remote sensing
Article
Analysis of Hypersonic Platform-Borne SAR Imaging:
A Physical Perspective
Lihao Song 1 , Bowen Bai 1, *, Xiaoping Li 1 , Gezhao Niu 1 , Yanming Liu 1 , Liang Zhao 2 and Hui Zhou 3






Citation: Song, L.; Bai, B.; Li, X.; Niu,
G.; Liu, Y.; Zhao, L.; Zhou, H.
Analysis of Hypersonic Platform-
Borne SAR Imaging: A Physical
Perspective. Remote Sens. 2021, 13,
4943. https://doi.org/
10.3390/rs13234943
Academic Editor: Andreas Reigber
Received: 22 November 2021
Accepted: 29 November 2021
Published: 5 December 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13234943
1 School of Aerospace Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi’an 710071, China;
lhsong@xidian.edu.cn (L.S.); xpli@xidian.edu.cn (X.L.); gzniu@stu.xidian.edu.cn (G.N.);
ymliu@xidian.edu.cn (Y.L.)
2 Science and Technology on Space Physics Laboratory, Beijing 100076, China; imu-zhl@163.com
3 School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China;
zhouh@sdut.edu.cn
* Correspondence: bwbai@xidian.edu.cn
Abstract: The usage of a hypersonic platform for remote sensing application has promising prospects,
especially for hypersonic platform-borne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging. However, the high-
speed of hypersonic platform will lead to extreme friction between the platform and air, which will
cause the ionization of air. The ionized gas forms the plasma sheath wrapped around the hypersonic
platform. The plasma sheath will severely affect the propagation of SAR signal and further affect
the SAR imaging. Therefore, hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging should be studied from a
physical perspective. In this paper, hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging under plasma sheath is
analyzed. The SAR signal propagation in plasma sheath is computed using scatter matrix method.
The proposed SAR signal model is verified by using a ground experiment system. Moreover, the effect
of attenuation caused by plasma sheath on SAR imaging is studied under different SAR parameters
and plasma sheath. The result shows that attenuation caused by plasma sheath will degrade the
SAR imaging quality and even cause the point and area targets to be submerged into the noise. The
real SAR images under plasma sheath also illustrate this phenomenon. Furthermore, by studying
imaging results under different SAR and plasma parameters, it can be concluded that the severe
degradation of SAR imaging quality appears at condition of high plasma sheath electron density
and low SAR carrier frequency. The work in this paper will be beneficial for the study of hypersonic
platform-borne SAR imaging and design of hypersonic SAR imaging systems in the future.
Keywords: hypersonic platform; SAR imaging; plasma sheath
1. Introduction
Hypersonic platform-borne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging has a promising
application prospect [1–5]. The hypersonic platform-borne SAR works at a typical altitude
between 20 and 100 km with a speed over Mach 5 [6,7]. Due to its strong survival ability,
fast response, and wide detection range characteristics, hypersonic platform-borne SAR
imaging has its unique advantages over airborne [8–10] or spaceborne [11–13] SAR. One of
most important applications is hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging.
As hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging plays an important role in civilian and
military fields, many researchers studied it from different aspects [1–5,14,15]. For range mi-
gration and pulse broadening phenomenon caused by the “scale effect” which will lead to
the decrease of SAR imaging resolution, Xu [3] proposed the corresponding compensating
factors in matched filleter to solve this problem. Han [4] proposed a robust clutter suppres-
sion and detection of ground moving target (GMT) imaging method for a multichannel
hypersonic-vehicle borne synthetic aperture radar (MC- HSV-SAR) with high-squint angle.
Aiming at cross-couplings and spatial variations problems in hypersonic platform-borne
SAR imaging with squint angle, Tang [1] proposed a radius/angle algorithm which can
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 2 of 22

obtain better focus depth. Many other researchers [14,15] also conducted the study of
hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging from different views.
However, the previous studies mainly focus on high speed and high maneuverability
problems for hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging. In fact, a unique physical phe-
nomenon has been observed when the hypersonic platforms fly at hypersonic speed. Due
to extreme speed, the air near the hypersonic platform will be compressed and then the
air is ionized. Many particles form a special plasma layer called plasma sheath [16,17].
The plasma sheath is a complex medium [18], which will bring significant influence on
the propagation of SAR signals. Consequently, the SAR imaging characteristics would be
changed under plasma sheath. Therefore, the hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging
should be studied from the physical perspective. The SAR signal model under plasma
sheath should be established and verified, and the effect of plasma sheath on hypersonic
platform-borne SAR imaging should be clarified.
The study of SAR signal model under plasma sheath is a new problem and is funda-
mental for hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging. Recently, a number of studies [19–28]
on the signal propagation through plasma sheath were conducted. The reflection and
transmission characteristics of sine waves [19–23] propagating through plasma sheath
are analyzed in detail. Moreover, the depolarization effect of sine signals propagating in
plasma sheath is further studied [24,25]. For quadrature phase-shift keyed signals (QPSK)
signal, Yang [26,27] proposed the computation method for QPSK signal propagation in
plasma sheath. However, the sine and QPSK signal are not common for SAR systems.
Many studies examine the radar detection of hypersonic target enveloped by plasma
sheath [28,29]. The RCS [30,31] and the one-dimension range profile [32,33] of hypersonic
target covered by plasma sheath are explored and false target phenomenon is found. How-
ever, radar detection of hypersonic target enveloped by plasma sheath is quite different
from the study in this paper. For the study in [28,29], the radar signal is reflected by plasma
sheath and the reflection effect caused by plasma sheath is coupled into the radar signal.
While in this study, the SAR signal propagates through plasma twice and the transmission
effect caused by plasma sheath is coupled into the SAR signal.
Therefore, in this study, hypersonic platform-borne SAR signal model under plasma
sheath is established theoretically and verified experimentally. Then the effect of atten-
uation characteristics caused by plasma sheath on SAR imaging is analyzed. The main
contributions of this paper are as follows:
1. Based on the hypersonic platform-borne SAR signal propagation characteristics under
plasma sheath, the hypersonic platform-borne SAR signal model is established. The
transmission coefficient for SAR signal propagating through plasma sheath is com-
puted by scatter matrix method. Furthermore, because the hypersonic platform-borne
SAR signal propagates through the plasma sheath twice, the double transmission
effect is coupled in the SAR signal model.
2. By building a ground experiment system, SAR signal model under plasma sheath
is verified experimentally. The plasma is produced by low-pressure glow discharge
plasma generator. By comparing the theoretical and experimental results of time
domain, frequency domain, and range compressed signal, the SAR signal model
under plasma sheath is verified. From the theoretical and experimental results, it can
be found that the plasma sheath will bring significant amplitude attenuation of SAR
signal, which will cause the decrease of peak value of range compressed signal. This
phenomenon is important and will significantly affect SAR imaging quality.
3. The effect of attenuation characteristics caused by plasma sheath on SAR imaging is
studied, and the key factors determining the SAR imaging quality are explored. The
point target and the area targets imaging results under plasma sheath show that large
attenuation will cause the focus depth decrease and even cause the target response
to be submerged in the noise. In addition, by studying the key factors determining
the SAR imaging quality under plasma sheath, it can be concluded that the severe
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 3 of 22

