitation follows

a severe fire, the impact of the water is very high and substantial. This increase in soil

erosion, especially in the hilly terrain has very long lasting impact on the ecosystem of the

region. The duration of the increased vulnerability also depends upon the severity of the

forest fire. In moderate fire conditions, the normalcy in soil erosion may return back within

a year or two.

However, in the case of very severe fire conditions, the return period to normalcy may vary

from 5-7 and even ten years. In hilly terrains, the rate of the soil erosion shows spatial

variability, which is an important characteristic of hill slopes.

Soil erosion and impact on ecosystems-

The fire initiated soil erosion has very adverse impact on various eco- systems near the

burned area. Loss of soil from hill slopes produces several significant ecosystem impacts.

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 Soil movement in the streams, lakes etc. may degrade water quality and change the

geomorphic and hydrologic characteristics of these systems. The soil loss from hill slopes

may also alter future soil productivity. As a result of the increased soil erosion, the delivery

of the sediment in large quantities to water bodies may also affect aquatic animals and their

habitat.

FOREST FIRE AND FLOODS-

The water yield of a water body depends on the quantity of the rain, evapo-transpiration,

type of the soil and vegetation Etc. During the first year after a fire, the magnitude of the

total water yield suddenly increases. The magnitude may vary greatly within a location or

between locations, depending upon the fire intensity, rainfall, geomorphology, the type of

soil & vegetation and the proportion of the vegetation burned. In some exceptional

conditions this may lead to flood also. Water repellent soils and cover loss cause flood

peaks to arrive faster, rise to higher levels and entrain significant amount of bed load and

suspended sediments. These floods may have devastating impacts on soil and water quality

and also affect the ecosystem prevailing in the region.

Deteriorating Biological Environment-

Forest fires also pose serious health hazard by creating polluting smoke and noxious gases.

The burning of vegetation gives off not only carbon dioxide but also many other noxious

gases (Green House gases) such as carbon monoxide, Methane hydrocarbons, nitric oxide

and nitrous oxide that lead to global warming and ozone layer depletion. Thousands of

people suffer from Serious respiratory problems due to these toxic gases.

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 Burning forests and grasslands also add to already serious threat of global warming. Forests

play a vital role in keeping the level of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in check. Forests,

grasslands and agricultural lands make up bulk of the global biomass burning in a global

phenomenon. Recent research suggests that biomass burning may be a significant global

source of methyl bromide, which is an active Ozone depleting substance.

Researchers have also come out with very significant information about the impact of forest

fire on environment as a result of green house gas- nitrous oxide through bacteria.

Nitrification is a biological process where bacteria convert ammonia (found naturally in

soil and Fire ash) to nitric oxide and nitrous oxides. The increased concentration of

ammonia in the ash leads to more nitrification after a fire, thereby releasing additional nitric

and nitrous oxide.

Adverse impact on Health system-

The fires in the forest are source of smoke that cause air pollution and rise in the

temperature.

Socio-economic impact-

Fire is a major factor of destruction of human settlement and often causes deterioration of

site by subsequent increased erosion. Thus fire is threatening human life and property both.

If the weather conditions are very dry or windy, fire burns much faster. A fire near

settlements may also damage the houses. Damage also can be caused by smoke. Smoke in

building smells unpleasant, leaves ashes and impacts human health. Forest fire also

adversely affect livelihood resources, especially for tribals, who habitat within or near the

forest. In India, where approximately 6.5Crores of people are classified as tribal and

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 directly depend upon collection of non-timber forest products from the forest areas for their

livelihood are directly affected by forest fire.

Carbon sequestration potential-

Trees act as carbon sinks when they absorb carbon dioxide from atmosphere and build up

the same in the form of wood. Hardwood contains 48 percent of carbon in the form of

cellulose and wood and it is estimated that 2.2 tones of wood are required to sequester one

ton of carbon. On the other hand, while the wood is burnt the reverse process takes place

in which the atmospheric

Oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.

Hence, forests act both as source as well as sink of carbon, depending upon the manner and

purpose for which they are raised and managed. Burning of the vegetation release hundreds

of years of stored carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, and thus results into

permanent destruction of important sink of carbon dioxide.

Threat to Life and Property-

Forest fires affect human life and Property in different ways. Human life is at risk when

fire crews fight fires either at the fire front or from conflict with animals, especially

elephants. A forest fire that spreads outside the forest can consume buildings or

infrastructure. There are also indirect dangers to life and property due to forest fire. If too

much forage is lost within the reserve, elephants move out of the forest searching for food

and in doing so destroy crops and property.

