TABLE OF CONTENTS

Unit I Agricultural Crops Production

Farm Tools and Implement 1
Grain Legumes 5
Cereal Grain 7
Cereal Farming 10

Unit II Animal Production

Farm Animal Production and Management 24
Management Practice in Egg and Broiler Production 26
Management of Laying Flocks 27
Management Practices in Broiler Production 29
Swine Production 32
Aspects of Swine Raising 35

Unit III Food (Fish) Processing

Introduction to Fish Preservation 44
Reasons for Spoilage of Fishes 45
Methods of Fish Preservation 46
Demerits of fish Preservation 50

Unit IV Horticulture
Orchard Management 55
Establishment of Orchard 55
Orchard Cultivation 62
Organic Farming 66

Unit V Aquaculture
Prawn Culture 71
Crab Culture 74
Oyster and Mussel Culture 75
Raising Frogs Backyard Ponds 76

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 UNIT I
AGRICULTURAL CROPS PRODUCTION

Overview

Almost everything we need in daily living like food, clothing, shelter, air is given
by plants. Agriculture as the art and science of food production, provide all these even
other basic needs like clothing, shelter and other raw materials can be produced by
cultivating crops, both plants and animals. As agricultural country, export of agricultural
crops is the top dollar earner of the Philippine economy. It provides also employment and
livelihood for the countless farmers all over the country. Aside from land preparation,
growing and harvesting, we also need to learn processing of agricultural crops and their
marketing. The technology of processing agricultural products, both pre-harvest and post-
harvest could maximize out profit and avoid wastage and losses, moreover, and we can
provide the need of present generation without sacrificing the resources thus attaining
sustainable development.

Unit Objectives
At the end of the lesson,I am able to:
1. Select tools, equipment, utensils and instruments according to food (fish)
processing method;
2. Conduct SWOT analysis and Identify the different products/services available in
the market; and
1. Hand Tools-these are usually light and are used without the help of animals or
machines.

The following are basic hand tools used in agricultural crop production:
1. Bolo- This is used for cutting tall grasses and weeds, and chopping branches of
2. Crowbar- this is used for digging holes and for digging out big stones and stumps.
3. Pick Mattock- this is used for digging canals, breaking hard topsoil and for digging
up stones and tree stumps
4. Grab Hoe- this is used for breaking hard topsoil and pulverizing soil
5. Spade- used for removing trash or soil, digging canals or ditches and mixing soil
media.
6. Shovel- used in removing trash, digging loose soil, moving soil from one place to
another and for mixing soil media.
7. Rake- used for cleaning the ground and leveling the topsoil
8. Spading Fork- used for loosening the soil, digging out root crops and turning over
the materials in a compost heap
9. Light Hoe- used for loosening and leveling soil and digging out furrows for planting
10. Hand Trowel- used for loosening the soil around the growing plants and putting
small amount of fertilizer in the soil.
11. Hand Cultivator- used for cultivating the garden plot by loosening the soil and
removing weeds
12. Hand Fork- used for inter row cultivation
13. Pruning Shears- is for cutting branches of planting materials and unnecessary
branches of plants

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14. Axe- used for cutting bigger size post
15. Knife- used for cutting planting materials and for performing other operations in
horticulture.
16. Sprinkler- used for watering seedlings and young plants
17. Water Pail- used for hauling water, manure and fertilizers
18. Sprayer- used for spraying
19. Wheel Barrow- used for hauling trash, manures, fertilizers, planting materials and
other
20. Sickle- is a hand tool with a variously curved blade typically used for cutting weeds

Farm Implements
These are accessories which are being pulled by working animals or mounted to
machineries which are usually used in the preparation of land.
1. Plows- used for tilling large areas, making furrows and inter row cultivation
2. Harrow-used for tilling and pulverizing the soil
3. Rotavator-used for tilling and pulverizing the soil

Common Modern Farm Tools and Equipment Name

Tools and machinery are made for reducing human effort. Farmers are using
tools, equipment, and machinery to improve farms production and reducing their efforts
as well. Here we bring a list of farm tools name for you which will be very useful for
your farm and makes our life easier.

Traditional, organic or modern farm equipment lists consists of a series of

mechanical elements. Equipment, machinery and agricultural tools used interchangeably.
The differences can establish between these three types.

The greater knowledge of using farming tools and machinery can open the
possibility of success. The equipment usually used for general tillage, weed elimination,
fumigation, and fertilizer. Here are some farm tools and equipment name used for
farming worldwide.

List of Modern Equipment and Farm Tools

The tractor
Among the list of the farm tools named, the tractor is one of the essential
machinery on the farm. Nowadays this is common farming equipment worldwide. We put
this one on the top of the farm equipment lists. Its power and size allow it to work in
rough terrain, dragging or towing agricultural implements. It is the most used and
versatile machine in agriculture.

The Motocultor

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 The tiller is a type of agricultural machinery of a single axis. It holds through
handles. That produces a medium power, for carryout agricultural and ornamental duties.
And mostly uses in gardening. The tiller is a type of agricultural machinery of a single
axis.Motocultor

The Rake
Considering the list of farm tools name, the rake is a very common tool for any
types of farm. There are several types of rakes available. The main function of this
toothed bar is to loosen and level the ground. The traditional rake has evolved and from
being manual or pulled by beasts has happened to fix the tractors.

Machete
It is difficult that this tool composed of a handle and a long sharp steel blade
forgotten. Its practicality to take it everywhere makes. It is almost irreplaceable. It uses
for mowing the grass, cutting or pruning the plants or working his way through the brush.

Escardilla
It has a shovel-shaped end. The edges are an ideal tool to remove soil. This
ancient tool has evolved into materials. Escardilla can be stainless steel to prevent
corrosion. It is an efficient design to achieve optimal ground preparation. You can keep
that name on top of the list of farm tools name as this is a very useful tool.

Shovel
This element made of tough and sharp sheet metal. The shovel is one of the most
ancient equipments of farmers. The general usage of this equipment is to dig the soil. It is
very versatile and can get us out of a hurry at any time, without using the heavy
machines.Shovels Gardening Tool

Peak
This tool is great for digging in hard terrain, removing stones, making ditches or
preparing holes in the ground for planting. [sharper than a shovel.]

Wheelbarrow
A wheelbarrow is a small hand-propelled carrier, with only one wheel, intended to
be pushed and guided by a single person using two handles from the back. It also is
known as “wheelcart.” Use of wheelbarrows is regular on the construction site and on the
farm. Standard capacity is around 100 liters (4 cubic feet) of material.

The Harvester
The combine harvester is powerful machinery, cutting combs for mowing and a
rake. That can rotate on an axis, ahead of the machine. This machine has been able to

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reduce the use of labor and production costs. It has the ability to work and precision to
harvest. The harvesters are a guarantee of efficiency for the farmer.combine-harvester

Plow Tractor
The plow is the equipment used to open furrows in the land of cultivation. Among
its components are the blade, bed, Mancera, rudder, moldboard, etc. These used for
cutting and leveling the ground.

The Harrow
Harrow is an instrument, used to make wrinkles and level the ground. There are
several models according to need: moldboard, disc, surface or subsoil. The harrow
designed to break up lumps. The shred pieces of land removed by them. It formed by the
attachment to the tractor, the teeth and a metal or wooden frame.

Sprinkler
An Irrigation sprinkler is a tool used to water farm products, yards, etc. To
cooling and control of airborne tidy, the sprinkler is very useful. It is a technique for
applying water which is like natural rainfall. Water is passing through a system of
channels usually by pumping. The water splashed into the air through sprinklers with the
goal that it separates into little water drops which fall to the ground. The pump, valves,
distribution pipes, and sprinklers are usually designed to apply water as consistently as
possible.

Seeder and fertilizer

They are equipment developed to place the seeds directly and to distribute
fertilizers and fertilizers. As the name implies, this agricultural equipment serves to add
fertilizer to the land. Its main parts are the hopper or tank. The fertilizer, the drop tube,
and the distributor are loaded.

Baler
Its main function is to make bundles of cereal straw and other herbs in the field.
There are many varieties, with multiple functions, removing soil, opening ditches,
transporting products, eliminating weeds, etc. The most used are husks, shovels, rakes,
showers, trans-planters, wheelbarrows, machetes, etc.
If you like this list of modern farm tools please like and share. However, if you think that
we have missed in our modern farm tools list, let us know, please comment below.

GRAIN LEGUMES
Examples: peanut, (Arachis hypogaea) soybeans, (Glycine max) monggo, (Vigna radiata)
batao (Dolichos lablab).
Grain legumes or pulses are excellent sources of protein and B vitamins in
addition to carbohydrate. Although the protein quality is not as good as in meat generally

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due to low levels of the essential amino acid methionine, this can be corrected by
incorporating grain legumes with cereals in the diet (Oregon State University, n.d.). They
are rich in lysine. Especially with soybeans and peanuts, they are good sources of
vegetable oils which are used in the production of various products such as cooking oil,
margarine, mayonnaise, and salad dressings (Hymowitz, 1990).

Grain Legumes: Common Names and Scientific Names

1. Adzuki bean, azuki bean, Adanka bean (Vigna angularis, syn. Phaseolus angularis)

2. Broad bean, faba bean, fava bean, bell bean, field bean (Viciafaba) (large-seeded
broadbeans, windsorbeans - V. faba var. major) (horsebeans - V. faba var. major)
(small, round-oval seeded tickbean, pigeon bean - V. faba var. minor)

3. Vetch, common vetch (Vicia sativa)

4. Common bean, common field bean, kidney bean, habichuela, snap bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris

5. Chick pea, Bengal gram, calvance pea, chestnut bean, dwarf pea, garbanza, garbanzo
bean, garbanzos, gram, gram pea, yellow gram (Cicer arietinum)

6. Cowpea, asparagus bean, black eyed pea, black eyed bean, crowder pea, field pea,
southern pea, frijole, paayap (Vigna unguiculata, syn. Vigna sinensis)

7. Guar bean, cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonolob

8. Hyacinth bean, bonavist, bataw, lablab (Dolichos lablab)

9. Lentil (Lens culinaris

10. Lima bean, butter bean, patani (Phaseoluslunatus)

11. Lupin, lupine, lupine, sweet lupin (Lupinus spp.)

(white lupin - L. albus)
(blue lupin - L. angustifolius)
(yellow lupin - L. luteus)
(Andean lupin, pearl lupin - L. mutabilis)
(wild lupin - L. perennis)
12. Mung bean, mungbean, mungo (Vignaradiata, syn.: Phaseolus aureus

13. Pea, dry pea, podded pea, snap pea, chicharo (Pisumsativum)

14. Peanut, groundnut, earth nut, mani, runner peanut (Arachishypogaea)

15. Pigeon pea, kadios (Cajanuscajan)

16. Soybean, soya, soyabean (Glycine max)

17. Tepary bean, tepari bean (Phaseolusacutifolius)

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Top Producers of Some Grain Legumes in the World as of 2013 (updated from
FAOSTAT 2016):
Beans, dry- Myanmar Lupins- Australia
Broad beans, horse beans, dry- China, Peas, dry- Canada
mainland
Pigeon peas- India
Chick peas- India
Soybeans- USA
Cowpeas, dry- Nigeria
Vetches- Ethiopia
Groundnuts, with shell- China, mainland
Addendum: Grain Legumes vs. Legumes
Lentils- Canada
Grain
legumes or pulses are not exactly the same as legumes. The word "legumes" or
"leguminous plants" is a collective term for all plants under family Leguminosae or
Fabaceae. It is a large grouping of plants that consists of both useful plants (agricultural
crops) and unuseful plants (weeds). Of the agricultural crops, it includes those which are
not grown for the harvesting of seeds but for some other purposes. Few examples are for
root like yam bean or singkamas, for edible flowers like the katuray or Sesbania, for fruit
(technically called pod or legume) like string beans and winged bean, and also for forage
and as cover crop like the butterfly pea or Centro, and for ornamental purposes like the
creeping peanut.
All grain legumes are agricultural crops which are intentionally grown for the
harvesting of mature seeds. They are just, therefore, a small fraction of leguminous
agricultural crops and much smaller as member of the entire leguminous plants.
CEREAL GRAIN
Rice (Oryza sativa)
Written By S. J. Wong

Rice, (Oryza sativa), edible starchy cereal grain and the grass plant (family
Poaceae) by which it is produced. Roughly one-half of the world population, including
virtually all of East and Southeast Asia, is wholly dependent upon rice as a staple food;
95 percent of the world’s rice crop is eaten by humans. Rice is cooked by boiling, or it
can be ground into a flour. It is eaten alone and in a great variety of soups, side dishes,
and main dishes in Asian, Middle Eastern, and many other cuisines. Other products in
which rice is used are breakfast cereals, noodles, and such alcoholic beverages as
Japanese sake.

Physical Description
The cultivated rice plant is an annual grass and grows to about 1.2 metres (4 feet)
in height. The leaves are long and flattened and are borne on hollow stems. The fibrous
root system is often broad and spreading. The panicle, or inflorescence (flower cluster), is
made up of spikelets bearing flowers that produce the fruit, or grain. Varieties differ
greatly in the length, shape, and weight of the panicle and the overall productivity of a
given plant.
In the 1960s the so-called Green Revolution, an international scientific effort to
diminish the threat of world hunger, produced improved strains of numerous food crops,

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including that known as miracle rice. Bred for disease resistance and increased
productivity, this variety is characterized by a short sturdy stalk that minimizes loss from
drooping. Poor soil conditions and other factors, however, inhibited its anticipated
widespread success.

Domestication and Cultivation

Many cultures have evidence of early rice cultivation, including China, India, and
the civilizations of Southeast Asia. However, the earliest archaeological evidence comes
from central and eastern China and dates to 7000–5000 BCE. More than 90 percent of the
world’s rice is grown in Asia, principally in China, India, Indonesia, and Bangladesh,
with smaller amounts grown in Japan, Pakistan, and various Southeast Asian nations.
Rice is also cultivated in parts of Europe, in North and South America, and in Australia.
With the exception of the type called upland rice, the plant is grown on
submerged land in the coastal plains, tidal deltas, and river basins of tropical,
semitropical, and temperate regions. The seeds are sown in prepared beds, and when the
seedlings are 25 to 50 days old, they are transplanted to a field, or paddy, that has been
enclosed by levees and submerged under 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) of water, remaining
submerged during the growing season. In hilly areas rice farms are commonly terraced to
keep the paddies flooded at various elevations. Successful rice production depends on
adequate irrigation, including construction of dams and waterwheels, and on the quality
of the soil. Long periods of sunshine are essential. Rice yields vary considerably, ranging
from 700 to 4,000 kilograms per hectare (600 to 3,500 pounds per acre). Adequate
irrigation, which means inundation of the fields to a depth of several inches during the
greater part of the growing season, is a basic requirement for productive land use.

In Asia the paddy is cultivated in three main types of soil, including clays with a
firm bottom within a few inches of the surface; silts and soft clays with soft bottoms
becoming hard on drying; and peats and “mucks” containing peat, provided the depth of
the peat is not excessive. Fields must be drained and dried before harvesting. When
combine harvesters or binder threshers are employed, the grain must be dried to about 14
percent moisture so that no deterioration takes place in storage. When reaper binders are
used, the crop is “shocked” in certain ways so that the grain is protected from rain.