the
the SAR
SAR imaging
imaging quality quality underunder plasma
plasma sheath,sheath, itit can can be be concluded
concluded that that the
the severe
severe
degradation
degradation of SAR imaging appears at condition of high plasma sheath electron
of SAR imaging appears at condition of high plasma sheath electron
density
density and
degradation and low of SAR
low SAR carrier
carrier frequency.
SARimaging appears at condition of high plasma sheath electron
frequency.
density
The and low SAR carrier frequency.
The paper is arranged as follows.In
paper is arranged as follows. InSection
Section2, 2,thetherole
roleof ofplasma
plasmasheathsheathin inhypersonic
hypersonic
platform-borne
The paper isSAR imaging
arranged as is introduced
follows. In Sectionfirstly.
2,
platform-borne SAR imaging is introduced firstly. Then the hypersonic platform-bornetheThen
role the
of hypersonic
plasma sheath platform-borne
in hypersonic
SAR
SAR signal
signal model
platform-borne model SAR under
imaging
under plasma
plasma sheath
sheath is
is introduced is established
firstly. Then
established basedtheon
based scatter
scatter matrix
hypersonic
on method.
method. In
platform-borne
matrix In
addition,
addition, the experiment system for SAR signal propagating through plasma sheath
SAR signal the experiment
model under system
plasma for
sheath SARis signal
established propagating
based on through
scatter plasma
matrix method.
sheathIn is
is
built
built and
addition, andthethe signal
signal model
theexperiment model systemunder
under forplasma
SAR signal
plasma sheath
sheath is
is verified
propagating by
by the
verifiedthrough the comparison
plasma
comparisonsheath of
ofistheory
built
theory
and experiment
and the signal model
experiment result. In
result.underIn Section
plasma
Section 3,
3, point
sheath
point target and
and area
is verified
target by targets
area the response
comparison
targets responseof under
theory
under plasma
and
plasma
sheath
sheath are
experiment are analyzed
result.
analyzed and
and the
In Section the3, key
key factors
point target determining
factors and area targets
determining the SAR
SAR imaging
theresponse quality
under plasma
imaging under
qualitysheathunder
plasma
are sheath
analyzed andare explored.
the key Section
factors 4 provides
determining
plasma sheath are explored. Section 4 provides the conclusion. the
the conclusion.
SAR imaging quality under plasma
sheath are explored. Section 4 provides the conclusion.
2.
2. Model
Model and and Experiment
Experiment
2. Model and Experiment
2.1. Introduction
Introduction of
2.1. Introduction Hypersonic
of Hypersonic Platform-Borne
Hypersonic Platform-Borne
Platform-BorneSAR SAR Imaging
SARImaging
Imagingunder under Plasma
underPlasma Sheath
PlasmaSheath
Sheath
2.1. of
When
Whenthe the hypersonic
thehypersonic
hypersonicplatform platform
platform flies
flies at hypersonic
at hypersonic speed,
speed, the air around the
the hyper-
When flies at hypersonic speed, the the air around
air around hyper-
the hypersonic
sonic
sonic platform
platform is
is strongly
strongly compressed.
compressed. Therefore,
Therefore, because
because the
the temperature
temperature and
and pressure
pressure
platform is strongly compressed. Therefore, because the temperature and pressure are very
are
are very
very high, the air
air will
will dissociate and ionize, and many many charged free
free electrons and pos-
high, the high,
air will thedissociate dissociate
and ionize, and andionize,
manyand charged charged
free electrons electrons
and positive andions pos-
itive ions
itiveformed. are
ions areTheseformed.
formed. These
Theseform particles
particles form a
form sheath plasma
a plasma sheath
sheaththe covering
covering the surface of
of the
are particles a plasma covering surfacethe of surface
the platform. the
platform.
platform. Figure 11 is is the
the schematic diagram of flow
flow field when
when hypersonic platform flies.
Figure 1 is Figure
the schematic schematic
diagram ofdiagram
flow field ofwhen field
hypersonic hypersonic
platform flies. platform
As shown flies.
As shown
AsFigure
shown in Figure 1, the
the plasma sheath envelopes the hypersonic platform. Figure 22 is
in 1, in
theFigure
plasma 1,sheath plasma
envelopessheath theenvelopes
hypersonic theplatform.
hypersonic platform.
Figure 2 is theFigure
flow fieldis
the
the flow
flow field
field simulation
simulation result
result under
under a
a typical
typical flight
flight condition.
condition. According
According to
to the
the flow
flow
simulation result under a typical flight condition. According to the flow field simulation
field
field simulation
simulation data
data of
of the
the hypersonic
hypersonic platform
platform under
under different
different conditions,
conditions, the
the plasma
plasma
data of the hypersonic platform under different conditions, the plasma sheath will be
sheath
sheath will be
be produced
willwhen produced when
whenisflying
flying height
height is
is between
between 30
30 and
and 70km,
70km, and
andis flying
flying speed
speed is
produced flying height between 30 and 70km, and flying speed greater thanis
greater
greater thanthan 15Mach.
15Mach. Under
Under thesethese circumstances,
circumstances, the
the electron
electron density has has aa large
large distri-
15Mach. Under these circumstances, the electron density has adensity
large distribution distri-
range
bution range
bution range
varying varying
× 10 /m
from 1varying 16 from 3 1 ×
fromto1 1× × 10 16 / m3 to 1 × 1019 / m3.
19 3
10 10/ m/mto .1 × 10 / m .
16 3 19 3

Plasma sheath
Plasma sheath

Hypersonic
Hypersonic
platform
platform

Figure 1.
1. The hypersonic platform covered
covered by plasma
plasma sheath.
Figure 1. The
Figure The hypersonic
hypersonic platform
platform coveredby
by plasmasheath.
sheath.

Figure 2. The flow field simulation result.

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 4 of 22

Figure 2. The flow field simulation result.

For
Forthe
theplasma
plasmasheath
sheathnear
nearthe
theantenna,
antenna,thetheplasma
plasmasheath
sheathhashasa aspecific
specificdistribution
distribution
perpendicular
perpendicular to the surface of the platform. Figure 3 shows the plasmasheath
to the surface of the platform. Figure 3 shows the plasma sheathnearnearthe
the
antenna.
antenna.The Theside-looking
side-looking SARSARimaging
imagingis isadopted
adoptedhereheretotoconveniently
convenientlyillustrate
illustratethe
the
plasma
plasmasheath
sheatheffect
effectininSAR
SARimaging,
imaging,and andthe
the“scale
“scaleeffect”
effect”cancanbebeignored
ignoredwhen whensquint
squint
angle
angleisissmall.
small.From
FromFigure
Figure 3,3,
compared
comparedwith withtraditional
traditionalSARSARimaging,
imaging,the thebiggest
biggestfeature
feature
ofofhypersonic
hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging is that the SAR signal will pass throughthe
platform-borne SAR imaging is that the SAR signal will pass through the
plasma
plasmasheath
sheathtwice.
twice.After
AfterSAR
SARsignal
signalisisemitted
emittedfromfromthetheantenna,
antenna,the theSAR
SARsignal
signalwill
will
firstly
firstlypropagate
propagatethrough
throughthe theplasma
plasmasheath.
sheath.The
TheSARSARsignal
signalwill
willbebereflected
reflectedbybythethetarget
target
ininthe
thescene
sceneandandwill
willsecondly
secondlypropagate
propagatethrough
throughthe theplasma
plasmasheath
sheathbefore
beforereceiving
receivingbyby
antenna.
antenna.The Theplasma
plasmasheath
sheathisisa kind
a kindofof
complex
complex media,
media,andand the
theSAR
SAR signal
signal characteristics
characteristics
will
willchange
changewhen propagating through
when propagating throughplasma
plasmasheath.
sheath.The The distorted
distorted SARSAR signalsignal will
will cause
cause the change
the change of SARof SAR
imagingimaging characteristics,
characteristics, which which
shouldshould be further
be further analyzed.
analyzed.

Z V

Figure 3. 3.
Figure The plasma
The sheath
plasma near
sheath the
near antenna.
the antenna.