Reducing Tourism Values –

Smoke and haze generated by fires are inimical to a good tourist experience, especially

when a significant part of the tourist experience depends on views of the mountains. Fire

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 in forest gives a negative impression to the tourists. Smoke due to fires affects the visibility

and air quality which adversely affect tourism industry. From the overall tourism industry

perspective, the generation of smoke needs to be minimized, especially during the peak

tourist Season of April-May.

Components of forest fire

Fire is the naturally occurring companion of energy released in the form of heat and light,

when oxygen combines with a combustible or burnable material at a suitable high

temperature (temperature of 325 degrees Celsius for wood to burn). There are basically

three components i.e. Fuel, heat and oxygen that are needed in right combination to

produce fire. Combination of these components, Produces the “fire triangle”. By nature,

triangle needs three sides, missing of any of the one side will collapse the triangle. The

same is true for fire. Take away any of the three components of fire - fuel, heat or oxygen,

the fire collapses. Firefighters to suppress the fire, try to do just that and remove one of

the three essential components of fire.

With a steady supply of oxygen (a fire needs air that contains at least 16 percent oxygen;

the earth’s atmosphere contains 21 percent oxygen), fuel and temperature become critical

for sustaining a fire once It is ignited. The general relationship between fuel and

temperature is Simple: the more fuel, higher the heat; the more heat, the faster the fire

spreads. Large fires can create their own winds and weather, increasing flow of oxygen.

General Management Practices

The key to fire management is understanding its nature- how it is created, what it takes to

create fire, and more important during difficult fire seasons- what is to be done to control

it? Out of three essential components of fire triangle, two components i.e. Fuel and oxygen

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 are naturally available in forest. It is the third component i.e. Heat that really initiates fire

in the forest. Heat may be supplied by either natural or artificial reasons.

FIRE CONTROL PLANS

A most important planning activity of the administration is the preparation of measures for day-

to-day fire-control problems. Such plans, based on the fire history of a given area, should be an

integral part of the management plan, which in turn is the written expression of the forest policy

to be pursued. If such plans are not put down on paper, something is likely to be overlooked to the

detriment of efficiency.

Fire control operations can be divided into three phases, these phases are prevention, pre-

suppression and suppression. (Detection enters into both the latter phases). For each phase there

ought to be a detailed plan, so that all personnel may know precisely what their responsibilities are

and so that supervisory officers may check progress rapidly at any stage.

PREVENTION PLAN

The aim of prevention is to eliminate those fires that are started by some preventable action; the

basis of planning, therefore, is a detailed analysis of fire records to determine the causes of fires,

the locations where they are most prevalent and the periods of the year when they are most likely

to start. Preventive action can be subdivided into actions necessary under forest management,

public education and legislation. In connection with forest management, a particular point needing

emphasis is hard reduction. The specific areas for treatment should be charted on maps and time

limits set by which such operations must be completed. To determine on which education media

22
the most stress should be laid, a careful study of fire causes is imperative; this study will at the

same time indicate what legislative action is required.

AWARENESS GENERATION: EDUCATION

Education as Means of fire prevention must be concerned with all age groups both in urban and

rural areas; the best method or combination of methods requires to be worked out for each

particular prevention problem. The key to success is a detailed comprehension of the causes of the

preventable fires that at present occur and an understanding of the attitudes of the people

responsible. Here again the maintenance and analysis of statistical records of fire causes are

prerequisites to finding the right answers.

The media for a campaign of public education are press and radio, posters, signs, and gadgets,

films and lectures; demonstration, personal contacts and competitions; inclusion of fire prevention

lessons in school curricula; and organization of co-operative groups. Education of school children

is extremely important where feasible; in the brief space of one decade these, children become

themselves part of the adult public and influence many of the factors causing fires. School

instruction must naturally be varied according to localities and the fire problem of a particular

locality.

Press, radio, posters, signs and gadgets such as rulers, blotters, schoolbook covers, pipe cover

screens and ashtrays bearing appropriate slogans, post-office stamp cancellation die slogans and

fire prevention weeks can all contribute something toward the desired goal Some people can only

be persuaded to change their ways by actual demonstrations of the evil effects of fire and by

personal contacts.

23
Empowering communities to deliver their responsibilities

The forester must make as many personal contacts as possible with farmers and with those using

recreation areas. Personal contacts can be supplemented by the organization of local groups and in

some instances by gaining the support of local leaders. In local groups, a few enthusiastic persons

commanding respect in their communities can greatly speed up a change-over from a community

attitude of unrestricted use of fire in the forest to one of reasonable care.