Rice Processing and Uses

The harvested rice kernel, known as paddy, or rough, rice, is enclosed by the hull,
or husk. Milling usually removes both the hull and bran layers of the kernel, and a
coating of glucose and talc is sometimes applied to give the kernel a glossy finish. Rice
that is processed to remove only the husks, called brown rice, contains about 8 percent
protein and small amounts of fats and is a source of thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, iron, and
calcium. Rice that is milled to remove the bran as well is called white rice and is greatly
diminished in nutrients. When white rice forms a major portion of the diet, there is a risk
of beriberi, a disease resulting from a deficiency of thiamine and minerals. Parboiled
white rice is specially processed before milling to retain most of the nutrients, and
enriched rice has iron and B vitamins added to it.
The milling methods used in most of Asia remain fairly primitive, but large mills
operate in Japan and some other areas. Hulling of the paddy is usually accomplished by
pestle and mortar worked by hand, foot, or water power. Improvements are slowly taking

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place. The yield of milled rice is dependent on the size and shape of the grain, the degree
of ripeness, and the extent of exposure to the sun. Some large mills, handling 500 to
1,000 tons of paddy daily, have specialized hulling plants with consequent smaller losses
from broken grain. They generally employ modern milling techniques and rely on
controlled drying plants instead of on sun drying.
The by-products of milling, including bran and rice polish (finely powdered bran and
starch resulting from polishing), are sometimes used as livestock feed. Oil is processed
from the bran for both food and industrial uses. Broken rice is used in brewing, distilling,
and in the manufacture of starch and rice flour. Hulls are used for fuel, packing material,
industrial grinding, fertilizer manufacture, and in the manufacture of an industrial
chemical called furfural. The straw is used for feed, livestock bedding, roof thatching,
mats, garments, packing material, and broomstraws.
Corn, or maize, (Zea mays) a cereal cultivated in most warm areas of the world,
has many varieties. The United States, the principal producer of corn, cultivates two main
commercial types, Zea indurata (flint corn) and Z. indentata (dent corn). The plant grows
to a height of about three metres or more. The corn kernel is large for a cereal, with a
high embryo content, and corn oil extracted from the germ is commercially valuable. The
microscopic appearance of the starch is distinctive, and the principal protein in ordinary
corn is the prolaminzein, constituting half of the total protein. On hydrolysis zein yields
only very small amounts of tryptophan or lysine, making it low in biological value. The
proteins of corn, like those of most cereals other than wheat, do not provide an elastic
gluten.
Corn, (Zea mays), also called Indian corn or maize, cereal plant of the grass
family (Poaceae) and its edible grain. The domesticated crop originated in the Americas
and is one of the most widely distributed of the world’s food crops. Corn is used as
livestock feed, as human food, as biofuel, and as raw material in industry. In the United
States the colourful variegated strains known as Indian corn are traditionally used in
autumn harvest decorations.
Corn was first domesticated by native peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago.
Native Americans taught European colonists to grow the indigenous grains, and, since its
introduction into Europe by Christopher Columbus and other explorers, corn has spread
to all areas of the world suitable to its cultivation. It is grown from 58° N latitude in
Canada and Russia to 40° S latitude in South America, with a corn crop maturing
somewhere in the world nearly every month of the year. It is the most important crop in
the United States and is a staple food in many places.
The corn plant is a tall annual grass with a stout, erect, solid stem. The large
narrow leaves have wavy margins and are spaced alternately on opposite sides of the
stem. Staminate (male) flowers are borne on the tassel terminating the main axis of the
stem. The pistillate (female) inflorescences, which mature to become the edible ears, are
spikes with a thickened axis, bearing paired spikelets in longitudinal rows; each row of
paired spikelets normally produces two rows of grain. Varieties of yellow and white corn
are the most popular as food, though there are varieties with red, blue, pink, and black
kernels, often banded, spotted, or striped. Each ear is enclosed by modified leaves called
shucks or husks. Many industrial varieties of corn are genetically modified for resistance
to the herbicide glyphosate or to produce proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to kill
specific insect pests. In addition, some strains have been genetically engineered for
greater drought tolerance.
Commercial classifications, based mainly on kernel texture, include dent corn,
flint corn, flour corn, sweet corn, and popcorn. Dent corn is characterized by a depression
in the crown of the kernel caused by unequal drying of the hard and soft starch making up

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the kernel. Flint corn, containing little soft starch, has no depression. Flour corn,
composed largely of soft starch, has soft, mealy, easily ground kernels. Sweet corn has
wrinkled translucent seeds; the plant sugar is not converted to starch as in other types.
Popcorn, an extreme type of flint corn characterized by small hard kernels, is devoid of
soft starch, and heating causes the moisture in the cells to expand, making the kernels
explode. Improvements in corn have resulted from hybridization, based on crossbreeding
of superior inbred strains.
Although it is a major food in many parts of the world, corn is inferior to other
cereals in nutritional value. Its protein is of poor quality, and it is deficient in niacin.
Diets in which it predominates often result in pellagra (niacin-deficiency disease). Its
gluten (elastic protein) is of comparatively poor quality, and it is not used to produce
leavened bread. It is widely used, however, in Latin American cuisine to make masa, a
kind of dough used in such staple foods as tortillas and tamales. Given that corn flour is
gluten-free, it cannot be used alone to make rising breads. In the United States corn is
boiled or roasted on the cob, creamed, converted into hominy (hulled kernels) or meal,
and cooked in corn puddings, mush, polenta, griddle cakes, cornbread, and scrapple. It is
also used for popcorn, confections, and various manufactured cereal preparations.
Corn is also used to produce ethanol (ethyl alcohol), a first-generation liquid
biofuel. In the United States corn ethanol is typically blended with gasoline to produce
“gasohol,” an automotive fuel that is 10 percent ethanol. Although corn-based biofuels
were initially touted as environmentally friendly alternatives to petroleum, their
production diverts arable land and feedstock from the human food chain, sparking a
“food versus fuel” debate. Cellulosic ethanol, which is made from nonedible plant parts
such as agricultural waste, has a smaller impact on the food chain than corn ethanol,
though the conversion technology is generally less efficient than that of first-generation
biofuels.
Many parts of the corn plant are used in industry. Cornstarch can be broken down
into corn syrup, a common sweetener that is generally less expensive than sucrose; high-
fructose corn syrup is used extensively in processed foods such as soft drinks and
candies. Stalks are made into paper and wallboard; husks are used as filling material;
cobs are used directly for fuel, to make charcoal, and in the preparation of industrial
solvents. Corn grain is processed by wet milling, in which the grain is soaked in a dilute
solution of sulfurous acid; by dry milling, in which the corn is exposed to a water spray
or steam; and by fermentation, in which starches are changed to sugars and yeast is
employed to convert the sugars into alcohol. Corn husks also have a long history of use in
the folk arts for objects such as woven amulets and corn-husk dolls.
Much of the corn is wet-processed to produce corn flour, widely used in cooking
(see below Starch products: Cornstarch). Corn, dry-milled as grits or as meal or turned
into flaked corn with some of its starch partially gelatinized, is a popular component in
compounded animal feedstuffs. In dry-milled form it is also the basis of human food
throughout large areas of Africa and South America. Its nutritive value is limited by its
low lysine content. Much recent research has involved development of a corn with higher
lysine content. Mutants have been produced containing much less zein but possessing
protein with higher than normal lysine and tryptophan contents, sometimes increased as
high as 50 percent. These corns, called Opaque-2 and Floury-2, possess certain
drawbacks. They are generally lower in yield than dent hybrids, are subject to more
kernel damage when combine-harvested, and may be more difficult to process.
Nevertheless, these new hybrid corns are expected to become widely cultivated, and the
principles involved in their production may also be applied to sorghum, wheat, and rice.
Corn is popular for use in breakfast foods.

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CEREAL FARMING
Wheat (Triticumaestivum)
written byDouglas W. Kent-Jones

Cereal farming, growing of cereal crops for human food and livestock feed as
well as for other uses, including industrial starch and biofuel. Cereals, or grains, are
members of the grass family (Poaceae) cultivated primarily for their starchy dry fruits.
Wheat, rice, corn (maize), rye, oats, barley, sorghum, and some of the millets are
common cereals.
The cultivation of cereals varies widely in different countries and depends partly
upon the degree of economic development. Other factors include the nature of the soil,
the amount of rainfall, and the techniques applied to promote growth. In illustrating
production problems, this article uses wheat as the example. For information on the
cultivation of other cereal crops, see articles on the individual crops.

Cultivation of Wheat
Wheat can be cultivated over a wide range of soils and can be successfully grown
over large portions of the world, ranging in altitude from sea level to over 3,050 metres
(10,000 feet). Annual rainfall of 254 mm (10 inches) is generally considered the
minimum, and the soil should be sufficiently fertile. Barley and rye can be grown in soil
less fertile than that required for wheat. Soils with a good humus content (partially
decayed organic matter) and chemical fertilizers generally are necessary.
Purity of the seed is important. The seed wheat (or other cereal seeds) must be
true to its particular variety and as free as possible from foreign seeds. Seeds are
frequently cleaned to avoid contamination by other seed crops and weeds. They often
also are treated with fungicides to prevent disease transmission. Modern cleaning
methods employ such devices as oscillating sieves or revolving cylinders. Seed obtained
with a combine harvester is often unsuited for use as seed wheat without preliminary
treatment.
Spring and winter varieties exist for both wheat and barley. Winter varieties
generally produce better crops but have more-stringent climate requirements. Winter
wheat should form a good root system and should begin to form new shoots before the
cold weather sets in; winter wheat is likely to have more tillers (side or axillary shoots)
than spring wheat. The rate of sowing varies from 22.5 kg per hectare (20 pounds per
acre) upward. Depth of sowing, usually 2.5 to 7.5 cm (1 to 3 inches), can be less in
certain areas.

Breeding
Wheat and other cereals are self-fertilized. The pollen carried by the stamen of a
given flower impregnates the pistil (stigma and ovary) of the same flower, enabling the
variety to breed true. Wheat flowers are grouped in spikelets, each bearing from two to
nine flowers, or florets. To produce new varieties by cross-fertilization, the cereal breeder
artificially transfers the stamen from one variety to the flower of another before self-
fertilization takes place. The production of a sufficient supply of the new type of seeds
for sowing is time-consuming and expensive, but it allows new varieties to be evolved,
retaining the desirable characteristics from each parent. For example, in the United

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Kingdom and Australia, varieties of the wheat that yield well often produce flour of poor
baking quality; proper selection of parent plants permits new varieties to be produced that
yield well and still possess good baking qualities.
Other reasons for developing new varieties include resistance to rust (fungus; see
below Fungus diseases) and other diseases, resistance to drought, and development of
stronger and shorter straw to make harvesting easier. Nobel laureate Norman Borlaug
developed a short-stemmed (“dwarf”) strain of wheat that dramatically increased crop
yields; it is estimated that the introduction of his strain to less-developed countries has
saved as many as one billion people from starvation and death.

Seedbed Preparation
Various types of plowing machinery and other implements are employed to
render the soil more suitable for planting. The equipment used depends upon such factors
as the climate, the nature of the ground, and the rainfall. Tillage, the process of preparing
soil for cultivation purposes, varies considerably around the world. Mechanized plows
are common in commercial cereal farms, while animal-drawn plows or even hand-tillage
techniques are often employed on small farms, especially in less-developed countries.
Serious soil erosion may require special procedures to maintain clods and plant residues
in the soil.
In North America it is normal practice to grow wheat on the same ground for as
long as sufficiently clean crops are produced, but eventually the ground must rest fallow
for a year. The moisture of the land at the time of sowing is an important factor. The
ancient procedure of rotating cereals with legumes to improve the soil is still common in
Europe, though less so in North America. Fertilization of the ground is useful to increase
the crop yield, but it does not generally increase the protein content of the crop.

Plant Protection
Winter crops are frequently disturbed by frost, and the ground must then be rolled
in the spring to consolidate the soil around the roots. If soil has become crusted by heavy
rains followed by surface drying, the crop is usually harrowed in the spring to aerate the
soil and kill young weeds. Although all of the required mineral nutrients may be added to
the soil at the time of sowing, sometimes only part of the nitrogenous fertilizers is added
at that time, and the remainder is applied to the growing crop in the form of a top
dressing. In the cultivation of spring wheat all of the fertilizer is usually added before or
at sowing time, but sometimes a small portion is reserved for later.

Weeds
Weeds present difficulties, as they compete with cereal crops for water, light, and
mineral nutrients. The infestation of annual seeds planted in a field may cause many
weeds in that field for successive years. Charlock or wild mustard, wild oats, quack grass,
and other common weeds are disseminated by wind, water, and birds. The application of
chemical herbicides is a common form of weed control, though manual removal is still
used in some places.

Insects

11
 In addition to weeds, wheat and other cereals are seriously affected by insects.
Grasshoppers and locusts can cause immense damage, and spraying from airplanes with
chemical pesticides is generally effective against these pests.
The eggs of click beetles are laid in the soil, and the larvae, called wireworms,
live underground for some years, feeding on the roots and stems of the young plants
(particularly slow-growing plants). To combat such damage, chemical seed dressing is
used together with nitrogenous fertilizers.
Aphids attack many plants, and the wheat aphid, or greenbug, causes damage
throughout the world. Preventive action includes preparing a good seedbed, sufficient
fertilization, and early sowing.
The wheat stem sawfly (Cephuscinctus) is found in many parts of the world.
Infested wheat shows fallen straw filled with a fine sawdust material harbouring brown-
headed larvae that pass the winter in the base of the wheat straw; the wasplike adult
insect emerges around June. The females lay their eggs into the upper plant tissues, and
the larvae feed within the stem toward the base until the stem collapses. Certain wheat
varieties are reasonably resistant to the pest, and thorough plowing of the infested stubble
is generally effective. Certain crops, such as bromegrass, attract this pest and may be
grown on the borders of wheat crops to distract the pests away from the wheat. The
Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor), resembling the mosquito, attacks the stems of wheat,
barley, and rye. Late wheat usually escapes damage from this pest.
Many wheats in central Europe and the Middle East have shown evidence of
attacks from the wheat bug (Aelia andEurygaster species). The eggs are laid in the spring,
and the new generation appears in the summer. When the wheat is harvested, the bugs
leave the stubble field and migrate to nearby foliage for the winter. Wheat bugs puncture
the grain and introduce by means of their saliva an enzyme that profoundly modifies the
nature of the gluten. The gluten of flour produced from infected wheat rapidly loses its
cohesion upon standing in water, eventually disintegrating completely. Strong wheats
resist wheat-bug attack better than soft, weak wheats do. There is little change in strong
baking flours if only 1 percent of the grains are affected; in flour from soft wheats, the
damage with even 1 percent to 2 percent of the grains affected can make the baking
quality unacceptable. The puncture mark can be seen on the grain, usually surrounded by
a yellow patch, and sometimes the grain is shrivelled.

Fungus Diseases
In the fungus group known as rust, the chief damage is caused by black rust.
Because this fungus spends part of its life on cereals and part on the barberry bush, these
bushes are often eradicated near wheat fields as a preventive measure. Black rust causes
cereal plants to lose their green colour and turn yellow. The grain produced is small,
shrivelled, and has a low weight per bushel. Resistant varieties have been introduced.
In many countries wheat is attacked by smut. Stinking smut (or bunt) is fairly
common in the United Kingdom. Malformed grains are produced, filled with black spores
that spread over noninfected grain and give off a “fishy” smell.
Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) is a fungus more often attacking rye than wheat. It
forms a dark purple mass, larger than the grain, containing 30 percent fatty material and
the alkaloid ergotoxine, which has a profound pharmacological effect on the human and
animal body. Much of this fungus is likely to be removed in the mill screen room, and the
clean grain sent on to the mill should contain not more than 0.04 percent of this fungus
and preferably less.