2.2.Hypersonic
2.2. Hypersonic Platform-BorneSAR
Platform-Borne SARSignal
SignalModel
ModelCoupling
CouplingPlasma
PlasmaSheath
SheathEffect
Effect
Duringthe
During thehypersonic
hypersonicflight,
flight,the
thefriction
frictionbetween
betweenhypersonic
hypersonicplatform
platformand andair
airwill
will
cause the high temperature and pressure of air, which will lead to the ionization
cause the high temperature and pressure of air, which will lead to the ionization of air, of air, and
plasma sheath forms. Based on [16], the distribution of plasma sheath follows the bi-Gauss
and plasma sheath forms. Based on [16], the distribution of plasma sheath follows the bi-
distribution, and is shown as follows
Gauss distribution, and is shown as follows
  i 
𝑁𝑒Ne peak𝑒𝑥𝑝[
exp− [−𝑐c1(𝑧z−−𝑧z peak))2](0 0≤≤𝑧 z≤≤𝑧 z peak)
𝑁e ((𝑧)
N =
z) = (1)
(1)
𝑁𝑒Ne 𝑒𝑥𝑝[ exp− [−𝑐c (𝑧z−−𝑧z ))2] (z > z(𝑧 >) 𝑧 )
 i
peak 2 peak peak
The parameters c1 and c2 represent the shape of the distribution of electron density
Theon
vertically parameters c1 and
the platform c2 represent
surface. themaximum
Nepeak is the shape of the distribution
density and zpeakofiselectron density
the location of
vertically on the platform surface. Ne is the maximum density and z
peak electron density. The plasma sheath can be approximately divided into a series of
peak peak is the location
of peakhomogeneous
adjacent electron density.
thinThe plasma
plasma sheath
layers. Thecan be approximately
distribution divided
of plasma sheathinto a seriesinof
is shown
adjacent
Figure 4. homogeneous thin plasma layers. The distribution of plasma sheath is shown in
Figure 4.
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 5 of 22

Nepeak

Electron density

Value of electron density

distribution

Free
Platform Space
Surface

0 Zpeak Z

Figure 4. Mean profile of electron density outward

outward from
from the
the platform
platform surface.
surface.

As shown in Figure 3, assuming a target PP whose coordinate is pp exists in the scene,

the
the instantaneous slant range from the radar to the
instantaneous slant range from the radar to the target
target can
can be
be expressed
expressed as
as

R(𝑅(𝑡 ==k P‖𝑃(𝑡

t a ; p;)𝑝) ) −pk𝑝‖
(t a ) − 2 (2)
where PP(t(ta))isisthe
theposition
positionofofSAR
SARatatslow timet ,tkk
slowtime , indicates the 2-norm.
where a a a 2 indicates
2 the 2-norm.
With aa given
With givenpulse
pulserepetition
repetitionfrequency,
frequency, the
the SARSAR emits
emits a linear
a linear frequency
frequency modula-
modulation
tion signal
signal which which
can be can be expressed
expressed as as
s (t ) = rect (tr / Tp )exph  j 2π ( f c tr + γ tr 22 / 2) i (3)
s(tr ) =r rect(tr /T p )· exp j2π ( f c tr + γtr /2) (3)
where tr is fast time, T p is the pulse width, f c is carrier frequency, and γ is the fre-
where tr is fast time, Tp is the pulse width, f c is carrier frequency, and γ is the frequency
quency modulation rate. If without plasma sheath, after being reflected by the target P in
modulation rate. If without plasma sheath, after being reflected by the target P in the scene,
the scene,can
the echo thebe
echowrittencan beas written as
h  j 2π ( f (t − τ ) + γ (t − τ ) 2 / 2)  i
s (t , t ; p ) = α  wr (tr ) wa (ta )exp  ( f (tc − (4)
s(tr , t a ; pr ) a= α p ·wrp(tr )· wa (t a )· exp j2π c r
r
τ ) + γ(rtr − τ )2 /2 ) (4)
α p is the scattering intensity, wr ( tr ) is window in the range direction which can be
α p is the scattering intensity, wr (tr ) is window in the range direction which can be
expressed as w ( t )=rect[(t − τ )/T ] , w (t ) is the window in azimuth direction. τ is the
expressed as wr r (rtr )= rectr[( tr − pτ )/Tap a, wa (t a ) is the window in azimuth direction. τ is
two-way
the two-waydelay andand
delay is written as as
is written
τ =2R(ta ; p) / c (5)
τ = 2R(t a ; p)/c (5)
where c is the light speed.
where c is the
After light speed.
converting to baseband, the SAR signal is
After converting to baseband, the SAR signal is
h  j 2π (- f cτ + γ (tr − τ ) / 2)  i
s (tr , ta ; p ) = α p  wr (tr ) wa (ta )exp 2
(6)
2
s(tr , t a ; p) = α p ·wr (tr )·wa (t a )· exp j2π (− f c τ + γ(tr − τ ) /2) (6)
When plasma sheath presents, the plasma sheath effect should be coupled into the
SAR When
signal plasma
model. The sheath SAR signal under
presents, plasmasheath
the plasma sheatheffect
is written
should as be coupled into the

a (ta )exp [ − j 2π f cτ ]ifft Wr ( f r ) p ( f r )T ( f r ) 

SAR signal model. The
s plasma (trSAR
, ta ; p )signal
= α p  wunder plasma sheathis written as 2  (7)
h i
2
where T ( sfplasma
r ) is the a ; p) = α p ·wa (
(tr , ttransmission t a )· exp[− for
coefficient j2π SAR
f c τ ]·isignal r ( f r )· p ( f r )· T through
f f t Wpropagating ( fr ) (7)
plasma
sheath. Due to the double transmission for SAR signal, the transmission coefficient T ( f r )
where ( f r ) is the transmission
in (7) isTmultiplied twice. The p (coefficient for SARtransform
signal propagating
of exp πγ (through plasma
f r ) is the Fourier t r − τ ) 2 )  .
sheath. Due to the double transmission for SAR signal, the transmission coefficient T( fr )
In addition, the range compressed SAR signal under plasmahsheath will2 be i further
in (7) is multiplied twice. The p( f r ) is the Fourier transform of exp πγ(tr − τ ) ) .
studied to illustrate the plasma sheath effect on SAR imaging. For simplifying the analysis
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 6 of 22

In addition, the range compressed SAR signal under plasma sheath will be further
studied to illustrate the plasma sheath effect on SAR imaging. For simplifying the analysis
and focusing on the plasma sheath effect, the side-looking SAR is adopted here. The
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
R(t a ; p) can be approximated as 6 of 22

V 2 ta 2
q
R(t a ; p) = R20 + V 2 t a 2 ≈ R0 + (8)
and focusing on the plasma sheath effect, the side-looking 2R0SAR is adopted here. The
R (ta ; p )V can
where andbe
R0approximated
are the platformas velocity and minimum slant range, respectively. By
applying the principle of stationary phase (POSP), the range compressed SAR signal
V 2 ta 2
without plasma sheath can be R (ta ; p) =as R02 + V 2 ta 2 ≈ R0 +
written (8)
2 R0
  2R(t a ; p)
where V and s( f rR, t0 aare
; p) the p ·Wr ( f r )·velocity
= αplatform and −
wa (t a )· exp jπKa t2a exp
minimum j2π f r · respectively.
(−range,
slant ) (9)
By ap-
c
plying the principle of stationary phase (POSP), the range compressed SAR signal without
plasma
where Ksheath 2 /λR
a = 2Vcan be0 .written
When plasma as sheath appears, the range compressed signal coupling
plasma sheath effect can be written as
2 R(t ; p)
s ( fr , ta ; p ) = α  W ( f ) wa (ta )exp ( − jπ K a ta2 ) exp(− j 2π2Rf r ( t a ; pa)  ) (9)
2p r r 2 c )
src,plasma (tr , t a ; p) = α p ·wa (t a )· exp − jπKa t a i f f t Wr ( f r )· T ( f r )· exp(− j2π f r · (10)
c
2
where K a =2 V / λ R 0 . When
It can be obtained fromplasma(10) thatsheath appears,t athe
for different , the range
plasma compressed
sheath effect signal coupling
is the same.
plasma sheath effect
The computation of Tcan ( f r )beis written as
critical point, which will be illustrated below.
As shown in Figure 5, the electric field in2 mth
 layer2 can be written
2 R (taas
; p) 
src , plasma (tr , ta ; p ) = α p  wa (ta )exp ( − jπ K a ta ) ifft Wr ( f r )T ( f r )exp(− j 2π f r  ) (10)
 c 
→ →
Em = ey E0 ( Bm e− jkm (sin θm x+cos θm z) + Cm e− jkm (sin θm x−cos θm z) ) (11)
It can be obtained from (10) that for different t , the plasma sheath effect is
a the same.
The computation
where of T ( f r )coefficient
Bm is the reflection is criticalin point,
mth layer,whichand willCbe illustrated below.
m is transmission coefficient. km is
waveAs shownand
number, in Figure
reads 5, the electric fieldq in mth layer can be written as
 
Em = e y E0 ( Bm ek−mjkm=
(sin θω µθ0m zε)0+e
m x + cos
Cm e − jkm (sin θm x − cosθm z ) )
ε r,m (12)
(11)

layer 0 layer 1 layer 2 layer m layer M-1 layer M

x H
θ M -1T θM E
Transmitted
θ mT θ M -1T Wave

θ mT
Reflected θ 2T
Wave θ 2T •••••• ••••••
T
θ1
θ1T
θ0
H z
Incident E
Wave y d d d d Free space
Platform surface

Figure 5.
Figure The wave
5. The wave propagation
propagation in
in multi-layer
multi-layer plasma
plasma sheath.
sheath.