The tradition of using fire in the forest is deep-rooted in some public education, as a means of fire

prevention does not yield immediate results and it is indeed often difficult to assess its value, but

with patience and persistence it can serve as a very real weapon in the struggle against fire.

The aim of effective prevention is not to entirely exclude fires from forests, but rather to avoid

damaging and unwanted fires, thus maximizing the environmental benefits of fire while

minimizing its adverse impacts.

The most common methods of prevention employed by forest departments in India include the

clearance of fire lines and conducting controlled burning to limit fuel loads. Other methods may

include silvicultural practices such as selective thinning and planting Fire-adapted tree species in

fire- prone areas. Early warning and fire danger rating systems are also part of the prevention

process and allow fire managers to put in place an appropriate state of readiness when hazardous

conditions develop that could lead to more severe fire behavior. Forest-using communities play a

Pivotal role in fire prevention in India.

Lack of public awareness and engagement; difficulties in changing traditional community

practices with the use of fire; the inaccessibility and ruggedness of fire-affected forests; limitations

in the forest department’s equipment, technology, and infrastructure; shortages of labor; and

insufficient financial resources.

24
Fire lines and controlled burning

Infrastructure such roads, transmission lines and rail lines within forest with function as fire lines.

In addition to this fire lines are created at regular intervals to control fire within a specified area

Fire Watch tower

Watch towers are constructed at strategic locations in such a way that fires are located as soon as

they occur. They are constructed at hillock tops and in other places where visibility is good and

vast areas can be covered

Fire watchers

Fire watchers are engaged seasonally during fire season generally from December to May. They

will patrol fire prone areas regularly and man fire watch towers. They play an important role in

detection and suppression of forest fire. . They are engaged from local communities who have a

thorough knowledge of the terrain.

Pre-suppression plan

Once a fire has started despite prevention measures the objective is to suppress it within the shortest

possible time consistent with the cost and the values at stake. To do this the organization must be

prepared, and the permanent arrangements made for setting the control of an actual fire into

operation, are covered by the term "pre-suppression".

Needs- manpower and equipment

Experience, records of past fires, and fuel type maps will indicate the number of men likely to be

required to control a fire in a particular forest area on, a certain type of day. Estimates should be

made, for each forest and under varying danger conditions, of the number of men and the amount

and type of equipment required adequately to meet the situations likely to arise.

25
Facilities to meet manpower and equipment needs

To make the most effective use of manpower, a sound basis must be established for recruitment

and training, and accommodations must be provided where necessary. Adequate means of storage

and maintenance for equipment are required, and also proper transportation facilities, if the

optimum value is to be obtained. Water supplies may have to be provided where conditions make

this necessary.

Distribution of manpower and equipment

If the protection standards which have been set are to be achieved, it is of paramount importance

that both manpower and equipment be located in the right places. Fire occurrence maps, fuel type

maps and maps showing transportation and communication systems will provide the basic

information necessary for such decisions.

Mobilization plans and fire atlas

From the moment of detection to the time when a fire is suppressed is the province of the

suppression plan, but before a fire control organization moves into action, the person who will

initiate action must be clearly designated. This person is called the dispatcher and it is he who

receives reports of the discovery and status of fires, determines their location, and calculates the

needs in terms of men, supplies, and equipment to bring the fires under control, and sends them to

the most effective location. To do this he requires all possible information at his disposal.

Suppression plan

Here must be set down the time standards (i.e. the time allowed between the beginning of any

action and its actual accomplishment) expected for detection, communication, dispatching, and

getting to the fire. There should be briefly listed those things which must be done on arrival at a

fire and those things which must be done before leaving the scene of a fire.

26
Action taken during the actual suppression operation will largely have to depend on training and

experience, as each fire will have its own particular problem. A few further words should be added

here about time standards for each fuel type, the attack forces must arrive at the fire within a certain

specified time if the fire is to be stopped while still small. On-the-ground monitoring of forest fires

will continue to be essential, even with the advances in remote sensing technologies and alert

systems. To assist with fire detection and response, the forest department hires seasonal fire

watchers from the local community in most areas

Forest Fire Suppression

In general, forest fire suppression relies very heavily on “dry” firefighting techniques because it is

usually not possible to directly and accurately attack the fire edge with water along the entire fire

line. The location and nature of the terrain where the fire is burning may preclude the use of

wheeled vehicles and ultimately if the fire cannot be surrounded by a trafficable track or road, the

use of wheeled equipment is not a practicable option.

Beating

Dry techniques include directly beating out the fire with hand tools to smother the flames (for very

low intensity fires) or by separating the fuel in advance of the active fire, either by natural breaks

in the fuel or by deliberately creating mineral earth breaks devoid of fuel. In many such instances,

hand tools can play a significant role, as can heavy machines.