12
Harvesting
In the developed countries, harvesting of wheat and other cereals is done
principally by the combine harvester, though in the developing countries the ancient
scythe, sickle, and flail are still widely used.
The mechanical ancestor of today’s large combines was the McCormick reaper,
introduced in 1831 and followed by self-raking reapers that delivered the cut grain in
bunches on the ground to be bound by hand. In 1843 a “stripper” was brought out in
Australia that removed the wheat heads from the plants and threshed them in a single
operation. Threshing machines were powered first by men or animals, often using
treadmills, later by steam and internal-combustion engines. The modern combine
harvester, originally introduced in California about 1875, came into wide use in the
United States in the 1920s and ’30s and in the United Kingdom in the 1940s. In 1940 the
self-propelled combine was introduced. The combine cuts the standing grain, threshes out
the grain from the straw and chaff, cleans the grain, and discharges it into bags or grain
reservoirs. Other crops also can be worked by adaptations of the machine, and the
reduction in harvesting time and labour is striking; in 1829 harvesting one acre of wheat
required 14 hours, while the modern combine requires less than 30 minutes. In the early
part of the 19th century harvesting a bushel of wheat required three hours; modern
industrial harvesting takes about five minutes.
For satisfactory results, crops should not be too damp and should be reasonably
ripe. If the grain contains over 14 percent moisture, as often in the United Kingdom and
other European countries, it must be dried after harves happens ting under controlled
conditions to avoid damage to the gluten. Rice can be combine-harvested, but because of
its high moisture content (approaching 20 percent) it must be immediately dried.

Grading
Wheat is an important commodity in international commerce, and many attempts
have been made to ensure reliability in grading. In North America excellent grading
allows the buyer to ascertain the type and standard of wheat acquired. Canada has
statutory grades for most of its wheats. For wheat moving overseas from the terminal
positions, standard export samples are used in grading. However, there is little
commercial grading of wheat in many less-developed countries, and the buyer relies on
individual testing and assessments of wheat arrivals.

Storage
Cereal storage has been of concern from the earliest times; references are made to
it in the Bible. Harvest variations from season to season produced carryover requiring
storage, a problem that grew with increasing populations and developing commerce.
With modern international cereal trade, huge silos are now found at the main points of
export and at the docks of importing countries. In the major exporting countries silos at
the country elevators feed the terminal silos; inefficient storage at any of these points
makes the cereals highly vulnerable to insects and rodent attack. In certain regions, such
as India, losses have amounted to 40 percent of the crop.
A constant danger also lies in the respiration of the grain. If the moisture content
of grain is low (10–12 percent), a rise in temperature resulting from respiration is
unlikely; but if the bulk is large and the moisture content high (over 16 percent), the heat

13
may not be dissipated, causing the temperature to rise and further increase the rate of
respiration. Consequently, cereal stocks are turned over to ventilate the grain and to keep
the temperature low. The problem also occurs in the holds of ships; much litigation has
resulted from the arrival of hot and damaged cargoes.
Molds and fungi are other sources of spoilage that have received extensive study
in recent years. Cleaning processes remove as much as possible of external molds before
storage, but in hot countries, particularly, the problem remains serious. Under primitive
conditions the habits and development of communities depended largely on their skill in
storing grain.
Heat is also frequently a cause of loss of weight, loss in milling value, and loss in
food value through its provision of a favourable environment for such insects as the grain
weevil (Sitophilus granarius), the rice and maize weevils (S. oryzae), the lesser grain
borer (Rhyzopertha dominica), and the angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella).
These are all endosperm borers. Among the grain germ eaters are the rust-red grain beetle
(Cryptolestes ferrugineus), the saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis), the
khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium), and the warehouse moth (Ephestia elutella).
Secondary pests include the mill pest known as the Mediterranean flour moth
(Anagasta kuehniella), the confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum), the rust-red flour
beetle (T. castaneum), the flat grain beetle (Cryptolestes pusillus), the broad-horned flour
beetle (Gnathocerus cornutus), the cadelle beetle (Tenebroides mauritanicus), and a
number of miscellaneous insects, including the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), the
Australian spider beetle, and the biscuit beetle. Of the mites that invade mills, storehouses
and bakeries, the commonest is the flour mite (Acarussiro).
Good housekeeping, with special attention to sacks and bags and their regular
cleaning and disinfecting, contributes to insect control. Inert insecticidal dusts, contact
insecticides or fumigation may be required.
References statistics-concepts-definitions-and-
classifications/en/.
Food and Agriculture Organization
Center for New Crops and Plant
(FAO). 1995. Dimensions of need-
Products. 2010. Purdue University.
Staple crops: what do people eat?
Retrieved October 23, 2010 from
Retrieved October 23, 2010 from
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/def
http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/u848
ault.html.
0e07.htm.
Chapman, S.R. and L.P. Carter. 1976.
Hymowitz, T. 1990. Grain legumes. p.
Crop Production: Principles and
54-57. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon
Practices. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman
(eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber
and Company. pp. 337-357.
Press, Portland, OR. Retrieved October
FAOSTAT. 2016. 23, 2010 from
http://faostat3.fao.org/browse/rankings/c http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pro
ountries_by_commodity/E, accessed ceedings1990/V1-154.html.
Sept. 27, 2016.
Myers, R. 2010. Grain legumes.
Food and Agriculture Organization Retrieved October 22, 2010 from
(FA0). 2010. Crops statistics – concepts, http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/cro
definitions and classifications. Retrieved pmap/missouri/crop/pulse.html.
May 29, 2010 from
Oregon State University. n.d.
http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/metho
Classification of crops and their role in
dology/methodology-systems/crops-
human nutrition. OSU Extended

14
Campus. Retrieved October 23, 2010
from
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/css/330/tw
o/index2.htm.
Peel, L. 2003. Harper Collins Practical
Gardener: Kitchen Garden. New York,
N.Y.: Harper Collins Publishers Ltd. pp.
78-83.
Tabinga, G.A. and A.O. Gagni. 1982.
Field Legumes Production in the
Philippines. UPLB, College, Laguna:
Department of Development
Communication. 57 p
The Editors of Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Thhis article was most
recently revised and updated by Melissa
Petruzzello, Assistant
Editor.https://www.britannica.com/plant/
rice
https://farmingmethod.com/modern-farm-
tools/

https://farmingmethod.com/modern-farm-
tools/

15
 UNIT II
ANIMAL PRODUCTION
Overview
Livestock and poultry were the
strongest sources of growth in Philippine
agriculture from 1986 to 2000. At the
farm level, livestock raising is a major
activity in rural areas. For a large
proportion of smallholder households
engaged in livestock raising, the activity
is the primary source of income (UPLB-
IFPRI-ILRI livestock household survey,
2000). Hence this unit will give you
about the insight in managing poultry
and livestock.
Unit Objectives
At the end of the lesson,I am
able to:
1. Improve one’s skills through
exposure to varied aspects of poultry
production.
2. Demonstrate core competencies in
Animal Production (Poultry-
Chicken) NC II;
3. Have business idea and managed
their own poultry project.
4. Develop skills, and attitudes in
accordance with industry and
authority standards.;
5. Create new business ideas in animal
production by using various
techniques;
6. Demonstrate core competencies in
Animal Production (Poultry-
Chicken) NC II;
7. Demonstrate core competencies in
Animal Production (Swine) NC II;
and
8. Demonstrate core competencies in
Animal Production (Ruminants) NC
II
16
Expanding Your Knowledge
FARM ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Specialized Poultry and Livestock Raising

There have been many developments in the poultry and livestock industry in
recent years. Greater concentration and specialization on the egg production, chick
breeding and market stocks of boilers, fattening pigs, cattle, milk by-products are
currently taking place. Any of these are operated as a specialty or sideline and they can
be done under intensive or extensive conditions. This wide variety of business
opportunities makes possible the supply of various demands. Opportunities are greater
each year, due to an ever-increasing demand for egg, meat, and milk by-products of good
quality.

There are many exclusive egg, broiler, milk, fattening pig, and cattle farms
scattered around the country today. Most of them have one to ten thousand heads of
poultry or livestock. This specialization has made our poultry and livestock business
scientific. The development of special egg, broiler, milk, and beef farm brought about
improvements in methods of marketing. Today, there is a closer relation between the
producer and consumer. This is accompanied by guaranteed fresh and clean products and
an endeavor to meet market requirements in Metro Manila and its surrounding areas.

The poultry and livestock industry has become lucrative and popular. Many
people previously engaged in occupations other than agriculture have gone into small-
scale poultry and livestock production. This popularity has been met by rapid
developments in facilities for poultry and livestock, improved care and management
practices at various integrated private animal farms, and the establishment of several
government experiment station are working towards making poultry and livestock
production in the country an exact science. Many state colleges in agriculture offer short
term courses (from six to ten weeks) in poultry, swine, goat, and cattle husbandry. These
are helpful to beginners and prospective raisers who want to be familiar with modern
practices.

The poultry and livestock business is made up of different branches. Beginners

can select one which will best fit their conditions. One must first study market
requirements and land conditions. Animal raisers with small farm can go into raising
pure-bred stock; breeding or production of market eggs, chicks, and broilers; and
fattening stock or milk production and preparation of milk by-products. An average farm
exclusively for egg or broiler production may have a number of by-products which can
also bring in a large income. Poultry manure, if properly gathered and stored, can be sold

17
as fertilizer to tree farmers and growers of vegetables and fruits. There is also revenue
from feathers if they are dry-picked and well-cured.

Poultry and livestock products have great value even in small bulk. They are
easier to handle when they are being prepared for market and during shipment than bulky
agricultural products. For high food value. If properly handled, eggs can be kept edible
from six months to one year in cold storage.

The poultry and livestock business is a branch of animal production which offers
quick return of investment. In any branch of the business, whether eggs, meat, or milk,
the products are ready for market in a very short period of time. The quick return of
investment is the main reason why many small-scale investors are gathering into this
business.

Chickens can be raised in many homes or farms in the Philippines throughout the
year. They are found even in the backyards of city or town dwellers. There are many
reasons why many investors go into poultry-raising. These include the following.

1. Little capital is need in the business.

2. On the farm, during much of the year, chickens need hardly any attention.
3. Chickens consume large quantities of what would otherwise be waste matter and
cost little to maintain.
4. Chicken meat and eggs are wholesome and universally accepted as food.
5. Hens are adapted to confinement or to a free range.
6. Fair success and profit are attained even by keepers with little knowledge on
modern poultry management practice, provided they do not begin on a large scale.

Farmers raise cows, goats, or rabbits because they can be sold and, thus, provide
some profit. In the Philippines, farmers still use carabaos or cattle because of their
capacity for tedious work. As farm animals, they aid the farmer in plowing and harrowing
the field. This is true specially in regions where rice and corn are major crops.

Raising livestock in backyards or farms is profitable for families because the

supply of meat, milk, hides, useful milk by-products such as butter, cream, and cheese,
and large quantities of manure for fertilizer is ensured.

MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN EGG AND BROILER PRODUCTION

Poultry raising is part of the general elementary and secondary school curriculum
in public schools. One reason why chicken raising is a regular part of the pupil's school

18
work in the elementary grades is that it is intensely interesting. Chickens grow rapidly
and mature early. They respond quickly to good or bad treatment. Students makes
encouraged to engage in raising goat, pigs, rabbits, or cattle as a business venture later
on.

Chicken Breeds

The choice of a chicken breed depends on the purposes for which chicken are to
be raised. Among chickens we have three breed types: the light breeds which produce
eggs; the heavy breeds which produce both eggs and meat.

Egg type breeds. The breeds and varieties of this type are small and nervous.
They are good layers but poor sitters. They mature early and lay white-shelled eggs at an
early age. Two popular breeds are Leghorns and Minorcas because of their excellent
laying capacities. Leghorns are white, brown, buffs or black in color, have long slender
bodies, and have white earlobes. The Minorca is larger than the leghorn and has a large
comb. The black Minorca is the most common. It lays fewer but larger eggs than the
Leghorn.

Meat breeds. The meat breeds are known as the Asiatic class. They are heavy
and slow in movement, are poor layers but good sitters. All the members of this class
have feathers on the thanks and feet. The three breeds that belong to this class are the
heaviest while the Langshans, and Cochin. The Brahmas are the heaviest while the
Langshans are the tallest of the three. All meat breeds formerly belonged to the Asiatic
class. However, with the disappearance of this type of chicken, breeds of the American
class have taken their place.

General purpose breeds. These breeds are sometimes known as the American
class. They have the characteristics of both eggs and meat breeds. Many common breeds
of chicken belong to this class. These include the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, and Rhode
Island Red, and the New Hampshire breeds.

Existing commercial stocks of chickens in the Philippines at present are classified

as either egg or broiler type. The Vantress, Peterson, Cobb, Arbor Acres, Indian River,
Hubbard, and Dekalbare are some examples. The hens of these stocks are good layers
specially in seasons of the year when eggs are expensive. When dressed, they provide
good meat quality. There are poor layers even among the Leghorns so it is wise to select
strains or families that are suited for egg production, regardless of breed. It is easier to
select breeds for meat-producing, quantities from mere appearance, but the ability to
produce eggs must be determined by actual performance.

19
 For a home or backyard chicken raising project, one can start with 25 to 50 layers.
The number of layers will depend on the size them time to acquire experience and study
the fundamentals of chicken raising thoroughly.

MANAGEMENT OF LAYING FLOCKS

There are guidelines to be followed to effectively manage laying flocks for egg
production. The succeeding paragraphs include those on stock selection, housing, and
feeding the laying stock.

Selection of stock. The difference between success and failure in an egg

production project is measured by the kind and quality of stock with which the start is
made. Pure-bred chickens which have been bred for egg production for many generations
will lay a larger number of eggs that birds of mix breeding or poorly bred birds of low
vitality. Careful selection of the stock is important as this can be used as the source of
many generations of future egg producer.

Housing the laying flock. Proper housing of layers is more important than that
provided for other kinds of farm stock. An expensive house is not necessary. A simple
house that supplies plenty of fresh air without a draft, admits sunlight, is dry in cool and
rainy weather, and has plenty of space to keep the birds comfortable is sufficient. The
house should be designed to fit the local climate.

Feeding the laying flock. Hens need activity to be healthy. When housed, as in
most cases in our country, they are apt to become lazy and fat unless they are exercised
every day. To accomplish this, part of their feed should be scratch feed is given twice:
one part in the morning soon after the birds have left the perch, and the other in the
afternoon one or two hours before they roost. A scratch feed may consist of the
following:

At noon, succulent feed such as grasses, camoteorkangkongtops, and crop

residues such as pechay, cabbage, and mustard leaves should be given to the hens in such
amounts that they will finish the feed in 20-30 minutes. Some poultry raisers hang the
succulent feed high enough to force the birds to jump for it for further exercise. Fresh
water should be supplied in the morning and be left trough containing the dry mash feed
is opened and watering is a must.

Select dry mash that will provide laying hens with the necessary nutrients to meet
requirements for growth, fattening, egg production, and maintenance. Use feeds that are

20
economical, palatable, readily available in the locality, and will produce the desired
results.

Factors influencing egg production. Close attention must be given to the

following factors influencing egg production:

1. Separate sexes. One of the standard practices followed by successful poultry raisers
is to separate the sexes of the birds in the flock. This is usually done in five to six
weeks in the case of Leghorn breeds and eight to ten weeks in the case of heavy
breeds of chickens.

2. Provide yard or range. One question which a poultry raiser must consider is: Is it
possible to provide a yard for the birds or will I allow them free range? Giving the
birds plenty of range translates into better health for the flock, less feed cost, and less
cost in equipment. Hence, yards should be provided whenever possible. However, on
small poultry farms where only one commercial breed is kept, it is necessary to
confine the birds in small yards to give the birds a run of the farm. Fence any small
areas to which the birds may no damage. A desirable arrangement of yarding is to
have two yards of equal size for each house: one in front and another in the rear. It is
good management policy to provide 2,000 square meters of yard for every 100 hens.