µ and ε shown in Equation (12) are permeability and dielectric constant in free space.
where0 Bm is0 the reflection coefficient in mth layer, and Cm is transmission coefficient.
ω is the angular frequency which can be expressed as ω = 2π f , and f is frequency. e ε r,m is
m is wave number, and reads
kthe relative dielectric constant of mth layer
=2ω μ0ε 0ωε2r ,m ν/ω
km ω (12)
p,m p,m
ε r,m = (1 − 2 − j ) ε 0 (13)
ω + ν2 ω 2 + ν2
e
μ0 and ε 0 shown in Equation (12) are permeability and dielectric constant in free
space. ω is the angular frequency which can be expressed as ω =2π f , and f is fre-
quency. εr ,m is the relative dielectric constant of mth layer

ω p2 ,m ω p2 ,m ν ω
εr ,m = (1 − 2 −j 2 )ε (13)
ω +ν 2 ω +ν 2 0
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 7 of 22

where ν is the collision frequency. The ω p,m in (13) is plasma frequency which can be
written as s
Ne,m e2
ω p,m = (14)
ε 0 me
In Equation (14), e is the electron charge and me is the electron mass. Ne,m is the value
→
of electron density for mth layer of plasma sheath. The magnetic field in mth layer is Hm
which reads
→ → →
Hm = 1 − jk m (sin θm x +cos θm z)
ηm E0 Bm (− e x cos θm + ez sin θm ) e (15)
→ →
+ η1m E0 Cm (ex cos θm + ez sin θm )e− jkm (sin θm x−cos θm z)

ηm and θm are wave impedance and incident angle in mth layer, respectively. Accord-
ing to the boundary condition for the mth layer, it can be obtained that
   
Bm Bm−1
= Sm · (16)
Cm Cm−1

where the scatter matrix Sm can be expressed as

 −1
e− jdkm−1 cos θm−1 e jdkm−1 cos θm−1
  
1 1
Sm = × (17)
k m cos θm −k m cos θm k m−1 cos θm−1 e− jdkm−1 cos θm−1 −k m−1 cos θm−1 e jdkm−1 cos θm−1

By applying the boundary condition for the Mth layer (the rightmost air layer), it can
be derived that  
1
Q· R = Sg · (18)
T
where Sg can be written as cascade of scatter matrix for each layer

1
Sg = ∏ Sm (19)
m = M −1

The Q in (18) is

(k M−1 cos θ M−1 + k M cos θ M )e jk M−1 cos θ M−1 d

 
1
Q= (20)
2k M−1 cos θ M−1 (k M−1 cos θ M−1 − k M cos θ M )e− jk M−1 cos θ M−1 d

The matrix Sg can be rewritten as

 
Sg = Sg1 Sg2 (21)

The total transmission and reflection coefficient read

 
T
−1
= − Sg2 − Q Sg1 (22)
R

where T is the transmission coefficient, and R is the reflection coefficient. The transmission
coefficient T depends on the frequency and plasma sheath parameters. When calculating
the transmission coefficient of a plasma sheath, the plasma sheath parameters are given
and transmission coefficient can be written as T(f ) which is a function of frequency. By
applying T(f ) into Equations (7) and (10), the SAR signal model under plasma sheath is
established. The transmission coefficient T(f ) will lead to the significant effect on SAR
imaging quality, which will be studied experimentally and theoretically in the following.
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 8 of 22

2.3. Experimental Verification of the SAR Signal Model under Plasma Sheath
In Section 2.2, we established the SAR signal model under plasma sheath. In this
section, the ground experiment verification of SAR signal model under plasma sheath is
conducted. Based on Equation (10), the plasma sheath mainly affects the range dimension,
and plasma sheath effects are the same for different slow time t a . In addition, the SAR
signal will doubly propagate through plasma sheath based on Equations (7) and (10).
As the transmission coefficient for SAR signal passing through the plasma sheath at
emission and receiving period is calculated using the same method, we couple the one-way
transmission coefficient into the signal model, and if characteristic of SAR signal coupling
one-way transmission coefficient is verified, the SAR signal coupling two-way transmission
coefficient will be also validated. Therefore, the SAR signal propagating through plasma
sheath and the corresponding range compression result are investigated experimentally
and theoretically. Specifically, the time and frequency domain characteristics of SAR signal
coupling plasma sheath effect and range compressed result under plasma sheath are
studied experimentally in this section to verify the signal model under plasma sheath.
The purpose of experiments in this paper is to verify the signal model established in
Section 2.2 under plasma sheath. The scatter matrix method is used for establishing the
signal model, and this method can compute the wave propagation through the plasma
sheath at microwave band. Therefore, as long as we choose the carrier frequency at
microwave band, the scatter matrix method is appropriate for computing the transmission
coefficient coupled in Equation (10), and the carrier frequency at microwave band can be
selected for the experiment on verifying the signal model. In addition, the condition that
carrier frequency is close to plasma frequency is a critical condition. If the carrier frequency
is larger than the plasma frequency, the plasma sheath has a slight effect on the radar
signal. However, if the carrier frequency is close to or smaller than the plasma frequency,
the attenuation characteristics caused by plasma sheath will be severe. Therefore, it is
necessary to verify the signal model and study the signal characteristics in the experiment
at critical condition when carrier frequency is close to plasma frequency. Here, we choose
the signal carrier frequency at microwave band as 1.4 GHz which is able to verify the
signal model. The electron density we choose is 2.2 × 1016 /m3 whose plasma frequency is
near the carrier frequency, and the purpose is to reproduce the situation in which serious
attenuation happens when carrier frequency is close to plasma frequency. This situation is
common due to a large varying range of plasma sheath electron density, and it deserves to
be discussed in detail. This is reason why we chose the selected experimental parameters
in this section.
The outline of the experimental setup is as follows. The plasma generator is shown
in Figure 6. The photo of plasma generator is shown in Figure 6a and schematic diagram
is shown in Figure 6b. The equipment used in this experiment is a low-pressure glow
discharge plasma generator. The plasma chamber is a stainless steel hollow cylinder with
a radius of 400 mm and a length of 240 mm. The produced plasma is shown in Figure 7.
At both ends of the plasma chamber, there are two wave transmission windows. These
two windows are made of quartz glass which can hardly affect the wave propagation.
Two shielding chambers equipped with absorbing materials are installed outside the wave
transmission window. This plasma generator is capable of generating a uniform, large-
scale, controllable plasma for SAR signal propagation experiment. The control cabinet can
set the input power. By changing the power level of the input power, different electron
densities can be achieved. The electron density can be measured by a double Langmuir
probe. Therefore, by measuring the electron density of plasma at each input power, the
relationship of input voltage versus the electron density can be obtained. Through this
relationship, we can get the electron density of plasma in the experiment. An overview
of experiment configuration is shown in Figure 8. The schematic diagram of SAR signal
passing through plasma is shown in Figure 9. The SAR signal is produced by arbitrary
waveform generator, and then transmitted by a horn antenna. The SAR signal propagates
 Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 9 of 22