When fire behavior is modest, it is feasible for people to work right on the edge of the fire to create

such a break and use hand tools to push or rake burning and some unburnt, material back into the

fire, thereby creating a fuel free break. When fire behavior is of higher intensity and it is no longer

feasible for people to work at the edge of the fire, it is often possible to stand back a few meters

27
from the active fire edge and create a mineral earth break about a meter or so wide by raking or

pushing the fuel off the proposed fire line. When this tactic is employed, sometimes the active fire

can be allowed to burn up to the fire line but at other times it is safer to burn back from the newly

created fire line and allow the fire to burn back against the wind towards the main fire. At more

extreme levels of fire behavior, it may be necessary to retreat to a much greater distance, either to

existing fire barriers such as roads or fallow fields.

In such instances, it is almost never feasible to allow the wildfire to burn up to the break, and active

lighting along the edge of these breaks (back burning or backfiring) is essential, else the main fire

is likely to overrun the break as the fire approaches.

Direct attack

This is usually implemented against small fires burning at low intensity where it is feasible for

firefighters to work right at the edge of the fire, pushing burning material back into the fire or

smothering flames with suitable beaters. Generally, fuel on the edge of the fire is pushed back into

to the fire, to minimize the risk of dragging lighted material onto unburnt fuel, while creating a

narrow break, bared of vegetative matter. Because it is arduous work, firefighters need some

protection from radiant heat such as long-sleeved and long-legged clothing and realistically can

only operate under these conditions when flames are not much more than a meter or so tall.

Because firefighters are working very close to the edge of the fire, it is a relatively safe operation.

In the event of a sudden change in conditions, (e.g. Increase in wind velocity) that may elevate fire

intensity, firefighters can rapidly move into already burnt areas.

Direct attack with a variety of hand tools is feasible up to fire line intensities of about 800 kw/m,

so its use is generally limited to cooler and milder conditions. The two major determinants as to

whether direct attack can be utilized are the impact of heat and smoke on the firefighters. Heat

28
uptake can be regulated to some extent by appropriate clothing but smoke exposure is a different

issue and the solution is to keep firefighters out of heavy concentrations of smoke.

Advantages of this method are that use can be made of the existing sections of the fire boundary

where the fire has self-extinguished (e.g lack of fuel, presence of large areas of exposed rock, green

moist gullies and creek side areas). Because there is very little “burning out” necessary, total area

burnt is minimized and very little additional fire is added to the environment.

A concurrent disadvantage is that the control line follows the fire edge and it may be tortuous and

longer, increasing the difficulty of patrol. Large items of heavy fuel (e.g downed logs and dead

trees) right on the fire edge need to be accounted for, perhaps by extending the fire line to safely

include them within the fire boundary. Alternatively, larger pieces of woody fuel may need to be

cut into smaller pieces and moved well inside the fire boundary or safely outside of it.

29
Mop up Area

In cases of isolated cases or small occurrences first thing is with a circumference try to mop-up

the fuel load from the fire area and also the ignited area into itself so as to limit the fire.

Parallel attack

When conditions are too intense for firefighters to work right at the fire edge - if it is too hot, the

flames are too high, and/or it is too smoky – firefighters can withdraw a short distance from the

active fire edge and create a “fire-line” by baring the forest floor down to mineral earth and

backburning from that line. Burning out follows closely behind fire-line preparation and there is

always a need to watch out for spot overs as the back fire and the main fire come together, creating

a junction zone with temporarily increased intensity.

30
Advantages of this method are that the fire line can be much more uniform in direction, there is

the opportunity to bypass heavy fuels such as downed logs and trees (or to clean around them and

remove the fuels in close proximity to the intended fire edge to reduce the chances of their

ignition). Advantage can also be taken of any significant lengths of fire line where the fire is

extinguished and other natural barriers. Operating conditions for firefighters are less arduous by

way of reduced heat radiation and smoke. Disadvantages are that more fire is applied there will be

junction zone effects as the backfire and wildfire meet so there is a need for increased patrol and

vigilance when this occurs.

Indirect attack

It is used against fires that are too intense for close in suppression action, against fires that may be

causing downwind spot fires and fires that are spreading too quickly to allow closer suppression.

31
This method usually involves withdrawing to previously prepared lines such as roads or major

mineral earth fire breaks. Fresh breaks can be constructed using major plant items to ensure there

is a trafficable road/trail as a boundary line from which backburning operations can proceed and

from which patrol activities can subsequently be undertaken. Often, these control lines may be

some kilometers downwind of the current fire location. The rationale for such a large distance is:

• It is futile to attempt close in suppression against very intense fires – it will certainly fail.