3. Gather eggs regularly. This is done in order to have quality eggs for the market. Use
an open woven basket for gathering eggs. It is good to select eggs two or three times a
day to avert the danger of their being broken or be coming extremely dirty by hens
treading on them. Violent motion on the eggs such as shaking or jarring should be
avoided. As this can rupture the internal membranes and render the eggs useless for
incubation. Eggs should immediately and simultaneously be sorted while collecting.
Any egg unfit for hatching should be set aside for consumption.
4. Poultry hygiene and sanitation. Absolute cleanliness and sanitation should be
observed inside the poultry farm. While some poultry raisers may succeed for a time
in defiance of this. Time will come when the neglect of cleanliness and sanitation will
make itself felt. Of course disease may come in spite of all precautions. Yet the
possibility of its occurrence can be reduced to a minimum. The essentials. of hygienic
care be summed up as follows. Clean housing. Clean feeding. Clean yards and range.
And clean and healthy birds of vigorous constitution.
5. Poultry parasites and their control. Two common enemies of poultry are the red
mite and chicken louse. Mites are controlled by whitewashing the coops and spraying

21
 the roosts and nests once a month with crude oil or kerosene emulsion. Lice live on
the body of the hen and may be easily controlled by dusting the hen with a few
pinches of sodium flouride, a white powder chemical that can be bought in the local
poultry and agricultural store. This powder is to be dusted Under the feathered on the
head and neck. Back. Breast. Wings. And below the yent of the chickens cage

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN BROILER PRODUCTION

The production of poultry for meat offers poultry raisers a possible source
of considerable income at minimum expenses. There is a steady demand for first-class
prime chicken, - dressed and lives, at exceedingly attractive prices. Broiler raising or the
growing and marketing of chicken is practiced everywhere in the Philippines. No food is
as tender, delicious, and highly esteemed by everyone as the spring chicken. The greatest
demand for broilers is in the cities of Metro Manila, Cebu, Legaspi, and Davao. The
cities of Manila. Quezon, Pasay and Caloocan constitute the four heaviest points of
distribution.

Advantage of broiler raising. When used in the trade, a broiler refers to a young
chicken of either sex, but usually male, ranging from eight to fifteen weeks of age, of
good size for its age, and full meated. Broiler raising, whether as an exclusive occupation
or a hobby, offers anyone engaged in the business a healthy, interesting, and invigorating
venture. The work is not exceedingly heavy and is carried out largely outdoors. It is also
constant and detailed. It is a year-round business that does not need big capital not require
big and wide spaces. There is quicker return of investment for most broilers sold when
they have reached the age of three months. If given proper care and good management,
broilers yield soft, tender, and delicious meat.

Broiler production and its requirements. The following summary of broiler

production and its requirements sets forth the essentials features to be considered before
getting into the business, either exclusively or as a sideline. To be successful, broiler
producers must consider the following points:

1. Market types of broilers. The market types of broilers are classified into three
groups, namely, large, medium, and small. A pair of large broilers weigh from 3.75 to
4kilo grams or 1.87 to 2 kilograms each. Large broilers are used extensively as fryers
and are in great demand during the holiday seasons. Medium broilers is very popular
and command and highest price during the broiler season. Medium broilers weight
from 1 to 1-1/2 kilograms each. The medium broilers is very popular and command

22
 the highest price during the broiler season. Small broilers weight from ½ to
1kilogram. This grade of boilers is the most expensive for the consumer and is used
only in hotel and restaurant trade. Among the three types, small broiler are the most
expensive from the standpoint of both supply and demand, specially, specially during
the season of high prices.

Broiler raisers should always aim to give products with which the market
is familiar and for which it has designated its intention to pay a premium. Uniformity
in characteristics such as weight, color, condition of the flesh, and absence of
feathered shanks make for high prices.

2. Broilers season and the effects of natural supply. These are determined largely by
supply and demand. In the Philippines, these is comparatively little demand for
broiler during the rainy season until October, owing largely to the fact that there are
fewer social functions or dinner. Hotels and restaurants which constitute over 85
percent of broilers consumers have no great demand for broilers during the rainy
season. The demand for broilers start in November and December, continues and
increases until the middle of May when demand is at its peak. In March, the supply of
broilers in the market constantly increases. There is no great decline until the last
week of May, when the price suddenly drops. The profitable season then for
specialized broilers production is during the months of December, March and April.

3. Desirable features in a broiler. In order to meet market requirements and the

demand of the trade, a chicken should meet the following standards:

a. It should be full-feathered and well filled out, specially the breast and thigh.
b. It should have a compact form because large bones give a rangy and lanky
appearance to the bird when dressed.
c. Its meat should be of good quality. This means that it must be tender, juicy and
free from excessive connective tissue.
d. It should have yellow skin and shanks as these command the highest price.
e. It should be light or white-feathered.
f. It should have been hatched from a quick-maturing strain or breed or from parents
which were quickly matured.
g. First-class broilers have a small comb and wattles, small shanks and feet, and short
legs.

An understanding of these requirements and their bearing on price and demand is

necessary in order to fully realize the possibilities of the broilers industry.

23
4. Breeds best adapted to broilers raising. The general utility breeds more nearly fulfill
the requirement for broilers raising than any other class of chicken. This is especially true
of the large broilers. If properly managed, the Rhode Island Reds, New Hampshires and
Plymouth Rocks, attain quick growth in 12 to 15 weeks, weighing at the time from 1-1/2
to kilograms each.

At present, the following brand names of broilers chicken are available in our
local markets; Arbor Acres, Cobb, Hubbars, Indian River, Pilch, Dekalb, Starbro, and
Peterson. A poultry raiser should aim to select a good breed with the desired distinctive
characteristics and, as such possible, turn out the highest quality of market broilers in the
shortest time with the least expense.

5. Prices, cost, and profits. Before attempting to raiser broilers, one must have a clear
understanding of the cost of production, selling price, and profits under average
conditions. The cost of producing broilers varies because of differences in management,
differences in breeds, unavoidable losses, and variations in the season. Other factors in
determining the production cost are the price of eggs at the season when they are hatched,
loss from low fertility, and the percentage of eggs hatched.

The approximately cost (per chicks) of an average backyard boiler production raising 100
chicks are as follow:

Expenses Amount
(update these prices)
Cost of chicks 12:50 -
Cost of feed from hatching to marketing 0.15 -
Cost of labor 0.07 -
Cost of picking and packing 0.10 -
Cost of marketing 0.15-
Total 12.87 -
SWINE PRODUCTION

According to the Business Mirror, the pork production will increase by 3.15% in
2018 to reach 1.635 million metric tons (MMT), a 3.15 percent increase than the
projected output of 1.585 MMT for this year.
A growing swine production industry driven by an increasing consumer demand.
The swine production amounts to a whopping PHP 191 billion industry, the largest
among the livestock and poultry industries in the Philippines.

Swine Production Insights in the Philippines

In 2017, swine production was contributing to 18% of the total value of
agricultural output, ranking just behind rice, making it the eighth country in the world in
terms of pork volume production and number of breeding sows.As of today, swine

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production growth is stimulated by a high demand from a growing middle class. It plays a
major role in ensuring the food security of the Philippines by providing more than 60% of
the total meat consumption of the Filipinos.

A Hog Industry Confronted by Challenges

Around 65% of the swine production is done by backyard farmers (versus 35% by
large-scale farm operations), which shows a growing number of Filipinos venturing into
this field.
Despite being technologically advanced, backyard swine farmers can be
confronted with low productivity and swine mismanagement practices which results in
low sow productivity and high mortality rates.
External factors may also contribute to these challenges. According to animal
health experts, global warming may heighten the unpredictable weather in the country,
resulting in an increase in infection and respiratory diseases for the farm animals, which
could in turn negatively affect farm productivity and profitability.
The Philippines Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research
is supporting different research and development initiatives through the Industry Strategic
Science and Technology Program for Swine, launched in 2016. The project aims to
develop technologies and systems which can improve the productivity and production
efficiency of the swine industry.
At different levels, hog feed producers are investing their expertise and time to
bridge this gap. Neovia Philippines, with its range of hog and swine complete feed, —
Evialis, Ultrapak, Popular, Primepak andBudgetpak–, is striving in this direction. Our
technical experts have already brought their advice and technical training about feeding
and nutrition performance, bio-security and hygiene monitoring on the farm, breeding,
diseases diagnostics and treatment to hundreds of backyard farmers.
Swine production in the Philippines is a P191-billion industry and is the largest
among the livestock and poultry industries of the country. It ranks next to rice with
18.28% contribution to the total value of agricultural production. Swine production plays
a major role in ensuring the country’s food security by providing about 60% of the total
animal meat consumption of Filipinos. The Philippine swine industry is ranked eighth in
the world in terms of the volume of pork production and number of breeding sows.
However, majority or about 65% of the pigs in the Philippines are kept by smallhold pig
raisers.
Despite being dynamic and technologically advanced, the local pig industry is still
confronted with inefficiency of production due to low sow productivity, high mortality
due to inefficient diagnostic tool, and lack of native pig genetic resource conservation,
improvement and utilization initiative. Thus, the Philippine Council for Agriculture,
Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development of the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST-PCAARRD) supported research and development (R&D)
initiatives through the Industry Strategic science and technology (S&T) Program (ISP)
for Swine. The program aims to address the current problems by developing technologies
and systems that are expected to improve the productivity and production efficiency.
Through these initiatives, the program seeks to create new opportunities and increase the
overall competitiveness of the Philippine swine industry.

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Swine ISP Accomplishments
To increase sow productivity, the Philippine Carabao Center (PCC) and Bureau of
Animal Industry (BAI) in partnership with the Accredited Swine Breeders Association of
the Philippines (ASBAP) develop the application of gene markers in breeding and
selection of breeder pigs. This activity has optimized ten gene marker protocols
associated to high litter size, fast growth rate and meat qualities as well as seven markers
for screening of genetic defects and disease resistance. The adoption of the gene marker
technology by the swine breeder farms is expected to increase productivity and efficiency
in terms of number of pigs weaned and live-weight produced per sow per year.
To address the problem on high mortality due to diseases, researchers from the
Central Luzon State University (CLSU) developed six LAMP protocols for common
swine respiratory and gastrointestinal pathogens causing diseases (i.e.
Pasteurellamultocida, Haemophilusparasuis, Actinobacilluspleuropneumoniae,
Cryptosporidium sp., Salmonella sp., and Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea (PED) Virus.
CLSU has forged memoranda of agreement with three Regional Animal Disease
Diagnostic Laboratories (RADDLs) of the Department of Agriculture institutionalizing
the LAMP assays to be part of their routine diagnostic protocol. In addition, a pilot
laboratory was established for the production of PED RT-LAMP test kits at CLSU.
Patent for the PED RT-LAMP test kit was applied, while trademarks for the logo and
tagline were registered at Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHIL).
The native pig breed is expected to provide sustainable livelihood opportunities
for rural farming communities. (Photo from the Livestock Research Division, DOST-
PCAARRD)

Related to improving farm productivity through better farm management and

decision making, a Web-based Group Monitoring System for pigs was established.
Cooperating commercial piggery farm is currently testing the system. The data/image
transmitted can be viewed real-time using the desktop computer in the farm’s office. In
addition, a smartphone application was developed that can estimate body weight of pigs
using captured images.
In response to our need to implement a pork traceability system from pen to plate,
a computer software system was developed for tracking animals inside the farm and from
the farm to the slaughterhouse gate using RFID (radio frequency identification).
Moreover, to detect the presence of other meat aside from pork in a product, a DNA-
based species authentication technology (PCR- Polymerase Chain Reaction) was
developed. It can detect meat from pig, cattle, goat and horse.
For the development of native pig breeds in the Philippines, initial breeding
population was established and criteria for selecting of breeder native pig were
developed. On the other hand, native pig free-range management protocol is being
developed. The forage or pasture area were established and being maintained to provide
the feed of the native pigs. The development and improvement of Philippine native pig
breed is expected to provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for rural farming
communities.

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 Related to utilization of native pig, the processing techniques for Etag were
established following food safety requirements and quality control protocols. Etag is an
ethnic and traditional meat delicacy of the Cordilleras processed through curing of pork
(from native pig) with salt prior to sundrying or smoking for preservation. Etag is used as
flavor enhancer in different viands. Etag processed using the standardized techniques
comply with the food safety standard for microbial count of E. coli, Staphylococcus areus
and absence of Salmonella. Moreover, convenient type Etag-based products such as
cubes, powder and granules and liquid seasoning were developed. Etag processing
facility was established at the Benguet State University (BSU).
DOST-PCAARRD will showcase the swine ISP including other agri-aqua S&T
research and development (R&D) outputs on March 2-4, 2016 during the SIPAG
FIESTA at its headquarters in Los Baños, Laguna.
SIPAG, a technology transfer strategy, embodies the Council’s commitment to
DOST’s Outcome One in a bid to ensure that the fruits of R&D activities for the agri-
aqua sectors will be a blessing for every Juan.
There are many benefits that can be derived from raising hogs.

The following are some of them:

1. Hogs are very efficient converts of concentrated farm feed into meat and meat
products.
2. The returns in pork production come quite rapidly. Pigs can be marketed within six
months after farrowing or about ten months after the sow is bred.
3. The investments required for the purchase of equipment and breeding herds is
relatively small compared with other farm crops and livestock.
4. Brood sows are prolific and may produce two litters per year.
5. Roughages are used in small quantities and a small area for pasture is required for
growing and fattening pigs.
6. Hogs have a high dressing percentage and are in demand as meat animals because of
the big consumption of pork products in the Philippines.
7. Hogs excel in supplying farm meats because of the ease in dressing, cutting, curing,
and utilizing the carcass.
There are several reasons why hogs should be kept on farms. Hogs assist in maintaining
the fertility of farmland. By giving farm household refuse. With hog raising as a part of
the farming operation, remunerative employment is provided.

ASPECTS OF SWINE RAISING

The following are the three areas of swine raising that a prospective raiser can specialize
in:
1. Swine breeding project. In this type of operation, pigs are raised to produce the parent
stock.
2. Farrow to weaning piggery project. This type not project involves producing and
selling piglets or weanlings that are no longer nursing from the saw.

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3. Hog fattening project. This is raising pigs for fattening or finishing to be sold upon
reaching a marketable age. Most of our commercial piggery projects are engaged in all
three areas of swine raising. The succeeding discussion will focus on the raising of
fattening pigs on dry lots for market consumption.
In the country side, nearly every house hold keeps native or cross-bred pigs which are left
alone to fend for themselves. A small backyard for fattening two or more pigs can help
augment the family’s food requirements for meat. It can also be a source of additional
income.
Selecting the stock. Raise the best pig possible. Determine the market demand first and
then select the best type of pig for finishing or fattening. Select either a gilt or farrow at
about weaning time. Consider the following points in the selection of your foundation
stock:
1. Market standards. When selecting your pig for fattening note the following market
standards: smoothness, thickness, firmness, and evenness of flesh at the sides.