An overview of experiment configuration is shown in Figure 8. The schematic diagram of
An overview of experiment configuration is shown in Figure 8. The schematic diagram of
SAR signal passing through plasma is shown in Figure 9. The SAR signal is produced by
SAR signal passing through plasma is shown in Figure 9. The SAR signal is produced by
arbitrary waveform generator, and then transmitted by a horn antenna. The SAR signal
arbitrary waveform generator, and then transmitted by a horn antenna. The SAR signal
propagates
through through
the plasmathe plasma
and then and
is then is received
received by another
by another horn antenna.
horn antenna. Finally,
Finally, the signal
the SAR
propagates through the plasma and then is received by another horn antenna. Finally, the
SAR signal
coupling coupling
the the
plasmathe plasma
sheath sheath
effect effect is
is received received by the oscilloscope.
by the oscilloscope.
SAR signal coupling plasma sheath effect is received by the oscilloscope.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Outline of plasma generator used in experiment. (a) Photo of plasma generator. (b) Sche-
Figure Outline
Figure 6.6.Outline of plasma
of plasma generator
generator used in used in experiment.
experiment. (a) Photo
(a) Photo of plasma of plasma
generator. generator.
(b) Sche-
matic diagram of plasma generator.
matic
(b) diagram diagram
Schematic of plasmaofgenerator.
plasma generator.

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 7. The plasma produced in the experiment. 10 of 22
Figure 7.
Figure 7. The
Theplasma
plasmaproduced
producedinin
thethe
experiment.
experiment.

Control cabinet

RF Matcher Plasma Chamber Cooling System

Waveform
Generator

Arbitrary Waveform
Generator
Shielding Chamber
（Antenna Located in it）
Oscilloscope

RF Power
Source

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Overview
Overview of
ofexperimental
experimentalequipment configuration.
equipment configuration.
Arbitrary waveform
Oscilloscope
generator
 RF Power
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 Source 10 of 22

Figure 8. Overview of experimental equipment configuration.

Arbitrary waveform
Oscilloscope
generator

Plasma

Horn Horn
Antenna Antenna

Absorbing
material

Control Cabinet

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagramofofSAR
SARsignal
signalpassing
passingthrough plasma
through sheath.
plasma sheath.

Based on
Based on Equation
Equation (10),(10), for
fordifferent
differentslow timetat,athe
slowtime , the plasma
plasma sheath
sheath effect
effect is is
thethe
same.
same. Therefore, theoretical and experimental results of the signal
Therefore, theoretical and experimental results of the signal waveform, spectrum, and SARwaveform, spectrum,
and SAR
signal signal
range range compression
compression results
results with andwith and without
without plasma plasma
sheathsheath at a given
at a given slowslow
time ta
time t
are showna are shown in Figures 10–15. The carrier frequency of SAR signal
in Figures 10–15. The carrier frequency of SAR signal used in the experiment used in the ex- is
periment
1.4 GHz. The is 1.4GHz.
pulse widthThe pulse width and bandwidth
and bandwidth of SAR signalof SAR signal
are 100 µs are
and100μs and respectively.
90 MHz, 90MHz,
respectively.
For For the
the theoretical theoretical
signal withoutsignal
plasma without
sheathplasma
shownsheath
in Figureshown
10b,inthe
Figure 10b, the
amplitude of the
amplitude signal
theoretical of the theoretical
is set to be signal
the sameis set
as to
thebeaverage
the same as the average
amplitude of the amplitude
experimental of the
signal
experimental
waveform signal
which waveform
is shown which is
in Figure shown
10a. ThisinisFigure
because 10a.theThis is because
amplitude of the ampli-
experimental
tude of experimental signal waveform has slight fluctuation. However,
signal waveform has slight fluctuation. However, this slight fluctuation would not affect the this slight fluctu-
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
ation wouldexperiment.
not affect theThe subsequent experiment. The signal frequency spectrum 11 of 22
without
subsequent signal frequency spectrum without plasma sheath is shown in
plasma sheath is shown in Figure 11 which is normalized to its maximum
Figure 11 which is normalized to its maximum value. Furthermore, by adjusting the phase value. Further-
more, by adjusting
characteristics the phase
of theoretical characteristics
signal to obtain theof theoretical
same rangesignal to obtain
compressed the same
signal range
characteristics
with experimental
compressed signal result shown inwith
characteristics Figure 12a, the phase
experimental characteristics
result of theoretical
shown in Figure and
12a, the phase
experimental
characteristicssignal can be considered
of theoretical the same. signal can be considered the same.
and experimental

(a) (b)

Figure 10.
Figure 10. The
Thesignal
signalinintime
timedomain
domain without
without plasma
plasma sheath:
sheath: (a) experimental
(a) experimental result,result, (b) theoreti-
(b) theoretical result.
cal result.
 (a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. The signal in time domain without plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoreti-
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943
Figure 10. The signal in time domain without plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoreti-
11 of 22
cal result.
cal result.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Signal frequency spectrum without plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoreti-
Figure 11. Signal frequency spectrum without plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoreti-
result.11. Signal frequency spectrum without plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoreti-
calFigure
cal result.
cal result.

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW (a) (b) 12 of 22

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure12. Range compressed
Range signal
compressed without
signal plasma
without sheath:
plasma (a) experimental
sheath: result, (b) theoretical
Figure 12.
12. Range compressed signal without plasma sheath: (a)(a) experimental
experimental result,
result, (b) (b) theoreti-
theoretical
result.
cal result.
result.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Signal
Signal with
with plasma
plasma sheath:
sheath: (a)
(a) experimental
experimental result,
result, (b)
(b) theoretical result.
theoretical result.
 (a) (b)
Figure 13. Signal with(a) (b)
plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoretical result.
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 12 of 22
Figure 13. Signal with plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoretical result.

(a) (b)
(a) spectrum with plasma sheath: (a) experimental
Figure 14. Signal frequency (b) result, (b) theoretical
result.
Figure
Figure14.
14.Signal
Signalfrequency
frequencyspectrum
spectrum with plasma sheath:
with plasma sheath:(a)
(a)experimental
experimentalresult,
result,
(b)(b) theoretical
theoretical result.
result.

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 15. Range compressed (b)
result with plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoretical
Figure 15. Range compressed result with plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoretical result.
result. 15. Range compressed result with plasma sheath: (a) experimental result, (b) theoretical
Figure
result. After SAR signal propagating through the plasma, the experiment results of signal
After SAR
waveform, signaland
spectrum propagating through the
range compression plasma,
result the experiment
are shown in Figures results
13a, 14aofand
signal
15a.
waveform,
TheAfter spectrum
corresponding
SAR signal and range
theoretical
propagating compression
results with plasma
through result are
sheaththe
the plasma, shown in
are experimentFigures
computed using 13a–15a.
signal
results The
model
of signal
corresponding
shown in Section
waveform, theoretical
spectrum 2.2,and results
andrange
the with plasma
theoretical results
compression sheathareare
are displayed
result computed
shown inin using
Figures
Figures signal
13b, model
14b and
13a–15a. 15b.
The
shown in Section
The electron
corresponding 2.2, used
density
theoreticalandresults
the theoretical
for computing
with plasmaresults are displayed
the theoretical
sheath are results
computed in Figures
is obtained 13b–15b. onThe
basedmodel
using signal the
electron density
relationship used
between for computing
electron density the
and theoretical
setting power results
level. is
The obtained
shown in Section 2.2, and the theoretical results are displayed in Figures 13b–15b. Theelectron based
density on
in the
this
experiment is 2.2used 16 /m3 . As shown in Figure 13, the signal waveforms of theory and
× 10for
electron density computing the theoretical results is obtained based on the
experiment in time domain are similar. It can be found that the SAR signal shows an upward
trend in time domain. The frequency spectrum of signal after down conversion in Figure 14
also shows the same trend. The frequency spectrum in Figure 14 is normalized to a maximum
value of amplitude of spectrum without plasma. This phenomenon is closely related to the
transmission coefficient shown in Figure 16. As the transmission coefficient of the EM wave
in high frequency is larger than that in low frequency, the transmission coefficient shows an
upward trend. Based on Equation (10), the transmission coefficient T ( fr ) of SAR signal is
coupled into the SAR signal model under plasma sheath. Therefore, the envelope of SAR
signal with plasma will also show an upward trend. The transmission coefficient T ( fr ) is
key factor determining the signal characteristics. In order to further illustrate the correctness
of signal model, the computing result of transmission coefficient T ( fr ) using scatter matrix
method and FDTD method are compared in Figure 16, and their results are similar. Therefore,
the signal model coupling transmission coefficient computed by scatter matrix method is
credible based on theoretical and experiment results.