• It is very dangerous to position firefighters downwind in reasonably close proximity to high

intensity fires.

• Some amount of time is often necessary to clean existing fire breaks or construct new breaks and

prepare for burning out between those lines and the wildfire.

Ground crews manually beating or smothering fires is the most common method used by fire

fighters. Beating is done by hand with bushes, tree branches, or self-fashioned brooms.

“People on the ground” are key to effective fire suppression. In spite of the availability of hi-tech

equipment globally, the principal need is always to have a competent, trained and equipped

workforce on the ground ready to respond and take immediate action.

Areas that are suitable for use of hand tools include cleaning along the proposed fire line itself,

clearing fuel from around large flammable trees (dead snags that may ignite and cause spot fires

across the control line) or large downed fuels such as old logs or piles of woody debris from road

construction.

32
EQUIPMENT FOR FOREST FIREFIGHTING IN INDIA

Rakes

A commonly used tool is a rake. Specialist fire rakes have been developed with longer tines to

allow a reasonable “payload” of litter to be maneuvered by the rake as control lines are cleared of

loose fire fuels longer teeth are required for fire rakes and often a rake may have a multi- purpose

head with a cutting edge opposite the rake teeth.

A good example of such a tool is “Rake hoe”. This is suitable for grass and forest fuel types. It has

a wooden or synthetic handle about 4 feet in length. It is a simple iron rake with long tines

(projecting pointed parts) and a bamboo handle. Importantly, it is a light tool with a wood or

bamboo handle. It is a simple but effective tool.

33
 McLeod Rake Steel Fire Rake

Leaf Rake

Fire Beater or Swatter

This is useful for “beating” and “swatting” fires in fine fuels such as grass to smother(extinguish

a fire by covering it) the flames. Typically, fire beaters in many countries have been manufactured

from flexible material such as a section of broad conveyor belt, perhaps slit into 3 or 4 flaps. This

material more readily conforms to whatever shape it is beaten on and effectively “smothers”

flaming combustion without generating significant displacement of burning firebrands.

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Pulaski Tool

This is a combination cutting and digging tool favored in North America. The tool can also be used

as a lever to assist in moving very heavy debris. This is useful in the case of forest fires but is of

little value in the case of grass fires.

PORTABLE POWERED TOOLS

Leaf Blower

Landscape-grade leaf blowers have already been successfully used in India (and other countries).

Relying upon a sustained and powerful air blast, they are useful in lighter fuels in broadleaf forests.

They have the capacity to quickly remove fuel from a proposed fire line - either a control line

intended for use against an actual fire or “fire lines” that are planned in advance and regularly

35
maintained. Blowers have also been successfully deployed in direct attack against low intensity

fires, whereby the operator can create a Mineral earth break by forcing leaves and other litter

Directly into the fire while a fire line is being cleared.

Chain Saw

Chain saws are invaluable for removing downed trees from roads and trails, for quick and effective

break up of heavy fuels such as hollow logs and for felling trees close to the fire edge. Some parts

and accessories should be regarded as mandatory, including a chain catcher, chain brake, anti-

vibration handle, ear muffs and safety goggles or helmet attached face shield.

It must be emphasized that the use of chain saws demands training and achievement of minimum

Standards of competence. Firefighters should never be asked to use, or be provided with chain

saws, unless they have undergone appropriate training and hold the necessary accreditation for

tasks they are requested to complete.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

Protective clothing is essential for firefighters. It is very important to appreciate that forest

firefighting is quite different from structural or urban firefighting and that the protective equipment

that is used for the latter is completely unsuited to forest firefighting. It is important to note that

all personal safety equipment must be constructed of non-flammable materials, and that

construction from synthetic fabric or materials that can melt or ignite when exposed to heat must

Always be avoided. Forest firefighting is different from structural firefighting, so it does not follow

that the same type of safety equipment is applicable.

Safety clothing for forest firefighters should be made of low flammability material such as tight

weave cotton drill and that clothing should be loose fitting with underarm and side pocket slits,

36
loose fitting trouser and sleeve cuffs to allow easy ingress and egress of airflow. Typically, forest

firefighters should always leave some bare skin exposed to act as a signal for whether or not

Conditions are suitable for continued work. Safety boots are important when working on fires -

sturdy boots with profiled tread soles provide more ankle support when negotiating uneven or

rough terrain and help to minimize ankle injuries and slips and falls. Boots should be manufactured

from leather or fire resistant material. Rubberized “gumboots” are definitely unsuitable for forest

firefighting. Furthermore, safety helmets with adjustable harness are recommended to provide

protection from falling objects, and leather work gloves are recommended. Safety goggles are

suggested for operating light machinery such as blowers or chainsaws where flying debris can

lodge in the operator’s eyes, and ear muffs are recommended for operators of machinery or

powered tools.