2. Characteristics of a good feeding. This important from the standpoint of economical

production. You should choose a pig that will gain weight with the least feed.
Although management practices will have much to do with this, certain
characteristics of feeding must also be considered in the selection of fattening pigs.
In selecting pigs for fattening, check the head because it is a good indicator for fattening.
A broad, well-proportioned head that is short for a particular breed indicates that the pig
comes from selected breeding and will feed well. A head that is too long for the breed
reflects hit and miss breeding and a combinations of conditions that do not produce
economical feeders. A good feeder has a body that is deep but not out of proportion.
Avoid the long rangy pig and the chubby, very fat type. Another point to consider is
health and thrift. These traits are shown by the strength of the back and legs, brightness of
the eyes, shine in the coat, and vigor in action. Select from a healthy, well-bred litter in
which pigs have been vaccinated against hog cholera.
In the Philippines, a well-ventilated shelter which will keep the pig dry should be
constructed for fattening pigs. The floor area of shelters need not be spacious, but some
provisions for daily exercise for one pig is necessary specially if pasture is not available.
The Bureau of Animal Industry (BA) and many commercial piggery projects have plans
for this kind of project. Write or visit one or more of these projects to get accurate and
up-to-date information on housing pigs. Your needs will depend on your particular
location but build a house and get fixtures and equipment that will last. Pigs need a
constant supply of clean, clear water. This can be provided by having a portable gasoline
drum trough. You can also build a concrete type wallow which can hold 20 to 25
centimeters of clean water. Clean the wallow at least twice a week. The feeding
equipment for fattening feeds will depend on the number of pigs you will raise and the
plans for future pig project expansion. The different types of feeding equipment that
should be considered are feeding troughs, self feeders, and if possible, hayracks.
Whatever equipment you use, build it well.
Feeding. Your objective in feeding is to raise 800 to 1,000kilograms of meat with the
least cost in feed stuff. To do this, it is necessary to supply the right kind of feed in the
right proportion.
The following table lists some of the suggested rations for fattening pigs. Ration refers to
the amount of feed an animal will eat a 24-hour period. It must contain the proper

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mixture of carbohydrates, proteins, and minerals to provide energy and build tissues and
bones for growth.
Suggested Rations of Fattening Mash (for pigs six to ten months old being fattened for
alauther)
Ingredients % Protein Parts
Rice bran 13.5 65
Corn 8.7 24
Soybean oil meal 44.0 3
Copra meal 20.4 4
Molasses 3.2 2
Powdered oyster shell - 1.5
.5Salt -
Total 100
Crude protein, percent 13.07

The feeding of finishing or fattening pigs should be done twice every day and the feed
given either in dry or slop form. Unlike growing pigs, fattening pigs should be given less
food, Too large quantities of food given to fattening pigs prolong their fatten period.
Cleanliness and sanitation. Cleanliness is essential in raising pigs. Practice cleanliness
in everything clean pigs, clean pigpen, clean yard and pastures, clean feeding equipment,
and clean water. Make sure the yard and pig pen are dry and well drained. To avoid pigs
wallowing in the yard, provide the pigs with a wallow that can be cleaned. Clean the
wallow at least twice weekly. A cement wallow is the best type. Do not crowd the pigs.
Make sure that they are provided with enough space Sanitation is important in any
livestock project. Intestinal parasites and filth-borne diseases are responsible for most hog
losses in some regions of the country. These losses can be controlled by sanitation.
Disease organisms and parasite eggs thrive in dirty, wet, dark, and crowded pig pens,
Avoid these conditions.
The following are some pointers to remember to avoid dis-eases or any disorder in pigs:
1. Cleanliness is important. A healthy pig is capable of warding off most diseases. To
maintain the vigor and good health of your pigs, they must be properly fed and kept
under sanitary conditions. Sanitation must be practiced as a preventive measure and not
as a cure for diseases. Pigs should always be kept in clean, dry, and warm quarters.
Practice sanitation as a rule so that it does not become a burdensome, unpleasant task
for the weekend.
2. Consult a veterinarian when necessary. For any disorder that you cannot diagnose and
properly treat, it is certainly worth a few pesos to call a competent veterinarian. Hog
cholera, Swine influenza, gastroenteritis, pneumonia, swine pox, and foot and-mouth
disease are common infectious swine diseases which may be found throughout the
country. Hog cholera is easily prevented by vaccination but this should be administered
by a competent veterinarian.
Swine flu, gastroenteritis, and pneumonia are all infectious and can be contracted even in
the most sanitary hog lot. If your pig becomes restless, has a dull coat, or loses the
brightness of its eyes, call a veterinarian immediately. The sooner you receive competent
advice, the less will your loss be. The following table lists some of the common swine
diseases, symptoms, and their control.
Deworming. Internal parasites like roundworms cause serious damage to pigs. In cases
of heavy infection, they reduce the growth rate and adversely affect feed utilization of

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animals. Deworming should always be a part of your health program. Deworm your pigs
two weeks after weaning. After two months, give the second treatment.

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References

http://www.fao.org/3/x6170e1o.htm
https://www.funtrivia.com/submitquiz.cfmfile:///C:/Users/Acer/Downloads/
Smallruminantproduction-Drs.OtaruandIyiola-Tunji2.pdf
https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/18086/IDL-18086.pdf?
sequence=1
https://www.ph.neovia-group.com/resources/market-insights/swine-production/

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 UNIT III
FOOD (FISH) PROCESSING

Overview
The Philippine Fish Processing Industry has started out from traditional methods and
expanded into the modern fish processing. The fish processing industry is important in
the attainment of self-sufficiency in fish.

Unit Objectives
At the end of the lesson,I am able to:
1. Select tools, equipment, utensils and instruments according to food (fish)
processing method;
2. Conduct SWOT analysis AND Identify the different products/services available in
the market; and
3. Demonstrate core competencies in Food (Fish) Processing NC II.

INTRODUCTION TO FISH PRESERVATION

Preservation of fishes is a very important part of commercial fisheries. It is done
in such a manner that the fishes remain fresh for a long time, with a minimum loss of
taste, odour, flavour, nutritive value and the digestibility of their flesh.
Fishes are quickly perishable commodities and are spoiled if not properly
preserved. During peak period, large quantities of fish are caught and require proper
preservation so as to be available during lean period. After preservation, fishes can be
transported to long distances for consumption.
In India, with its tropical and subtropical climate, the problem is more acute, as
heat and moisture promote fish deterioration. Landed fishes may ordinarily remain fresh
for not more than 8 hours and begin to decompose rapidly after that.

REASONS FOR SPOILAGE OF FISHES

Fish spoilage occurs chiefly due to three acting agents:

1. Fish Spoilage due to Microbial Action:

Microbial action involves chiefly bacterial spoilage of the fish flesh. A large number
of bacteria present on the body, gills and gut of the fish find a good medium for
development due to high moisture (75-80%) contents in the fish flesh.
More bacteria are further added during handling and storage in unclean places. Fishes
get cuts, abrasions etc., during catching operations, leading to haemorrhage. These
provide an ideal environment for bacterial activity which are most destructive to the fish.

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 Proteins in the fish flesh are degraded by proteiolytic microbes such as Pseudomonas,
Proteus, Chromobacterium, Halobacterium, Micrococcus, etc. The carbohydrates present
in small amount in the fish flesh are degraded by carbohydrate fermenting microbes like
Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Micrococcus, etc. Fat contents of the fish flesh are
decomposed by relatively few gram negative bacteria.
Degradation occurs through the processes mentioned as below:

2. Fish Spoilage due to Enzymatic Action:

Quite a large amount of fish flesh is spoiled by the action of digestive enzymes,
which remain active even after death of the fishes and soften the flesh by autolysis and
make the fish susceptible to bacterial infection. Proteinase for example, can digest muscle
proteins of the fish, catalase, the gill spoilage and ATPase bring about complete removal
of ATP from muscle tissue in 6-8 hours.
Autolysis of proteins results in formation of amino acids and other nitrogenous
products, which upon further decomposition release NH3, CO2, volatile basic
compounds viz., amines and fowl smelling products viz. indole, skatole, etc.

3. Fish Spoilage due to Chemical Action:

Spoilage of fish flesh due to chemical action is the least important, as it occurs in
fatty acids only. It is more pronounced in fatty fishes like sardines, mackerels, trout,
catla, grass carp, etc., which as a result become decolourised. Rancidity of fish oil starts
by oxidation as fish flesh oil comes in contact with the atmospheric air. Flesh oil
viscosity also changes. Rancidity may be prevented by the use of antioxidants like
polyphenol or other viscous fluid and minimizing exposure of fish to moist atmospheric
air.
METHODS OF FISH PRESERVATION
The most important principle of preservation of fishes is cleanliness and
sanitation.
Preservation can be done, both for short and long duration by employing methods
given below:

Short Duration Preservation

When preservation is required for short duration (2-4 days), the captured fishes
are kept in crushed ice and transported to the market for their sale. In ice, the range of
temperature is from 0-4°C, which retards the microbial action as well as autolytic
enzymic activities are also checked.

Long Duration Preservation

When the preservation is needed for a long period of time, the caught fishes are
passed through the following steps:
1. Cleaning
2. Degutting
3. Conservation and storage

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1) Cleaning
It is done by cold clean water to remove microbes like bacteria and slime, blood
stains, mucus, faeces, sand and mud etc. form the body surface of fish.

2) Degutting
Cleaned larger fishes are degutted i.e. all the internal organs or viscera are removed
and the body cavity is washed. It is required to prevent microbial decomposition and
enzymic autolysis respectively.

3) Conservation and Storage

Conservation is essential for keeping the dead fishes in fresh condition for quite a
long duration.

It is achieved by employing any one of the following methods:

Refrigeration
The recent method of preservation is refrigeration as it prevents putrefaction and
decay. Frozen fishes retain their nutritive qualities for a long time, perhaps even for a
year. Fishes are packed in ice layers for short-time preservation in markets or for
transport. For long-time preservation, large electric refrigerators or deep freeze cabinets
are employed. In big commercial concerns like those in the Sassoon Docks in Mumbai,
rooms are cooled by electric refrigerating methods and large quantities of fishes are
stored in them for months. Quick freezing is advised where fishes have to be kept for a
longer period. The carrier air-plast type of quick freezing is employed at Mumbai,
Mangalore, Calicut, Cochin and Trivandrum.
Lowering of the temperature to about 0°C (Chilling) is the most effective method
of preventing putrefaction and extending the life of the dead fishes. For chilling, large
amount of ice is used to lower the temperature of the fish. Large fishing vessels are
provided with such facilities. Alternate layers of ice and fish must be arranged to bring
down the temperature of the flesh to about 0°C. In the large fishes, ice must be applied in
the abdominal cavity after gutting.
Antibiotics like terramycin and aureomycin can be incorporated in the ice to
inhibit the microbial growth. Chilling does not alter the physical state of the fishes and
keep them in palatable state for a few days. However, this method is not suitable, when
the intention to keep fishes for a period of more than two weeks.

Deep Freezing
For deep freezing, captured fishes are cleaned, gutted, sorted and trimmed to
suitable sizes. They are frozen either immediately within 30 minutes of their catch (quick
freezing) or within a period extending from 3 to 72 hours (slow freezing). The freezing is
achieved in ice, mixed with salt. Addition of salt brings the temperature gradually down
from —1°C to – 18°C. By deep freezing, fishes may be preserved for a very long period.

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 Preservation by deep freezing often causes loss of flavour and slight damage to
tissues. Sometimes, the fish becomes tasteless. This may be prevented by wrapping the
fishes in wax paper or cellophane and by glazing the fish.
Glazing preserves the colour and flavour of the fishes. It should be emphasized
that deep frozen fishes should be immediately used after thawing, because surviving
microbes begin to multiply rapidly as soon as the frozen fish is warmed.

Freeze-Drying
It is a complicated process and requires considerable establishment. As it is a
costly and laborious process, only the best fishes are treated. The fishes are first frozen
and then dried by sublimation i.e., the ice is converted into water vapour without melting
into water. The flavour, colour and nutritive value of the fish remains fully preserved.
The fish is first cooked, if it meant for immediate consumption, after opening the
packet or tin. The fish is frozen to -20°C by placing it in a freezing chamber. Fish trays
are then transferred to a chamber containing horizontal heating plates for drying in a
vacuum. The dried fish is packed or canned in air conditioned room.

Salting
Salting is a form of pickling and is a very old and common method of preserving
fish in India and also throughout the world. In salting, the fishes are treated with salt
(NaCl) solution. Salt dehydrates the killed fishes by osmosis and enters their body tissues
to increase concentration to the saturation point. A concentration of salt above 25% stops
further multiplication of microbes and even kills them, specially the halophobic
microbes.

However, few strains of bacteria like halophilic, remain unaffected causing pink
or dun spoilage of the fishes. Normally, 20 kg of pure salt is required for each 100 kg of
fishes. It is found that only oily fishes require more salts.

Methods of Salting
Three methods of salting have been evolved:
1) Dry Salting
In this method, fishes are first cleaned, and rubbed with salt powder and then packed
in tubs or in cemented tanks. Dry salt powder is sprinkled in between layers, as the fishes
are arranged in the container. The ratio of salt to fish varies from 1 : 3 to 1 : 8 depending
on local practice, weather conditions and type of fish.
After 2-3 days, the fishes are removed from the tubs or container and dried in the sun
for 2-3 days. Dry salt practice in pits for fish preservation is done along the east coast of
India and in Andhra Pradesh. Such preserved fishes are of inferior quality but find good
market among the poor classes.

2) Wet or Brine Salting

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 Wet-salting is mostly practised on the Konkan coast. Cleaned fishes are packed in
large containers having a concentrated salt solution (20-30%) and stirred daily till
properly pickled. Large-sized fishes like the Indian salmon, seerfishes and black pomfrets
are gutted first and inside is cleaned. Also, longitudinal slits are made in the flesh to
allow penetration of salt. Salt is applied in the following successive stages.
On the first day, half of the salt is rubbed into the incisions and the fishes are stored
on the cemented floor of the curing yard. On the second day, the fishes are shuffled so as
to bring the bottom layer on top and half of the remaining salt is rubbed and the fishes are
restocked.
The stock is left undisturbed for 7-10 days. The salty water that oozes out from the
fishes is allowed to drain off. Wet salted fishes may be sold without drying. It does not
keep good for long and, therefore, has to be used within 3-4 months.

3) Cold Salting
This is done by spreading powdered salt and crushed ice on the fish. About 22-26 lb
of powdered salt per 10 kg of fish is usually recommended. After salting, the
conservation is done in cold rooms, having a temperature range of 2-3°C.

How to Use Salted Fish?

Before use, salted fish should be soaked in freshwater overnight. Change of the water
at least once during this time is required. The soaking removes the salt. The longer the
fish is soaked, the more salt is removed. After the fish has been soaked, it can be used in
any way like fresh fish.

5. Smoking
Smoked fish is not as popular in India, as it is in Western countries like Norway and
Sweden because the peculiar smoky flavour is not relished by Indian fish eaters.
However, small quantities of surplus fishes are smoked in Chennai and Orissa. Sardines,
mackerels, seerfish, pomfret, jew fish and hilsa, are considered good varieties for
smoking.
Fishes are first cleaned and gutted and then soaked into salt solution or brine. They
are taken out from the salt solution and are suspended on rods in smoke house. Smoke
house is merely a shed or a box over a fire, which is controlled so that it produces smoke
instead of flames. The fishes are merely hung inside the smoke house (from head to tail),
so that they are surrounded by smoke. It takes about six hours to smoke fishes so that
they can be eaten or stored.
Smoked fish does not last as long as salted fish, because it must be refrigerated,
frozen or canned, if it is to be stored.
Smoking removes additional moisture and increases the flavour of the fish flesh.
Smoke has a preservative effect, which is ascribed to its phenolic constituents.

6. Drying
The object of drying is to remove moisture (dehydration) from fish tissues. This helps
to arrest bacterial and enzymic putrefaction. When moisture contents reduce upto 10-

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20%, the fishes are saved from being spoiled, provided they are stored in dry conditions.
Sun drying is the most ancient method. In India, over 35% of the total catch of sea is
cured in the sun.
Small marine fishes, such as ribbon fish, silver bellies and Mumbai ducks, are spread
on the open sandy beach. Sometimes, mats made of coir or palm leaves are used for
spreading the fishes. Often, fishes like Mumbai ducks are hung on bamboo or wooden
rods or on ropes stretched horizontally between poles. Large and medium-sized fishes are
usually gutted and salted before drying.
Fish drying can be achieved either naturally or by artificial means.
 Natural Drying
In natural drying, the caught fishes are cleaned and dried in the sun shine, so
called sun-drying. It is actually not the ideal way of preservation. It has certain
disadvantages. It is not hygienic. It is slow and results in much loss through putrefaction
and spoilage and the dried fish develops a peculiar odour. It can be carried out only in
dry, well aerated climate receiving sunshine, which is not too hot.
It, thus depends upon the environmental factors and availability of space. Only the
thin fishes can be preserved by this method, because the fat fishes have much flesh
allowing microbial decomposition to continue in deeper parts of their body.
 Artificial Drying
In artificial drying, the killed fishes are cleaned, gutted and decapitated. They are then
cut lengthwise to remove large parts of their spinal column, followed by washing and
drying them mechanically. This process yields a high quality product, which retains the
natural flavour and nutritive values.