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943
transmission coefficient T ( f r ) is key factor determining the signal characteristics. In or-
der to further illustrate the correctness of signal model, the computing result of transmis-
sion coefficient T ( f r ) using scatter matrix method and FDTD method are compared in
Figure 16, and their results are similar. Therefore, the signal model coupling transmission
coefficient computed by scatter matrix method is credible based on theoretical and exper- 13 of 22
iment results.

-3.0
scatter matrix method
-3.5 FDTD

Transmission coeffcient /dB

-4.0
-4.5
-5.0
-5.5
-6.0
-6.5
-7.0
1.40 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48
Frequency / GHz

Figure
Figure16.
16.Transmission
Transmissioncoefficient
coefficientfor
forSAR
SARsignal
signalininbandwidth.
bandwidth.

InInaddition,
addition,for forthe
therange
rangecompressed
compressedresult, result,the
themost
mostremarkable
remarkablefeaturefeatureisisthat
thatam-
am-
plitude of range compressed signal with plasma significantly
plitude of range compressed signal with plasma significantly decreased compared with decreased compared with the
result
the without
result without plasma sheath.
plasma The reason
sheath. for thisfor
The reason phenomenon
this phenomenonis the attenuation caused by
is the attenuation
plasmaby
caused sheath.
plasma More specifically,
sheath. if without if
More specifically, plasma,
without theplasma,
peak value of range
the peak valuecompressed
of range
signal is about 3.5 × 10 4 shown in Figure 12. The amplitude of signal waveform without
compressed signal is about 3.5 × 10 shown in Figure 12. The amplitude of signal wave-
4
plasma
form in timeplasma
without domaininistimeaboutdomain
3.5 shown in Figure
is about 3.5 10. However,
shown when10.
in Figure plasma presents,
However, when the
signal suffers from serious attenuation. The amplitude attenuation
plasma presents, the signal suffers from serious attenuation. The amplitude attenuation of transmission coefficient
ofintransmission more thanin−bandwidth
bandwidth iscoefficient 4 dB based is onmore
Figure 16.-4dB
than Therefore,
based the average
on Figure 16.amplitude
Therefore,of
signal with plasma in time domain shown in Figure 13 is near
the average amplitude of signal with plasma in time domain shown in Figure 13 is near1.2 which is much smaller than
thewhich
1.2 amplitude
is muchof signal without
smaller thanplasma. The spectrum
the amplitude with without
of signal plasma sheath
plasma. shown
Theinspectrum
Figure 14
also indicates an amplitude attenuation over − 4 dB. As a result,
with plasma sheath shown in Figure 14 also indicates an amplitude attenuation over -4dB.after range compression, the
peak value of range compressed signal with plasma sheath shown in Figure 15 decreases to
As a result, after range compression, the peak value of range compressed signal with
1 × 104 . Moreover, the plasma sheath will cause the additional phase shift for the SAR signal.
plasma sheath shown in Figure 15 decreases to 1 × 104. Moreover, the plasma sheath will
However, the phase shift caused by the plasma sheath is relatively small, and it has little effect
cause the additional phase shift for the SAR signal. However, the phase shift caused by
on range compression. The specific analysis is as follows. The theoretical phase shift14within
the plasma sheath is relatively small, and it has little effect on range compression.
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW The
of 22
the bandwidth shown in Figure 17a is obtained by calculating the phase characteristics of
specific analysis is as follows. The theoretical phase shift within the bandwidth shown in
transmission coefficient. The experiment phase characteristics within signal bandwidth are
Figure 17a is obtained by calculating the phase characteristics of transmission coefficient.
obtained by measuring phase shift of broadband signal propagating through plasma, and
The experiment
Figure phase
17b.is Itshown
can characteristics
beinfound withinvaries
signalabout
bandwidth are obtained by ◦measuring
the result Figurethat
17b.the phase
It can be found that the 45°
phasewithin
variesthe bandwidth
about 45 within in the
the
phase shift
theoretical of broadband
result and signal
about 65° propagating
in the through
experiment◦ plasma,
result. The and
phase the result
variation iswithin
shownthe in
bandwidth in the theoretical result and about 65 in the experiment result. The phase variation
bandwidth is so small is
within the bandwidth that
so it hardly
small thatcauses
it hardlythecauses
range the
dimension distortion.
range dimension distortion.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure17.
17.Signal
Signalphase
phase shift
shift characteristics causedby
characteristics caused byplasma
plasmawithin
withinsignal
signalbandwidth:
bandwidth:(a)(a) theo-
theoretical
retical result, (b) experimental
result, (b) experimental result. result.

3. Results and Discussion

This part will firstly discuss the point target and area targets response under plasma
sheath. Furthermore, the attenuation caused by plasma sheath will seriously affect the
range compressed result and further affect SAR imaging quality. Therefore, the key fac-
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 14 of 22

3. Results and Discussion

This part will firstly discuss the point target and area targets response under plasma
sheath. Furthermore, the attenuation caused by plasma sheath will seriously affect the
range compressed result and further affect SAR imaging quality. Therefore, the key factors
affecting the SAR imaging quality under plasma sheath will be further studied.
As the value of electron density of plasma sheath has a large varying range, for a
specific carrier frequency, the conditions including that carrier frequency is larger than
the plasma frequency, the carrier frequency is close to the plasma frequency, and the
carrier frequency is smaller than the plasma frequency will probably happen. The plasma
frequency is obtained in Equation (14). The SAR signal characteristics will be different
under these three conditions, and the influence of plasma sheath on SAR imaging will be
also different under these circumstances. Therefore, the study of SAR imaging under these
three different conditions should be conducted. The selected carrier frequency for SAR is
10.5 GHz in following point and area target analysis. The selected electron densities are
1 × 1017 /m3 , 1 × 1018 /m3 , and 2 × 1018 /m3 , and the corresponding plasma frequencies
are less than, equal to, or greater than the carrier frequency (10.5 GHz), respectively. For
hypersonic platform-borne SAR whose carrier frequency is 10.5 GHz, it may encounter the
condition that electron density is 1 × 1017 /m3 , 1 × 1018 /m3 , or 2 × 1018 /m3 due to large
varying range of electron density under different flight conditions. The study of conditions
below and above plasma frequency will make the research of SAR imaging under plasma
sheath more comprehensive and closer to real flight condition.
The signal model under plasma sheath is established based on scatter matrix method,
and this method is adaptable for the carrier frequency at microwave band. Whether the
carrier frequency is 1.4 or 10.5 GHz, these frequencies belong to microwave frequencies.
Therefore, if the signal model is verified by comparing the theoretical and experimental
result when carrier frequency is 1.4 GHz, using the same signal model under plasma
sheath, the simulation result for carrier frequency of 10.5 GHz will also be correct. The
signal model was verified in Section 2.3 through the comparison of the theoretical and
experimental result when carrier frequency is 1.4 GHz, so the simulation result for carrier
frequency is at 10.5 GHz is credible. In addition, the transmission coefficient is verified by
comparing the result of FDTD and scatter matrix method in former study. With the correct
transmission coefficient, SAR signal model with plasma sheath is credible when carrier
frequency is 10.5 GHz.