Portable water jets with water supply, Air blowers are other vital equipments needed in

firefighting.

Post-fire management

The FFPM process continues after fires are extinguished with two main activities:

Post-fire data

Collection and the assessment of forest fire impacts; and restoration and rehabilitation.

Post-fire data collection and the assessment of fire impacts

Post-fire data collection is an essential part of the fire management process. However, this part of

the management process is given little priority and is often performed solely for the sake of

fulfilling administrative requirements. There is a need to reorient post-fire data collection and

analysis toward the goal of strengthening prevention.

37
Post-fire data collection includes the gathering of information on fire incidents via field reporting

as well as the use of remote sensing. The requirements for fire reports by field staff are:

• Location of fire (including administrative unit, nearest village, and GPS coordinates, if available)

• Time of fire occurrence

• Name of reporting officer

• Cause of fire

• Person(s) responsible for igniting the fire, if identified

• Witnesses, if any

• Extent of area affected

• Type of forest affected (natural forest or plantation, Tree species affected)

• Damages to forest caused by fire

• Damages to property, injury, or loss of life

• Actions taken to extinguish the fire

Once this information is collected, field reports are then sent up to the Range Officer (RO), who

compiles a daily summary of fire incidents to send to the District Forest Officer (DFO). From the

DFO, reporting continues up the chain of command to the Conservator of Forests (CF) and

eventually the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF) in charge of forest protection or fire.

Principle of effective suppression remains the same:

Having a competent, well-trained, and adequately equipped workforce on the ground, ready to

respond and take immediate action. This workforce includes field staff from the forest department

as well as seasonally-employed fire watchers and volunteers from the local community.

38
I. BASIC TERMINOLOGYS USED IN FOREST FIRES

A. Parts of the Fire

1. Point of origin

The precise location where a competent ignition source came into contact
with the material first ignited and sustained combustion occurred.

2. Head of a fire

The side of the fire having the fastest rate of spread.

3. Flank of a fire

The part of a fire’s perimeter that is roughly parallel to the main direction of
spread.

4. Rear of a fire

• That portion of a fire spreading directly into the wind or down slope.
39
 • That portion of a fire edge opposite the head.

• Slowest spreading portion of a fire edge. Also called heel of a fire.

5. Fire perimeter

The entire outer edge or boundary of a fire.

6. Fingers of a fire

The long narrow extensions of a fire projecting from the main body

7. Pockets of a fire

Unburned indentations in the fire edge formed by fingers or slow

burning areas.

8. Island

Area of unburned fuel inside the fire perimeter.

9. Spot fire

Fire ignited outside the perimeter of the main fire by a firebrand.

B. Fire Behavior Terms

1. Smoldering

Fire burning without flame and barely spreading.

2. Creeping fire

Fire burning with a low flame and spreading slowly.

3. Running fire

40
 Behavior of a fire spreading rapidly with a well-defined head.

4. Spotting

Behavior of a fire producing sparks or embers that are carried by the wind and
which start new fires beyond the zone of direct ignition by the main fire.

5. Torching

The burning of the foliage of a single tree or a small group of trees, from the
bottom up.

6. Crown fire

A fire that advances from top to top of trees or shrubs more or less independent
of a surface fire. Crown fires are sometimes classed as running or dependent to
distinguish the degree of independence from the surface fire.

7. Flare up

Any sudden acceleration in the rate of spread or intensification of the fire.

Unlike blowup, a flare-up is of relativity short duration and does not change
existing control plans.

8. Fire-whirl

Spinning vortex column of ascending hot air and gases rising from a fire and
carrying aloft smoke, debris, and flame. Fire whirls range in size from less
than one foot to over 500 feet in diameter. Large fire whirls have the intensity
of a small tornado.

9. Backing fire

That portion of the fire with slower rates of fire spread and lower intensity,
normally moving into the wind and/or down slope. Also called heel fire.

41
10. Flaming front

That zone of a moving fire where the combustion is primarily flaming.

Behind this flaming zone combustion is primarily glowing or involves the

burning out of larger fuels (greater than about 3 inches in diameter).

Light fuels typically have a shallow flaming front, whereas heavy fuels
have a deeper front.