7. Canning
This process of fish preservation was initially evolved in Europe and now introduced
in other countries including India. It retains the natural flavour of the fish. Whenever
available in large quantities, sardines and mackerels are canned on the west coast of India
like Calicut, Goa and Mumbai. Canning involves packing of fishes in the boxes to
preserve them for a long time.
Canning is a complicated process and costly machinery and technical expertise is
required. Hence, the canning products are costly. The process includes packing of fishes
in tin boxes which are sealed airtight and sterilized by heat. Pasting, pickling and spicing
are indigenous methods of the east. The fishes are cut into slices, salted and dried.
The fishes used for canning are gutted out and cut into pieces of suitable size. Their
head, tail, fins and viscera are removed and the pieces are dipped in brine to remove
blood etc., from the tissues. Pieces are now immersed in hot water or exposed to the
steam to remove adhering materials which could not be removed by cleaning with cold
water. Pieces are salted and dried.
They are then mixed with a spicy paste ground by mixing vinegar, red chilies,
mustard, garlic, turmeric and tamarind in oil medium. For pickling, usually mackerel and
sardines are used. Finally the processed pieces are sealed in containers, preferably tin
boxes or jars. The sealed containers are again subjected to heat treatment to kill
completely the microbes left in the flesh of cut pieces of fishes. Containers are tested
before their transportation to the market.

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Processing
Fish processing includes all the processes such as cleaning, freezing, drying,
salting, canning etc. Fishes may also be processed into edible meals and oils. Fish meal is
prepared from discarded body parts of the fish as fins, gills, gut, etc., by processing.
Major part of the fish catch is consumed as fresh, preserved or in salted form, but there is
good scope for various bye – products of the fish industry.

DEMERITS OF FISH PRESERVATION

Although the preservation and processing constitute a very important aspect of the
fish industry, it has certain drawbacks as well, particularly with respect to retaining
quality of fish flesh.
The demerits are described here briefly in the following points:
1) If proper hygienic measures are not adopted during the processes like cleaning,
gutting and evisceration etc., more harm would be resulting to the preserved material
owing to increase in the microbial population.

2) Poor or incomplete preservation leads to decarboxylation of flesh amino acid i.e.

histidine to histamine. The histamine and few other related substances collectively
named saurine, are the common causes of fish food poisoning.

3) Drying reduces weight, nutritive value and the digestibility of the fish flesh.

4) Chilling brings about denaturation of the fish flesh. It is because of the ice crystals
formed during chilling and causing mechanical damage to the muscles. Cell
membranes burst, structures get deformed and the fish flesh loses much of its flavour,
and taste. The flesh becomes dehydrated and loses its texture too.

5) Excess salting allows growth and multiplication of salt tolerant bacteria, causing
‘Pink eye’ spoilage of fish flesh.

6) Salting combined with smoking results in loss of protein (about 1-5% due to salting
and 8-30% due to smoking).

7) Smoking also promotes rancidity of fat contents of flesh and hence diminishes
digestibility of fat products.

8) Canning leads to much loss of vitamin B1, pantothenic acid, and ascorbic acid.

38
39
 UNIT IV
HORTICULTURE

Overview
The branch of plant agriculture dealing with garden crops, generally fruits,
vegetables, and ornamental plants. The word is derived from the Latin hortus, “garden,”
and colere, “to cultivate.”

Unit Objectives
At the end of the lesson,I am able to:
1. Use appropriate tools and equipment safely according to job requirements and
manufacturer’s instructions;
2. Know the nature of an entrepreneurial activity in relation to Personal
Entrepreneurial Competencies and Skills (PECS) needed in Horticulture; and
3. Demonstrate competencies in Horticulture (Agricultural Crops Production) NC II.

Expanding Your Knowledge

ORCHARD MANAGEMENT

A. ESTABLISHMENT OF ORCHARD
Establishment of an orchard is a long term investment and deserves a very critical
planning. The selection of proper location and site, planting system and planting distance,
choosing the varieties and the nursery plants have to be considered carefully to ensure
maximum production.

Location and Site

Proper selection of site is important. Selection may be made based on the following
criteria.
1. The location should be in a well established fruit growing region because one could
get the benefit of experience of other growers and also get the benefit of selling the
produce through co-operative organizations with other fruit growers.
2. There should be a market close to the area.
3. The climate should be suitable to grow the chosen fruit crops.
4. Adequate water supply should be available round the year.
Before a grower selects a site for establishing a new orchard, he must have assessed the
following factors:
1. Suitability of soil, its fertility, the nature of subsoil and soil depth.
2. Site must have proper drainage and no water stagnation during rainy season

40
 3. Irrigation water must be of good quality.
4. There must be proper transport facilities either by road or rail within the reach.
5. Whether the climatic conditions are suitable for the fruits to be grown and are
whether site is free from the limiting factors such as cyclones, frost, hailstorms and
strong hot winds.
6. Whether there are seasonal gluts or over production in any particular period of the
year.
7. Whether there is assured demand in the market for the fruits to be grown.
8. Whether his orchard is a new venture or whether there are already other growers.
9. Availability of labor.

Preliminary Operations
After selecting the suitable location and site, some preliminary operations have to
be done. Trees are felled without leaving stumps or roots. The shrubs and other weedy
growth are also cleared. Deep ploughing is essential to remove big roots. The lands
should be thoroughly ploughed, leveled and manured. Leveling is important for economy
of irrigation and preventing soil wash. In the hills, the land should be divided into
terraces depending upon the topography of the land and the leveling is done within the
terraces. Terracing protects the land from erosion. If the soil is poor, it would be
advisable to grow a green manure crop and plough it insitu so as to improve its physical
and chemical conditions before planting operations are taken up.

Planning of an Orchard
A careful plan of the orchard is necessary for the most efficient and economic
management. The following points should be borne in mind in preparing the plan.
1. Optimum spacing to accommodate maximum number of trees per unit area.
2. Stores and office building in the orchard should be constructed at the centre for
proper supervision. .
3. Wells should be located at convenient places in different parts at the rate of one well
for 2 to 4 hectares..
4. Each kind of fruit should be assigned in a separate block.
5. Fruits ripening at the same time should be grouped together.
6. Pollinators should be provided in deciduous fruits. In deciduous fruit trees, there are
some varieties which require pollen from another variety to set fruits in them,
otherwise, they will be barren. Such pollen donors are known as pollinators..Every
third tree in every third row should be planted with a pollinator.
7. Irrigation channels should be laid along the gradients for most economical conduct
of water. For every 30m length of channel, 7.5 cm slope should be given.
8. Roads should occupy minimum space for the economy of transport. The clearance
between wind break and first row of trees is advantageous for the road.
9. Short growing trees should be allotted at the front and tall at the back for easy
watching and to improve the appearance.
10. Evergreen trees should be in the front and deciduous ones behind.
11. Fruits attracting birds and animals should be close to the watchman's shed.
12. A good fence is essential. Live fencing is economic and cheap to other kind of
fences. The plants suitable for live fencing should be drought resistant, easy to
propagate from seed, quick growing, have dense foliage, should stand severe pruning

41
 and should be thorny. Agave, Prosopisjuliflora, Pithecolobiumdulce and Thevetia if
closely planted in 3 rows would serve as a good live fencing.
13. Wind breaks, rows of tall trees planted close together around the orchard, are
essential to resist velocity of wind which cause severe ill-effects particularly
moisture evaporation from the soil. Since the wind breaks are very effective in
reducing the wind velocity and minimizing the damage to the fruit trees and to other
crops, their presence in regions where strong winds prevail is of paramount
importance. A wind break ordinarily has its maximum effectiveness for a distance
about four times as great as its height but has some effect over twice about that
distance.
The most effective windbreak is a double row of tall trees alternately placed. There
should be at least as much as space between the windbreak and the first row of the fruit
trees as between fruit trees. It is preferable to dig a trench of 90 cm deep at a distance of
3m from the windbreak trees and prune and cut all the roots exposed and again fill up the
trenches. This may be repeated for every 3 or 4 years in order to avoid the compe1ition
between the wind breaks and fruit trees for moisture and nutrition.
Trees suitable for windbreak should be erect, tall and quick growing, hardy and
drought resistant and mechanically strong and dense to offer maximum resistance to
wind. The trees which are suitable for growing as wind breaks are Casuarina
equisetifolia, Pterospermumacerifolium, Polyalthialongifolia, Eucalyptus globulus,
Grevillea robusta, Azadirachtaindica etc.

Laying out of Orchards

Any method of layout should aim at providing maximum number of trees per
hectare, adequate space for proper development of the trees and ensuring convenience in
orchard cultural practices. The system of layout can be grouped under two broad
categories viz. (a) vertical row planting pattern and (b) alternate row planting pattern. In
the former planting pattern (e.g. square system, rectangular system), the trees set in a row
is exactly perpendicular to those. trees set in their adjacent rows. In the latter planting
pattern (i.e. Hexagonal, Quincunx and Triangular), the trees in the adjacent rows are not
exactly vertical instead the trees in the even rows are midway between those in the odd
rows.
The various layout systems used are the following:
a) Vertical row planting pattern
1. Square system: In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square whatever
may be the planting distance. This is the most commonly followed system and is
very easy to layout. The central place between four trees may be advantageously
used to raise short lived filler trees. This system permits inter cropping and
cultivation in two directions.

2. Rectangular system:In this system, trees are planted on each corner of a rectangle.
As the distance between any two rows is more than the distance between any two
trees in a row, there is no equal distribution of space per tree. The wider alley
spaces available between rows of trees permit easy intercultural operations and even
the use of mechanical operations.
b) Alternate row planting pattern

42
 1. Hexagonal System: In this method, the trees are planted in each comer of an
equilateral triangle. This way six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in the
centre. Therefore this system is also called as 'septule' as a seventh tree is
accommodated in the centre of hexagon. This system provides equal spacing but it
is difficult to layout. The perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows is
equal to the product of 0.866 x the distance between any two trees. As the
perpendicular distance between any two row is less than unity, this system
accommodates 15% more trees than the square system. The limitations of this
system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is not so easily done as in
the square system.

2. Diagonal or quincunx system:This is the square method but with one more plant in
the centre of the square. This will accommodate double the number of plants, but
does not provide equal spacing. The central (filler) tree chosen may be a short
lived one. This system can be followed when the distance between the permanent
trees is more than 10m. As there will be competition between permanent and filler
trees, the filler trees should be removed after a few years when main trees come to
bearing.

3. Triangular system: The trees are planted as in square system but the difference
being that those in the even numbered rows are midway between those in the odd
rows instead of opposite to them. Triangular system is based on the principle of
isolateral triangle. The distance between any two adjacent trees in a row is equal to
the perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows. However, the vertical
distance, between immediate two trees in the adjacent rows, is equal to the product
of (1.118 x distance between two trees in a row). When compared to square
system, each tree occupies more area and hence it accommodates few trees per
hectare than the square system.

4. Contour system: It is generally followed on the hills where the plants are planted
along the contour across the slope. It particularly suits to land with undulated
topography, where there is greater danger of erosion and irrigation of the orchard
is difficult. The main purpose of this system is to minimize land erosion and to
conserve soil moisture so as to make the slope fit for growing fruits and plantation
crops. The contour line is so designed and graded in such a way that the flow of
water in the irrigation channel becomes slow and thus finds time to penetrate into
the, soil without causing erosion. Terrace system on the other hand refers to
planting in flat strip of land formed across a sloping side of a hill, lying level along
the contours. Terraced fields rise in steps one above the other and help to bring
more area into productive use and also to prevent soil erosion. The width of the
contour terrace varies according to the nature of the slope. If the slope becomes
stiff, the width of terrace is narrower and vice-versa. The planting distance under
the contour system may not be uniform. In South India, tea is planted in contours
either in single hedge system or in double hedge system. Double hedge contour
planting system accommodates nearly 22 % higher population than single hedge
system. Number of plant population that can be accommodated in this system is
where
N- number of hedges
D - distance between plants
y - distance between hedges
z - vertical distance between row

43
 This system in tea helps to get early, high yield, conserve soil and suppress weed
growth.
In South Indian hills, peas and beans are sown under paired row system which is
almost similar to double hedge planting system. The seeds are sown at 10 cm interval in
each double row of 30 cm apart with the distance of 1.5m between each pair of rows.

Planting Distance
The minimum vertical distance between any two trees or plants is referred as the
planting distance and this varies depending upon many factors. The principles in deciding
the planting distances are the following.
1. Trees when fully grown, the fringes of trees should touch each other but the branches
should not interlock.
2. Trees root will spread over a much larger area than top and there should be proper
room for the roots to feed without competition.
Factors which decide the planting distance are the following.
1. Kind of fruit trees - mangoes are planted at a distance of 10m x 10m, guavas at a
distance of 5m x 5m while papayas are planted at a distance of 2m x 2m.

2. Rainfall - wider spacing should be given in low rainfall areas than the high rainfall
areas for a kind of tree.

3. Soil type and soil fertility - in heavy soils less spacing should be given because the
top and root growth are limited.
4. Rootstocks - trees of the same variety grafted on different root stocks will grow to
different sizes and as such require different planting distances. eg. Apple

5. Pruning and training - trees trained on head system requires closer spacing than the
other type of training system. 6. Irrigation system

In general, if the spacing is too wide, it is obvious that the yield per unit area would
be greatly reduced. Only in very, exceptional cases would this be justifiable. Ordinarily it
is more profitable to plant the trees closer together and supply the needed water and food
materials. If the trees are too close together, the trees grow tall rendering pruning,
spraying and harvesting difficult. There is root competition and inadequate nutrition and
the trees as such give less yield and produce smaller fruits of poor colour. Cultivation
also becomes difficult in the closely planted orchards. Close planting results in a greater
yield per unit area in the early life of the tree but less in the more important later years.
Close planting .is therefore a false economy.

The total number of trees per hectare for various important horticultural crops under
a) square b) hexagonal and c) triangular system of planting are given below:

Crop Planting distance (in No. of trees per hectare

m)
Square system Hexagonal Triangular

44
 system system

Mango 10 x 10 100 115 89

Sapota 8x8 156 118 139

Clove 6x6 277 320 248

Acid lime 5x5 400 461 357

Coconut 7.5 x 7.5 177 205 159

It may be seen that hexagonal accommodates 15% more number of plants while
triangular system accommodates 11% lesser number of plants. The calculation of the
number of trees per hectare when planted under square or rectangular system is very
easy, and is obtained by dividing the total area 'by the area occupied by each tree (a x a in
square system or l x b in rectangular system). The theoretical and the actual number of
possible trees which can be planted in an orchard depends upon the shape of the field. In
practice, in large fields, the percentage difference between the theoretical number and the
actual number possible will be less.

High density planting system

Planting of fruit trees rather at a closer spacing than the recommended one using
certain special techniques with the sole objective of obtaining maximum productivity per
unit area without sacrificing quality is often referred as 'High density planting' or HDP.
This technique was first established in apple in Europe during sixties and now majority of
the apple orchards in Europe, America, Australia and New Zealand are grown under this
system. In this system, four planting densities are recognized for apples viz., low HDP (<
250 trees/ha), moderate HDP (250-500 tree/ha), high HDP (500 to 1250 trees/ha) and
ultra-high HDP (>1250 trees/ha). Recently, super high density planting system has been
also established in apple orchards with a plant population of 20,000 trees per ha. In some
orchards, still closer, planting of apple trees is followed (say 70,000 trees/ha) which is
often referred as 'meadow orchards'.