3.1. Point Target Response under Plasma Sheath

Based on the previous analysis in Section 2.3, the amplitude of range compressed
signal obviously decreases with the presence of plasma sheath. This phenomenon is due
to attenuation effect caused by plasma sheath. Based on Equation (10), after azimuth
compression, the point target response under plasma sheath is obtained. Due to the
degradation of range compressed result under plasma sheath, the point target response
will be influenced, which is analyzed in this section.
The simulation parameters of SAR and the plasma sheath are shown in Table 1. The
point target imaging result under different electron density is shown in Figure 18, and
corresponding range and azimuth compressed results are shown in Figures 19–21. When
the peak electron density of plasma sheath is 1 × 1017 /m3 , the plasma sheath has slight
influence on the point target response shown in Figure 18a, and corresponding 1D results
are not distorted by noise. However, when peak electron density increases to 1 × 1018 /m3 ,
the noise appears in the point target imaging result shown in Figure 18b, and amplitude of
corresponding 1D results significantly decrease shown in Figure 20. Peak value of range
and azimuth compressed result decrease and the energy of noise is close to the SAR signal
energy, which lead to the abnormal main-lobe and side-lobe phenomenon. When the peak
electron density of plasma sheath increases to the 2 × 1018 /m3 , the point target response
result shown in Figure 18c is totally immersed in the noise, and the peak value cannot be
distinguished from the noise. Due to significant attenuation, the energy of noise is far larger
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 15 of 22

than the signal energy and this phenomenon occurs. For the further analysis, the transmission
coefficients in bandwidth for Nepeak = 1 × 1017 /m3 , 1 × 1018 /m3 and 2 × 1018 /m3 are shown
in Figure 22. For Nepeak = 1 × 1017 /m3 , the amplitude of transmission coefficient is around
0, which illustrates very small attenuation caused by plasma sheath. Therefore, the SNR of
SAR signal with plasma sheath basically remains unchanged and SAR imaging quality is
not influenced by plasma sheath. However, when the electron density is 1×1018 /m3 , the
amplitude of transmission coefficient is around −16 dB, and SAR signal is serious attenuated.
Compared with attenuated SAR signal, the energy of noise cannot be ignored. When the
electron density is 2 × 1018 /m3 , the amplitude of transmission coefficient is around −46 dB
and SAR signal is immersed in the noise, which will cause serious SAR image distortion. The
result of transmission coefficient confirms the previous analysis.

Table 1. Simulation parameters.

Parameters Value
Pulse width 40 µs
Bandwidth 120 MHz
Carrier frequency 10.5 GHz
PRF 7460 Hz
Platform velocity 7000 m/s
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Elevation angle 35◦ 16
Collision frequency 4 GHz
SNR 15 dB

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 18. Point target
Figure 18. imaging result
Point target with plasma
imaging result sheath. (a) Nesheath.
with plasma peak=1×1017 / m3, (b) Nepeak=1×10
(a) Ne = 1 × 1017 /m/3 ,m(b)
18 3, (c) Nepeak=2 × 1018 / m3
Ne =
peak peak
1 × 1018 /m3 , (c) Nepeak = 2 × 1018 /m3 .
 Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 16 of 22
(c)
Figure 18. Point target imaging result with plasma sheath. (a) Nepeak=1×1017 / m3, (b) Nepeak=1×1018 / m3, (c) Nepeak=2 × 1018 / m

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22

Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 19. 19.
1D 1D result
result when
when Nepeak
Nepeak = 1= ×
1 ×10
101717/m
/ m3 :3:(a)
(a)range
rangedimension,
dimension,(b)
(b)azimuth
azimuthdimension.
dimension.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 20. 1D result when Nepeak = 1 × 1018 / m3: (a) range dimension, (b) azimuth dimension.
Figure
Figure20.
20.1D
1Dresult
resultwhen
whenNe
Nepeak = 1=×110
peak
/m
×1810 : (a)3 :range
183/m dimension,
(a) range (b) azimuth
dimension, dimension.
(b) azimuth dimension.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 21. 1D result when Ne peak = 2 × 1018 / m18 3: (a)
3 range dimension, (b) azimuth dimension.
Figure21.
Figure 1Dresult
21.1D resultwhen Ne
whenNe = 2=×210×1810
peak
peak / m3/m: (a) :range
(a) range dimension,
dimension, (b) azimuth
(b) azimuth dimension.
dimension.

0
0

-10
/ dB

-10
/ dB
coeffcient
coeffcient

-20 17 3
-20 Nepeak=1x10 /m
17 3
Nepeak=1x10
Nepeak=1x10 /m
18
/m
3
Transmission

18 3
-30 Nepeak=1x10 18/m 3
Nepeak=2x10 /m
Transmission

18 3
-30 Nepeak=2x10 /m

-40
-40
 (a) (b)
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 17 of 22
Figure 21. 1D result when Nepeak = 2 × 1018 / m3: (a) range dimension, (b) azimuth dimension.

-10

Transmission coeffcient / dB
-20 17 3
Nepeak=1x10 /m
18 3
Nepeak=1x10 /m
18 3
-30 Nepeak=2x10 /m
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22

-40

radar-cross section information in echo generation. The signal to noise ratio (SNR) of the
original SAR -50 image is 15dB. The distorted image caused by plasma sheath is shown in
Figure 23. 10.50 10.52 10.54 10.56 10.58 10.60 10.62
Frequency / GHz
From Figure 23a, it can be found that when the peak electron density of plasma
sheath is 1 × 10 17 / m 3,
Transmission the real SAR
coefficient image is hardly affected by the plasma sheath. Lakes,
Figure
Figure 22.22.
Transmission coefficient forfor different
different peakelectron
electrondensity.
density.
rivers, banks, and farmland are very clear. Thepeak
quality of the image is good. However, as
3.2. Area
the peak Targets
electron Response
density under Plasma
increases to 1 × Sheath
1018 / m3, the imaging quality is severely de-
3.2. Area Targets Response under Plasma Sheath
graded asThis shown in Figure
section mainly 23b. The noise appears
demonstrates the plasmain thesheath
SAR image andarea
effect on lakes, rivers, The
targets.
banks, This
simulation section
and farmland mainly
parameters demonstrates
are not
arevery the
clear.asThe
the same plasma 3.1.sheath
imaging
Section quality
The effect
real on
becomes
SAR area
image targets.
worse
is asThe
thesim-
compared
used input
ulation parameters
withradar-cross
Figure 23a.section
When theare the same as
peak electron
information Section
in echodensity 3.1. The real
reachesThe
generation. SAR
2 × 10 image
18 / mto
signal is
3, the used
imaging
noise as the input
quality
ratio (SNR) of the
is theoriginal
most serious
SAR imageshownisin 15Figure
dB. The 23c. All the lakes,
distorted imagerivers,
causedbanks, and farmland
by plasma sheath isdisap-
shown in
Figure 23.
pear, and only noise can be seen in the SAR image.

Figure 23. Area

Figure targets
23. Area response:
targets (a) Ne(a)
response: Ne
peak × 10=171/×
= 1peak m10 17 /m
3, (b) Ne3peak
, (b)= 1Ne
× peak
1018 =
/m1 3× 1018
, (c) Ne/m 3 , (c)
peak = 2 ×Nepeak =
1018 /2m×3. 1018 /m3 .

3.3. The Factors Determining SAR Imaging Quality

The previous analysis shows that peak electron density of plasma sheath plays an
important role in SAR imaging under plasma sheath. Apart from the electron density,
there are many critical factors determining the SAR imaging quality under plasma sheath,
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 18 of 22

From Figure 23a, it can be found that when the peak electron density of plasma sheath
is 1 × 1017 /m3 , the real SAR image is hardly affected by the plasma sheath. Lakes, rivers,
banks, and farmland are very clear. The quality of the image is good. However, as the peak
electron density increases to 1 × 1018 /m3 , the imaging quality is severely degraded as shown
in Figure 23b. The noise appears in the SAR image and lakes, rivers, banks, and farmland
are not very clear. The imaging quality becomes worse compared with Figure 23a. When the
peak electron density reaches 2 × 1018 /m3 , the imaging quality is the most serious shown in
Figure 23c. All the lakes, rivers, banks, and farmland disappear, and only noise can be seen in
the SAR image.