C. Other Useful Firefighting Terms

1. Anchor point

An advantageous location, usually a barrier to fire spread, from which

to start constructing a fireline. The anchor point is used to
minimize the chance of being flanked by the fire while the line is
being constructed.

2. Control line

An inclusive term for all constructed or natural barriers and treated

fire edges used to contain a fire.

3. Fireline

The part of a containment or control line that is scraped or dug to

mineral soil.

4. Mop-up

Extinguishing or removing burning material near control lines, felling

snags, and trenching logs to prevent rolling after an area has
burned, to make a fire safe, or to reduce residual smoke.

5. Contained

The status of a wildfire suppression action signifying that a control line

has been completed around the fire, and any associated spot fires,
which can reasonably be expected to stop the fire's spread.

42
 6. Controlled

The completion of control line around a fire, any spot fires, and any
interior islands to be saved.

Burn out any unburned area adjacent to the fire side of the
control lines.

Cool down all hot spots that are immediate threats to the control line,
until the lines can reasonably be expected to hold under the
foreseeable conditions.

7. Chain

Unit of measure in land survey, equal to 66 feet (20 M) (80 chains

equal 1 mile).

Commonly used to report fire perimeters and other fire-line

distances. Popular in fire management because of its
convenience in calculating acreage (example: 10 square
chains equal one acre).

II. ELEMENTS OF THE FIRE TRIANGLE

Three elements must be present and combined before combustion can occur
and continue. There must be:

• Fuel to burn

• Air to supply oxygen for the flame

• Heat to start and continue the combustion process

These three elements or sides compose what we call the “fire triangle.” Remove
any single one, and there can be no fire.

43
III. THREE METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

We have learned that heat is a necessary condition for combustion, and part
of the fire triangle. There are many methods by which heat can be supplied to
a fuel to start a fire. Examples:

• Matches
• Lightning
• Cigarettes

More importantly, we must know how the fire spreads once it has started.

Heat must be able to move from one burning piece to another, or the fire
triangle will be broken. This movement is called heat transfer. Heat is
transferred by three processes:

• Radiation
• Convection
• Conduction

A. Radiation

Think of radiant heat as a ray or wave. Radiant heat warms you as

you stand close to a campfire, or stand in the sunlight. Radiant heat
can dry surrounding fuels and sometimes ignite them.

44
 B. Convection

Think of convection as a smoke column above the fire. Convection

occurs when lighter warm air moves upward. The hot gases and
embers which compose the smoke column can dry and ignite other
fuels.

C. Conduction

Think of conduction as a spoon in a hot drink. Heat is conducted

from one fuel particle to another in the same way, through direct
contact.

Since wood is a poor conductor (meaning heat will not travel

through it easily), this process is the least important of the three to
fire behavior.

IV TOPOGRAPHY

Topography is the configuration of the earth’s surface including its relief and
the position of its natural and man-made features.

It is much easier to predict the influences which topography will have on a

wildfire than the influences of fuel and weather.

Following are topographic terms and how they affect forest fire behavior.

A. Aspect

Aspect is the direction a slope is facing (its exposure in relation of the

sun).

The aspect of a slope generally determines the amount of heating it

gets from the sun; therefore, determines the amount, condition, and
type of fuels present.

1. South and southwest slopes are normally more exposed to

sunlight and generally have:

• lighter and sparser fuels

• higher temperatures
• lower humidity

45
 • lower fuel moisture

They are the most critical in terms of start and spread of

Forest fires.

2. North facing slopes have more shade which causes:

• heavier fuels
• lower temperatures
• higher humidity
• higher fuel moistures

A north facing aspect will have less fire activity than a south
facing slope.

B. Slope

The amount or degree of incline of a hillside (a steep slope).

Fires burn more rapidly uphill than downhill. The steeper the slope, the
faster the fire burns.

This is because the fuels above the fire are brought into closer contact
with the upward moving flames.

Convection and radiant heat help the fuel catch fire more easily.

Another concern about steep slopes is the possibility of burning

material rolling down the hill and igniting fuel below the main fire.

The position of the fire in relation to the topography is a major factor in

the resulting fire behavior.

A fire on level ground is primarily influenced by fuels and wind.

A fire which starts near the bottom of a slope during normal upslope
daytime wind conditions will normally spread faster and has more area to
spread upslope than a fire that starts near the top of the slope.

C. Shape of the Country – Terrain

Certain topographic features can influence the wind speed and

direction for small areas, independent of general weather conditions
46
 for an area.

The shape of the country can also influence the direction of fire
spread, rate of spread, and the intensity.