Advantages of HDP are:

(i) Early cropping and higher yields for a long time; the average yield in apple is about
5.0 t/ha under normal system of planting and it is about 140.0 t/ha under HDP
(ii) Reduced labour costs
(iii) Improved fruit quality

Characteristics of HDP are:

a. The trees ofHDP should have maximum number of fruiting branches and minimum
number of structural branches.
b. The trees are generally trained with a central leader surrounded by nearly horizontal
fruiting branches. .

45
c. These branches should be so arranged and pruned in such a way that each branch casts
a minimum amount of shade on other branches.
d. The height should be one and half its diameter at the base. A key to successful HDP
depends upon the control of tree size.

This is achieved by
(a) Use of size controlling root stocks. In apple, dwarfing root stocks and intermediate
stocks like MM 106, MM 109, and MM 111 are used to control the size of the plant. In
pears, Quince A, Adam and Quince-C are commonly used as dwarfing root stocks.
(b) Use of spur type scions - In temperate fruit crops like apple, the cultivars can be
classified into a spur type or non-spur type. The spur types which have restricted annual
growth are alone suitable for HDP.
(c) Training and pruning methods to induce dwarfness - under Indian conditions, apple
trees trained under spindle bush, dwarf pyramid, cordon systems are found to contain the
growth of the trees appreciably for HDP systems.
(d) Mechanical device and use of chemicals to control size – Growth regulators such as
daminozide, ethephon, chlormaquat and paclobutrazal are extensively used to reduce
shoot growth by 30 to 0 %. This results in increased flowering in the subsequent years
and may be useful in encouraging earlier commercial fruit production in strongly
vegetative fruitful young trees. Besides chemical manipulation, mechanical devices
employing the use of spreaders and tying down the branches to make them grow from
near horizontal to an angle of 45° from the main stem are also some of the standard
practices to control tree size.
Planting system for HDP: The success of HDP depends upon the right choice of planting
system. Generally, rectangular planting with single, double and three row plantings are
followed. In single row planting, the distance within the row is close, whereas the
distance between the row is wide (4x2m). In double row planting, a wider spacing is
given after every two rows (4+2x2m) whereas in three row planting, a wider spacing is
given after every three rows (4+2x2x2m). In meadow orchard system, a bed of 10 to 15
rows is closely planted (nay 30x45cm) and separated by alleys of 2.5m width between
beds. This system is also called bed system.

Planting Season
The season of planting varies with different fruits and local conditions. There are
two seasons of planting in vogue in India.
i) Monsoon (June - August) and
ii) Spring (February - March)
Monsoon season is considered to be the best for planting evergreen fruit trees like citrus,
mango, sapota and guava. If the trees are planted early in the rainy season they soon
establish themselves and grow vigorously. Deciduous trees may be planted during the
dormant period without shock. Care should be taken that planting is done before the
growth starts, otherwise trees suffer severely and will be in poor condition to withstand
the next hot weather.

46
Planting Methods
After locating the positions of the orchard trees, it is important that the trees are
planted exactly where the stakes stood. It can be easily done with the help of a planting
board. The planting board is usually of 15m long, 10 cm wide and 2.5cm thick with a
central notch and one hole on either end, the central notch and the two holes (one on
either end) are in a straight line. The planting board is placed in such a way that the stake
(tree marker) fits into the central notch. Two small stakes are inserted one in each end
hole. The planting board along with the tree marker is then lifted straight up without
disturbing the end stakes. A pit of about 1m cube or of the desired dimensions at the
position of the tree marker is then dug.
The pits are allowed to wither for few weeks before planting in some cases. The
pits are then filled with top soil already mixed with red earth and well rotten farm yard
manure. Irrigation is then applied to enable the contents of the pits to sett1e down
properly. In the event of depressions taking place as a result of irrigation, more soil
should be added to the pits to fill them to the level of the land. The pits are then ready for
planting.

Transplanting
The trees should be planted approximately where the original pegs were placed.
This is achieved by replacing the planting board in position with the help of the guide
pegs and the stem of the trees is brought to the central notch with the help of a hand hoe.
One of the most common mistakes is that of planting the trees too deep. The
plants should be sent in such a way that the bud union remains slightly above the ground
level. The trees in the field should be planted as deep as they stood in the nursery. The
trees are irrigated soon after p1anting.This consolidates the soil and .helps the roots to
establish contact with it and to secure a supply of water quickly. A small basin may be
made around the tree for this purpose. Planting if taken up during the rains, this basin
should be demolished within a day or two so that water will not collect around the tree.
This is more dangerous on heavy than light soils.
Spring winds cause damage to the growing p1ants by giving a constant shaking.
To prevent this, plants should be staked when p1anted. Some young plants are subject to
considerable injury from sunburn particularly if they have been trained to single stem
with no branches for 45cm or more from the ground. Such trunk can be protected by
wrapping them with paper or other material or by painting them with white wash. The
latter is probably best, as most materials wrapped around the trunk would be subject to
termite attack.

B. ORCHARD CULTIVATION
Orchard cultivation refers to the careful management of the orchard soil in such a
way that the soil is maintained in a good condition suitable to the needs of the tree with
least expenses. This involves maintenance of the physical condition of the soil, its
moisture and nutrient content. A good system of orchard cultivation should ensure:
l. Weed control and saving in moisture and nutrients
2. Very little disturbance to soil and preventing soil erosion and
3. Reduced cost of cultivation

47
Methods of soil management practices
1. Clean culture

This type of cultivation is extensively followed in India. This involves regular

ploughing and removal of weeds. The clean culture has many disadvantages. They are:
i. Humus will be completely depleted rapidly due to frequent cultivation.
ii. Frequent cultivation causes injury to the feeding roots, the trees may be short lived or
stunted in growth.
iii. Clean cultivation aids in more aeration leading to the depletion of nitrogen.
iv. Hard pan is created in the soil.
v. Frequent cultivation causes more soil erosion.
The above mentioned defects in clean cultivation can be minimized by avoiding
deep and frequent cultivation and also cultivation when the soil is too wet.

2. Clean culture with cover crops

This type of soil management involves raising of a cover crop or green manure
after removing the weeds. If clean cultivation is attempted during the rains, considerable
erosion is almost sure to occur. It is probably best to plant a green manure crop between
the trees early in the rains and plough it into the soil towards the end of monsoon season.
In India, green manure crops like Sunhemp, Cowpea, Daincha, Lupins etc. are more
commonly used. Legume cover cropping in grape, mango, guava and other fruit crops is
becoming a common practice in the management of orchards. Cowpea and French beans
grow well under guava and sapota tree. In some places to prevent soil erosion, certain
permanent cover crops like Calapogoniummuconoides, Centrosemapubescens and
Peurariaphaseoloides are raised in the alley spaces. They are leguminous crops, establish
in a short period, dry up during summer to conserve moisture. With summer showers they
come up again because of their profuse seeding habit and spread themselves as a
vegetative mat by the time the heavy monsoon starts pouring in. Such permanent cover
cropping is a common feature in rubber plantations of Kerala and Kanyakumari district.

3. Mulching
This is one of the important soil management practices adopted in certain
countries. Crop residues like straw, cotton stalks, leaves, saw dust, pine needles, coir dust
arid other materials like polythene films or certain special kinds of paper are spread in the
tree basins and in inter spaces between trees. Main objective of mulching is to conserve
soil moisture and to control the weed growth. The other advantages of mulching are:
1. Keeps soil cool in day; warm at night hours
2. Reduces surface run-off
3. Adds humus to the soil
4. Prevents soil erosion
5. Fruits are protected and kept clean since they fall on the mulches

48
6. It allows the absorption of more rain water and
7. It reduces irrigation frequency.

The following are some of the disadvantages:

1. Dry materials used as mulches encourage the risk of fire and consequent damage to
trees. .
2. Thick mulches may act as places for mice and rodents to live and multiply. They may
cause damage to tree trunks and roots by eating the bark and burrowing to the land. The
mulching materials should be placed too close to the tree trunk and it should be spread in
such a way that they give a good cover to the root system of the trees.
3. Sod
In this method, permanent cover of grass is raised in the orchard and no tillage is given.
This type of orchard cultivation is followed in USA and Europe. This may be useful in
slopy lands for preventing soil erosion. But they compete for soil moisture and available
nitrogen. The drawbacks of this system are the need for increased manuring and water
application. They are harmful to shallow rooted trees. Hence sod may be useful with deep
rooted trees because soil moisture will be very low on the top layers.
5. Sod mulch
This is similar to sod with the only difference is that the vegetation is cut frequently and
the cut material is allowed to remain on the ground. This is slightly better than the
previous one, as the moisture loss is not so great as in sod. In both sod and sod mulch,
more nitrogen should be applied to the fruit trees than usual application because the
vegetation utilises more soil nitrogen.

Intercropping
In young orchards, the question of how best one can use the soil between the trees
arises. If the trees are properly spaced there is considerable land which will not be used
by the permanent trees for several years. Similarly in the case of other long duration
horticultural crops like tapioca, turmeric, ginger and banana some area between adjacent
plants will be remaining unoccupied by the main crop for few months. It naturally
appeals to the grower to get some return from this vacant land especially when he is
getting no return in the early periods. The practice of growing any economic crop in alley
spaces of the fruit trees in the first few years or in the' unoccupied spaces of the long
duration crop in the early periods is referred as intercropping. They also act as a
covercrop and the land benefits by the cultivation, irrigation, manuring given to the
intercrops. The following important principles should be observed while growing
intercrops.
1. lntercrops should not occupy the area where the roots of the fruit trees are
concentrated.
2. Soil fertility should be maintained or improved when intercrops are grown.
3. Water requirements of the intercrops should not clash with those of the main fruit
trees. The intercrop may require an irrigation at a time when it would be detrimental to
the trees.

49
4. Intercrops should be selected with reference to their effect on soil moisture. Grain
crops remove excessive moisture to the detriment of fruit trees. The intercrops selected
should not exhaust the soil water and nutrients and should not demand more water than is
allowed for fruit trees.
Vegetables are the best inter crops when compared to millets. But whatever may
be the intercrop grown, it should be kept well away from the main fruit trees and irrigated
independently. The intercropping should be stopped when trees occupy the entire orchard
space. Thereafter, green manuring or cover cropping should be only practiced.
Many growers prefer some quick growing fruit trees to grow as intercrops. A
satisfactory fruits are available for this purpose. In temperate regions peaches are often
grown between apple trees. Similarly, in properly spaced mango orchard, guava trees can
be planted to bear in two or three years and will produce a number of crops before it is
necessary to remove them. Such short-lived trees are known as 'fillers'. Papayas, bananas
or phalsa may be well grown as fillers in orchards. The danger in using fillers is when
they are allowed to remain in the orchard for too long periods. As normally root system
makes a faster growth than the branches, the roots of the permanent trees come in contact
with the roots of the fillers before there is any crowding above ground. Therefore, the
fillers should be removed after a few years usually immediately after the main fruit trees
have commenced bearing.
The recommended intercrops for some important horticultural crops are given.
Crop Age Intercrop
Mango Upto 7 years Leguminous vegetables, Papaya (filler)
Grapes Upto 8 monthsSnake gourd or bitter gourd in pandal
Apple, pears Upto 5 years Potato, Cabbage
Banana Upto 4 monthsSunhemp, onion
Tapioca Upto 3 monthsOnion, beans, lab-lab, black gram
Turmeric Upto 3 monthsSmall onion, coriander
Arecanut Upto 10 years Pineapple
Coconut Upto 3 years Banana, tapioca, vegetables

Mixed cropping
It refers to the practice of growing certain perennial crops in the alley spaces of
the main perennial crops. The main advantage is the effective utilization of available area
and increase in the net income of the farm per unit area. Extensive research conducted by
CPCRI, Kassargode on mixed cropping in coconut and arecanut plantations showed that
cocoa, pepper, cinnamon, clove and nutmeg can be grown as mixed crops in coconuts
while nutmeg and clove as mixed crops in between four arecanut palms on alternate
rows. In all the above cases, increase in yield (upto 10%) is obtained in the main crop due
to the synergistic effect of the crop combinations arising out of beneficial
microorganisms in the rhizosphere and the more availability of major nutrients in the
active root zone of the crop mix as compared to the pure stand.

Multitier system of cropping

50
 Certain horticultural plants like coconut and recant are grown for about 50 years
in a particular land. It takes nearly 4 to 7 years for the above trees to reach the bearing
stage. Adequate alley spaces (nearly 75%) are available in between these trees and being
the palm trees, their root system will not also spread beyond one metre in diameter.
Hence, these vacant spaces can be profitably used for raising other crops, thereby
increasing the employment opportunities and profit. This is the chief objective of the
multitier system of cropping. Intercropping and mixed cropping involve jointly multitier
system of cropping and is defined as a compatible companion of crops having varying
morphological frames and rooting habits, grown together in such a manner that their
canopies intercept solar energy at varying heights and their roots forage the soil at
different zones. The main principle here is that the land, water and sunlight should be
effectively used. An ideal combination of crops for multitier cropping in coconut and
arecanut plantations is as follows.

Tier Crop
First (Top) Coconut or arecanut
SecondPepper trained over the trunk of coconut or arecanut trees
Third Cocoa or cloves planted at the centre of four arecanut or coconut
Fourth (ground) Pineapple, ginger and dwarf coffee

ORGANIC FARMING
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides as a mean of intensive
cultivation to boost up our food production have caused considerable damages to our soil
health and the environment. This has been criticized recently by many environmentalists.
This has focused the attention of several experts in ecologically sound viable and
sustainable farming systems, known as organic farming.
It is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically
compounded inorganic chemicals. This system entirely relies on crop rotation, crop
residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes,
biofertilizers, mechanical cultivation etc. and aspects of biological pest control to
maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply nutrients and to control insects, weeds and
other pests. This system is often, referred as 'biological farming' 'regenerative farming'
and 'sustainable farming' 'eco-friendly farming' etc.

Organic fanning is essential because

1. Chemical fertilizers may have an adverse effect on soil life-they do not supply humus,
have an adverse effect on physical, chemical and biological properties of soil
2. Chemical fertilizers are costly.
3. Indiscriminate application of pesticides could lead to residues in horticultural crops
which are consumed mostly in raw state by us.
4. The continuous use of pesticides is ecologically unsutainable as pests acquire
resistance.

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5. There is a permium for the horticultural produces which are raised under organic
fanning.

Essential features of organic farming

1. Use of organic manures like FYM, compost, vermicompostand.coir compost etc. 2.
Use of biofertilizers. 3. use of green manures and grain legumes. 4. Non-chemical weed
management. 5. Use of botanicals and bio control agents in the control of crop pests.
In India, organic farming in horticultural crops especially in vegetable and spices
crops are slowly picking up, wherever premium prices are available for organically
grown quality produces. In certain horticultural crops where productivity and total
productions cannot be compromised by following strict organic farming practices, a
combination of inorganic and organic farming practices may be followed possibly
avoiding known toxic inorganic chemicals.

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 UNIT V
AQUACULTURE

Overview
The Philippines abounds with water resources which are rich grounds for fish,
crustacean, mollusk, and frog farming. These animals are not only caught in their natural
habitat but can also be cultured even in backyards.

Unit Objectives
At the end of the lesson,I am able to:
1. Identify appropriate fishery tools according to requirement.
2. Identifies the products/services available, the customers, and the competition within
the aquaculture market.
3. Demonstrate core competencies in Aquaculture NC II

Expanding Your Knowledge

The coastal regions, which provide 75 percent of the country’s total fishery
harvest, are steadily being depleted while 70 percent of the country’s coral reefs are
already damaged. The utilization of aquaculture resources has been generally inefficient.
The average production of brackfish water fishponds is only one metric ton per hectare
per year. While the municipal and commercial fishers have been competing in the near
shore grounds, offshore waters which constitute 78 percent of our territorial waters have
remained underexploited.