3.3. The Factors Determining SAR Imaging Quality

The previous analysis shows that peak electron density of plasma sheath plays an
important role in SAR imaging under plasma sheath. Apart from the electron density,
there are many critical factors determining the SAR imaging quality under plasma sheath,
including carrier frequency and collision frequency. Therefore, how these parameters
influence the SAR imaging quality should be clarified. The study of key factors determining
SAR imaging quality will be beneficial to choose the appropriate flight condition to avoid
the serious imaging quality degradation. In addition, the peak sidelobe ratio (PSLR) and
integrated sidelobe ratio (ISLR) are two critical parameters to evaluate the SAR imaging
quality, and the variation of PSLR and ISLR for target point imaging with different factors
should be further investigated.
Firstly, the effects of carrier frequency and peak electron density on SAR imaging
quality are explored. The carrier frequency varies from 2 to 15 GHz, and the peak values
of electron density are 4 × 1016 /m3 , 4 × 1017 /m3 , and the 1 × 1018 /m3 , respectively. The
other parameters are shown in Table 2. The PSLR and ISLR of range compressed result
varying with carrier frequency and electron density are shown in Figure 24. The value
0 in Figure 24a,b means that there is no obvious peak, which is the same as the result in
Figure 21. For Nepeak = 4 × 1016 /m3 and Nepeak = 4 × 1017 /m3 at low carrier frequency,
the PSLR and ISLR are 0 which is due to significant attenuation shown in Figure 24c. The
target response is immersed in the noise under this circumstance. With the increase of the
carrier frequency, the value of PSLR gradually approaches −13.22 dB which is the ideal
PSLR value. The value of ISLR approaches −10.11 dB which is also the ideal ISLR value. It
can be concluded that the effect of plasma sheath on SAR imaging will weaken with the
increase of carrier frequency. In addition, the PSLR at Nepeak = 4 × 1016 /m3 is −13.22 dB
for all carrier frequencies while the PSLR at Nepeak = 1 × 1018 /m3 is 0 even when carrier
frequency is 10 GHz which is a relatively large carrier frequency. We can also obtain that
when the electron density is larger, the effect of plasma sheath on SAR imaging is more
serious. This conclusion also confirms the result in Section 3.2.

Table 2. Simulation parameters.

Parameters Value
Pulse width 40 µs
Bandwidth 120 MHz
PRF 7460 Hz
Platform velocity 7000 m/s
Elevation angle 30◦
Collision frequency 4 GHz
SNR 10 dB
 Bandwidth 120 MHz
PRF 7460 Hz
Platform velocity 7000 m/s
Elevation angle 30°
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 Collision frequency 4 GHz 19 of 22
SNR 10 dB

0 0
-2 Nepeak=4x1016/m3
-2 Nepeak=4x1016/m3
Nepeak=4x1017/m3
-4 Nepeak=4x1017/m3
Nepeak=1x1018/m3 -4
-6 Nepeak=1x1018/m3

PSLR
-6

ISLR
-8
-10 -8
-12 -10
-14
-12
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Carrier frequency / GHz Carrier frequency / GHz
(a) (b)

Transmission coefficient / dB
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30 Nepeak=4x1016/m3
-35 Nepeak=4x1017/m3
-40 Nepeak=1x1018/m3
-45
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Carrier frequency / GHz

(c)

Figure 24. (a) PSLR varying with carrier frequency and electron density. (b) ISLR varying with
carrier frequency and electron density. (c) Transmission coefficient varying with carrier frequency
and electron density.

Moreover, the effect of collision frequency on hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging

is further studied and the results are shown in Figure 25. The simulation parameters are
shown in Table 3. As shown in Figure 25, for collision frequency is 10 GHz, the PSLR
and ISLR are around the ideal value. This is because the transmission coefficient at large
collision frequency is relatively small. At small collision frequency, the PSLR and ISLR
varies with carrier frequency significantly. This is due to the transmission coefficient curve
varying with carrier frequency and the varying span of attenuation characteristics is large
at small collision frequency condition.
 Bandwidth 120 MHz
PRF 7460 Hz
Platform velocity 7000 m/s
Elevation angle 30°
Peak electron density 5×1017 / m3
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 SNR 10 dB 20 of 22

0 0
-2 Collision Frequency=0.1GHz
Collision Frequency=0.1GHz -2 Collision Frequency=5GHz
-4 Collision Frequency=5GHz
Collision Frequency=10GHz
Collision Frequency=10GHz -4
-6

PSLR

ISLR
-8 -6

-10 -8
-12
-10
-14
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Carrier frequency / GHz Carrier frequency / GHz
(a) (b)

Transmission coefficient / dB
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25 Collision Frequency=0.1GHz
-30 Collision Frequency=5GHz
-35 Collision Frequency=10GHz

-40
-45
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Carrier frequency / GHz
(c)
Figure 25. (a)Figure
PSLR varying with varying
25. (a) PSLR collisionwith
frequency andfrequency
collision carrier frequency. (b) frequency.
and carrier ISLR varying
(b)with
ISLRcollision
varyingfrequency
with and
carrier frequency. (c) Transmission coefficient varying with collision frequency and carrier frequency.
collision frequency and carrier frequency. (c) Transmission coefficient varying with collision frequency
and carrier frequency.
4. Conclusions
Table 3. Simulation The hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging has promising application prosp
parameters.
especially in the remote sensing area. However, the plasma sheath is a sp
Parameters Value
Pulse width 40 µs
Bandwidth 120 MHz
PRF 7460 Hz
Platform velocity 7000 m/s
Elevation angle 30◦
Peak electron density 5 × 1017/m3
SNR 10 dB

4. Conclusions
The hypersonic platform-borne SAR imaging has promising application prospects,
especially in the remote sensing area. However, the plasma sheath is a special phenomenon
occurring during the hypersonic flight, which will bring new problems for hypersonic
platform-borne SAR imaging. Therefore, in this paper, the hypersonic platform-borne SAR
imaging under plasma sheath was studied from a physical perspective. The hypersonic
platform-borne SAR signal model under plasma sheath was developed based on the
SAR signal propagation characteristics in plasma sheath. The transmission coefficient
was computed using scatter matrix method and characteristics of SAR signal doubly
propagating through plasma sheath was coupled in the SAR signal model under plasma
sheath. Secondly, SAR signal model under plasma sheath was verified experimentally. The
ground experiment system was built and the SAR signal model under plasma sheath was
verified by comparing the theoretical and experimental results of time domain, frequency
domain, and range compressed signal. From the experiment result it can be found that
not only the amplitude of signal waveform is attenuated but also the peak value of range
compressed result decreases. Thirdly, the SAR imaging result under plasma sheath shows
Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4943 21 of 22

that point target and area targets response will be degraded by the attenuation caused by
plasma sheath. When severe attenuation occurs, the response is even submerged in the
noise. Finally, the effects of SAR and plasma sheath parameters including carrier frequency,
electron density, and collision frequency on SAR imaging under plasma sheath are explored.
It can be concluded that the severe degradation of SAR imaging quality appears at high
plasma sheath electron density and low SAR carrier frequency condition. The SAR signal
model under plasma sheath proposed in this paper will benefit the study of hypersonic
platform-borne SAR imaging in the future. Moreover, the results in this paper provide a
guidance for the design of hypersonic SAR imaging system to select the appropriate SAR
and flight parameters to avoid the serious SAR imaging quality degradation.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.S. and B.B.; model, L.S.; method, B.B.; experiment, L.S.,
X.L. and Y.L.; simulation, L.S., G.N.; investigation, L.S.; writing—original draft preparation, L.S.;
writing—review and editing, B.B. and H.Z.; supervision, X.L.; funding acquisition, X.L and L.Z. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
under Grant 62001388, Grant 61701381, and Grant 61627901, in part by the Natural Science Basic
Research Plan in Shaanxi Province of China under Grant 2020JM-102.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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