D. Box Canyons

Fires starting near the base of box canyons and narrow canyons may
react similar to a fire in a wood burning stove or fireplace.

Air will be drawn in from the canyon bottom creating very strong
upslope drafts. These upslope drafts create rapid fire spread up the
canyon, also referred to as the chimney affect. This affect can result
in extreme fire behavior and can be very dangerous.

E. Narrow Canyons

Fire in a steep narrow canyon can easily spread to fuels on the

opposite side by radiation and spotting. Wind eddies and strong
upslope air movement may be expected at sharp bends in canyon.

F. Wide Canyons

Prevailing wind direction can be altered by the direction of the canyon.

Cross-canyon spotting of fires is not common except in high winds.
Strong differences in fire behavior will occur on north and south
aspects.

G. Ridges

Fire burning along lateral ridges may change direction when they reach
a point where the ridge drops off into a canyon. This change of direction
is caused by the flow of air in the canyon.

H. Saddle

Wind blowing through a saddle or pass in a mountain range can

increase in speed as it passes through the constricted area and
spreads out on the downwind side with possible eddy action.

47
I. Elevation

The height of the terrain above mean sea level, usually expressed in
feet (ASL - Above Sea Level).

Elevation plays a large role in determining the conditions and amount

of fuel.

Because of higher temperatures, fuels at lower elevations dry out

earlier in the year than those at higher elevations.

In extremely high elevations there may be no fuel.

Elevation affects fire behavior in several other ways like the amount of
precipitation received, wind exposure, and its relationship to the
surrounding terrain.

J. Barriers

Any obstruction to the spread of fire, typically an area or strip lacking

any flammable fuel.

Barriers to fire include many things, both natural and man-made.

1. Natural barriers:

• rivers
• lakes
• rock
• slides

Fuels which have a high moisture content do not burn as well as

others in the same area.

2. Man-made barriers:

• roads
• highways
• reservoirs
• fireline constructed by fire resources

48
I. THE SIX BASIC FUEL TYPES

A. Definition of Fuel

A simple definition of fuel is any burnable material.

• Forest fuels are basically live and/or dead plant material.

• Houses, sheds, etc., can also be fuels

Fuels are the source of energy that drives the fire.

Regardless of the area of the country, fire behavior is dependent on

certain fuel characteristics:

• Fuel type
• Fuel loading
• Fuel availability

B. Fuel Types

Forest fuels are grouped into fuel types based on the primary fuel that
carries the fire. There are six major fuel types:

• Grass
• Grass – Shrub
• Shrub
• Timber – Understory
• Timber litter
• Slash - Blowdown

Fuels vary in type from one area of the country to another and within
the same area.
Differences in the amount of water in the soil is one reason that types
of fuels vary and elevation changes is another.

1. Grass

• Found in most areas.

• More dominant as a fuel in desert and range areas.

• Can become prevalent after a fire in timber areas.

49
 • Burns hottest and fastest.

2. Grass – Shrub

• Found in the plains regions and high deserts.

• A significant contributor to fire spread due to the fine

fuels mixed with the aerial/shrub fuel.

3. Shrub

• Found throughout most areas.

• Some highly flammable shrub fuels are:

– Palmetto/gallberry in the southeast
– Sagebrush in the Great Basin
– Chaparral in the southwest and California

4. Timber - Understory

• Found throughout most areasProvides ladder to aerial

crown fuels

5. Timber litter

• Most dominant in mountainous topography, especially in

the Northwest.

• Provides fuel for ground fire.

6. Slash - Blowdown

• Debris left after natural events or human activities:

– Logging
– Road building
– Pruning
– Thinning

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 – Shrub cutting
– Wind
– Fire
– Snow

• Debris may include:

– Logs
– Chunks of wood
– Bark
– Branches
– Stumps
– Broken understory trees
– Shrubs

• Provides fuel for fire spread

Safety, Support, Risk Management & First-Aid

Safety of personals involved is a priority. Errors are irreversible. Personals involved must
be fit without compromise. Human lives are equally important. So personals involved
must be fit physically and mentally.

Support team is important for supplies and must be experienced to handle a situation.
They need to act upon strategically and monitor the frontline personals to avoid
unpleasant situations.

Risk management is vital and cannot be compromised. Personals must be aware of fire
behavior and environment before they venture into field.

The team must know the basics of First-aid. They must be aware of the field and must
be proactive. They must be able to handle situations like Suffocation, Dehydration, Burn
injuries, heat stroke, fracture, animal attack, venomous bites, Shock etc.

Knowledge and experience about CPR is very important and at least 2-3 persons must
be well versed about it in a team.

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