In the view of the above, a $200 million four-year fisheries development

program is being implemented by the Department of Agriculture. This program is
designed to increase fish production and rehabilitate the country’s marine and freshwater
resources. This will help the poor and low-income groups who depend on fish and other
aquatic animal resources for their staple food. The prohibitive price of meat denies many
people the chance to get protein from meat so they depend on fish, mollusks, crustaceans,
and frogs for the same nutrient.

The coastal areas will benefit much from this program. However, people living
in inlands can still produce fish and other aquatic animals by putting up backyards ponds.
Catfish, carps, tilapia, and bangus can be successfully cultured even in backyards. Many
freshwaters mollusks and crustaceans can be successfully raised in backyard ponds,
fishponds near rivers and other bodies of water, and even in ricefields. Among these

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crustaceans and mollusks are the giant freshwater prawns, freshwater snails (kuhol),
freshwaters clams (tulya), and giant mountains frogs (palaka).

PRAWN CULTURE

Because of the fluctuating domestic prices of shrimps and increasing demand for
prawns in foreign markets, more and more fish farmers are turning to prawn culture. It is
believed that with proper government assistance and enough initiative from the private
sector, the Philippines can fully develop the prawn culture industry as the country has the
kind of climate, water quality and island topography conducive to prawn farming.

Prawns (sugpo) are considered a tale delicacy. They command a high price among
shrimps sold in Metro Manila markets. Only the moneyed class can afford to eat them.
The short supply of prawns causes its high price. Thus, it is profitable to start raising
prawns in the back yard. A hectare of pond can produce around 350-400 kilos of prawns
of marketable size after six months of cultivation.

Farm site. The choice of a site for farming prawns is an important consideration.
The best soil suited for prawn culture is the muddy clay loam because it holds water and
contains natural minerals and organic substances which are necessary for the growth of
lablab on which the young prawns feed.

Prawn live and spawn in marine waters and migrate to estuarine, brackish and
almost pure fresh water where they stay for seven months before they return to the sea to
spawn again.

It is during migration to shallow waters that young prawns are traditionally caught
as fry and stocked in ponds for cultivation for a period of six months to one year. Prawns
grow faster under controlled conditions in brackish water ponds at a depth of one meter.
Very salty water is good for breeding and spawning prawns.

The prawn farmer must be acquainted with the management factors and
conditions that would yield a big harvest of quality prawn for local consumption of for
export.

The steps to be undertaken in prawn pond management involve water control,

eradication of predators, pond fertilization, stocking, feeding, aeration, harvesting, and
marketing.

Water control. To become a lucrative business, it is necessary that production of

prawns be based on intensive cultivation. The ponds should not measure more than one to

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three hectares. Smaller ponds are easy to manage, specially if they are water-tight and
free from predators and other aquatic animal competitors.

The most important parts of the water-tight pond are:

1. One reinforced concrete gate and two wooden gates which should all be soil-seeded
and water-tight.
2. One catching pond
3. Water-tight dikes which are free from seepage

The ponds must be very clear. Trees and bushes, including their trunks and roots, should
be totally removed and burned outside the pond. The surface of the pond bottom should
be ranked, flattened, and made to slope gradually toward the reinforced concrete gate so
that water may be drained off as needed.

Eradication of predators. All predators, including all kinds of fish such as bia,
apahap, dalag, and bidbid, snails, crustaceans, and mollusks, should be collected and the
pond bottom sundried until it cracks. Tabacco dust should be applied all over the bottom
surface before it is flooded to a depth of three to four inches with clear water. This kills
all remaining predators in a week’s time and the tabacco dust will disintegrate to become
organic fertilizer.

Pond fertilization. This is done by preparing the muddy bottom of the pond with
a mixture of mud and organic or inorganic fertilizers to form a soft black mud. Cow
dung, pig and poultry manure, compost, and green grass are commonly used in ponds as
organic manure to obtain higher yields. Ordinarily, a dose of about 500 to 2,000
kilograms of poultry manure per hectare is sufficient. This quantity varies according to
the conditions of soil and water. It should be remembered that a pond for prawn raising
should be composed of silt loam or clay loam and the water should at least be two meters
deep. It should also be free from pollution.

Stocking. The post larvae of prawns are classified according to age reckoned
from the time they emerge from the last larvae from known as mysis. When a larva is 10
days old from mysis, it is called post larva 10 or P10. When it is 12 days old, it is known
as P12 and so forth. Generally, prawn fry collected is 25 days old or P25. It is at this age
that the post larva is stocked in ponds.
The pond stocking ranges from 10 to 30 larvae per cubic meter. Without an aerator the
stocking rate ranges from 5 to 10 post larvae. Stocking is done during the coolest part of

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the day. It has been found that late afternoon or early in the morning is the best time for
stocking the pond.

Feeding. This can be done economically yet still produce a maximum quantity of
quality prawns. Natural food in the pond can be increased by pond fertilization. In
addition to natural food, inexpensive supplementary food which is abundant within the
locality should be utilized. For example, in Lake Lanao where white bia abounds, these
are used as supplementary food for prawns because they are cheap and valuable.

Aeration. For intensive prawns faming where 10 to 30 fries are planted per
square metre, aeration is necessary. Not all the food produced or introduce in the pond
are consumed by the prawns every time they fed. Dropped food decays and in the process
of oxidation, decomposing foods utilize oxygen so that they directly compete with the
growing prawns for oxygen. In addition, marsh gas accumulates as it mixes with the
bottom mud. The use of an aerator shoots bottom water up to the surface to unload its
excess noxious gas content which combines freely with surface air and draws new
oxygen supply.

Harvesting and marketing. After the P25 post larva is stocked in ponds, the
prawns reach an average size of 12 to 15 centimeters within six to eight months. At this
size there are 18 to 25 prawns in one kilo. By the end of the fifth month, prawns
weighting 40 grams are ready for harvest. Accurate information regarding the size,
weight, and color preferred by local and foreign buyers is necessary for successful
marketing.

To avoid problems in marketing products, many prawn farmers use the system of
staggered harvesting. Harvests can be sold directly to buyers who go to the farm in the
morning. This saves you the trouble of shipping harvests yourself and provides the
opportunity for you to help small retailers earn a living. Harvest only what buyers can
take at a time.

Since prawns are highly perishable, it is important to freeze them immediately as soon as
they are harvested. This is true for large-scale prawns farming for export. To be able to
command a good price in the export market, prawns should be processed and packaged
correctly so that absolute freshness is ensured.

Correct processing, absolute freshness, and packaging ensure high quality and high
selling prices. Before sending prawns to the market, attention should be given to the size
of containers. Foreign market and airline companies use standardized containers which
could accommodate definitely classified product.

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Brisk world market demand for Philippine prawns has made this export commodity the
country’s top nontraditional foreign exchange earner. The Philippines’ major markets are
the United States, Japan, and countries in Western Europe which altogether account for
90 percent of the total shrimp word trade. The biggest chunk of the Philippines prawn
export is gobbled up by the Japanese market.

The extensive land and favorable tropical climate makes the Philippines an ideal place for
prawn farming. This is a good encouragement for even small entrepreneurs to engage in
small scale backyard prawn rising.

CRAB CULTURE

Popularity known in the Philippines as alimango, crabs are found in swamps and
tidal rivers all over the country. They are very sturdy creatures that could live without
water. In swallow streams or rivers which become dry at low tide, the alimango digs in
the mud purposely to rest and avoid excessive exposure to sunlight. However, as the tide
rises it will move again to perform its regular activities. The alimangos are cannibal and
scavenger. In its natural habitat, it feeds on small and weaker alimangos alga, and
decaying organic plants and animals.

The alimango spawns throughout the year but the height of its spawning season
occurs from the last week of May to the third week of September. A female alimango
generally bears in its sponge around one to two million eggs. It takes 16 to 18 days for
the eggs to hatch. The sex of an alimango can be determined by the shape of its belt. A
full-grown female alimango has either a rounded or trianglular belt, while the male has an
inverted T-shaped belt.

The alimango prefers brackish water ponds which contain not less than one meter
of water in depth. A good place for cultivating alimango in the Philippines are ponds at
the mouth of revers. The construction of ponds for alimango is similar to that of the
milkfish. The only difference is that holes are provided in the wall of the dikes for them
to hide during hot and adverse weather condition.

OYSTER AND MUSSEL CULTURE

Oysters (talaba) can be farmed commercially in combination with mussels

(tahong) since they both thrive in brackish and salty water. There are many areas and
natural beds for mussel and oyster culture in the Philippines. The following text in
culturing oysters and mussels is taken from “Culturing Oysters and Mussels” in the
television show Telearalan ng Kakayahan.

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 The natural food for mussels and oysters consists of microscopic plants and
animals, organic particles, and bacteria suspended in the water. They have grills which
such both oxygen and food from water.

Adult oysters and mussels spawn or release egg sperms into the water where
union or fertilization takes place. Fertilized eggs develop into larvae within 24 hours and
remain swimming for 15 to 20 days. At this time, shells start to form causing the larvae to
sink.

Spatfall periods for oysters are from late January to early September and from
May to August. The spatfall periods for mussels are from April to May and from October
to November. At times, mussels settle from April through November.

Oyster farming. The farming methods for oyster are the stake or tulos methods,
the hanging or bitin method , and the insertion or paningit method.

The tulos method is used on sandy and silt muddy bottoms where the texture of
the soil is loose. In thick end of the bamboo pole is sharpened diagonally and stake
vertically at one or two meter distances. After 6 to 12 months, the oysters are ready for
harvest.

The bitin methods, which give higher yields, is done by punching holes on empty
oyster shells. A No. 4 polyethylene or nylon rope is then cut to desire length from one to
two meters . depending on the height of water, with the lower end of the cord not
touching the bottom of the water. Five empty shells are strung with the polyethylene cord
at five centimeter intervals to make one collections. Bamboo posts are then staked meters
apart in a straight line. Position other series of post parallel to and one meter away from
the first series. Fasten horizontal bamboo support about 2.5 feet above the water and tie a
collection and every 25 to 30 centimeters of the horizontal poles.

The paningit method is done in shallow places where the water is two meters
deep. Oyster shells and cords are arranged in areas along the shore where oyster spat
abound.

Mussel Farming. The farming methods for mussels are the tulos method and raft
or suspension method. Bamboo poles or lumber are closely tied together and then
supported by metal drums, styrofoam blocks and ferro concrete buoys. Collector ropes
made of polypropylenes that are five millimeters and diameter are hung approximately
every half meter apart. Coconut husk pieces are inserted into the length of the ropes at 50
or 60 millimeter intervals. The lower end of each rope is weighted down by rocks or

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simple weight made of cement. Once the muscles grow to a length of 10 to 15
millimeters, they are transferred to growing ropes.

Oysters are harvested after eight to twelve months; mussels four to six months
after spatfall by hand pulling stakes with mature oyster and mussels. Immature or
undersized (less than 2.5 inches long) oysters are returned to allow them to grow further.
When harvesting, be careful not to injure the byssa threads of mussels or else they will
die within a few hours if these are violently pulled. Soak the oyster and mussles in water
until needed if they are not to be transported immediately. Transport them in moistened
jute sacks or pails protected from sun exposure.

RAISING FROGS BACKYARD PONDS

Bullfrog farming is the big business with Brazil in the front line showing the to
modernizing frog culture. In the Philippines. Bullfrogs are considered a delicacy and the
demand for them is growing. The succeeding text from the magazine agriscope present s
the bright prospects of entrepreneurs who wish to engage in this business.

The bullfrog (Rana catesbiana) is one of 200 edible species of true frogs. This
cold blooded four-legged amphibian grows to a length of five to eight inches. Its color
range from green to brown with indistinct dark blotches. Bullfrogs which originate from
North America have an excellent taste. Frog’s legs are sold frozen and cooked in a
variety of ways.

France and the United States are the two largest importers of frog’s legs. Aside
from being delicacy, the bullfrog is an untapped source of oil. Its skin and scalp yield oil
that can be used as lubricants for precision instruments. This cold blooded for- legged
amphibian grows to a lath of five to eight inches.

France in the United States are the two largest important of frog legs, importing
an average 5,000 tons a year. Aside from being delicacy, the bullfrog is scalp yield oil
that can be used as lubricant for precision instrument.

In the Philippines, a project site for bullfrog raising should have soil that capable
of holding water. the supply of water must be constant. Water may come from irrigation
canal, spring, or water pipe.

To make a frog farm, construct a fence of about two meters high around the farm
to prevent the frogs from jumping out. Materials for the fence may be galvanized iron
sheet or a combination of hallow blocks and wire mesh. The lower part of the fence is
constructed by putting six layers of hallow blocks. Bury the first layer in the ground.

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construct the upper part of the fence using wire mesh with the six-inch, 45-degree inward
bend at the top.

By nature, frogs are cannibalistic: the older ones eat the younger ones. Separating
breeders, tadpoles, and baby from one another eliminate this problem. To do this
construct four concrete ponds for the nursery, transition, rearing, and brooding areas.

The nursery ponds. The nursery ponds should measure one by four meter long
with a depth of 40 centimeters. This size pond can accommodate 5,000 tadpoles. A water
pipe is necessary to supply water. Drainage pipe also needed to prevent water from
overflowing. At these stages, tadpoles feed on natural food so encourage the growth of
moss and green algae.

The transition pond. The transition pond measure two by six meters. It has a
capacity of 4,000 post tadpole frogs. Its deepest portion should be 50 centimeters deep.
Contract a sloping embankment to make the frogs jump. This will help develop their hind
legs. Provide a nylon tray held by wooden frames just above the pond surface. This will
be the feeding be the feeding and resting platform for young frogs. Plant aquatic weeds in
the pond to invite insects and provide shades. Planting on expose soil will help keep the
soil moist. Since insects serve as food for young frogs, attract them to the pond by
placing welt watt fluorescent lamps along the edge of the pond. Plant bananas around the
pond to help subdue excessive sunlight .

The rearing pond. The rearing pond is the largest pond with undulating
topography. It should have a 50-centimeter depth at its deepest area and must have
shallow embankments. Plant aquatic weeds and flowering plants to increase the
population of insects and aquatic organisms. Stocking the pond with fast multiplying
aquarium fish provides bullfrog with additional food. Place bamboo slots at the corners of
the rearing pond. These should be higher than the water level. Cover this with banana
leaves and other plants. Below the bamboo slots attach a florescent lamp. Underneath the
lamp, place a one-by-two -meter nylon tray held by a wooden frame. This will serve as a
feeding tray and resting place from the bullfrog.

The brood pond. The brood pond a small version of the rearing pond. Frogs
usually breed here from April to September. Eggs are laid in one large cluster or disc on
the surface of the water and attach to floating vegetation, twigs, or debris. The male frog
fertilizes the eggs as they are expelled by the female frog.

Three to six days after they are laid, eggs usually hatch into tiny black tadpoles
these are soon released to the nursery pond. At post tadpoles stage, they are placed in the
transition pond where they develop hind legs wired their grills and tail disappear. When
the frog reach two and a half to three inches size they are transferred to the rearing pond

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where they grow to marketable sizes. Foo breeding, choose good pairs to be transferred to
the brood pond. The stocking should be two frogs square meter. There should be an equal
number of male breeders because male frogs mate only with the one female during the
mating season. Breeders are most productive when they are three or four years old.

It is not wise to overcrowd bullfrogs as this cause red legs, a highly contagious
bacterial disease. When Infected, frogs turn stiff and die after few hours. If the disease is
already present, isolate the affected frogs, and disinfect the area with potassium
permanganate.

When the bullfrogs reach marketable sizes, harvest and sell them.

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