UE20ME205: Material Testing Laboratory (0-0-2-1-1)

Preamble: Material testing laboratory is a highly precise and reliable technique that
determines and measures the characteristics of materials, such as mechanical properties,
elemental composition and effects of heat treatments. Material testing is categorized as
destructive to measure mechanical strength, hardness, fracture toughness, chemical corrosion
and. Non-destructive to measure metallurgical testing, internal cracks and sub surface cracks.
The data thus obtained can be used in specifying the suitability of material for various
applications.

Course Objectives: The objective of the course is to

• train the students to use UTM for mechanical testing of specimen under varying load
conditions
• demonstrate to the students the use of various machines to determine hardness, wear
resistance, rigidity modulus and impact strength
• enable the students to understand material characterization and use of non-destructive
methods of testing
• develop testing skills in students by selection of materials, measuring their mechanical
properties and detect the defects generated during processing and service
• analyze an unknown component through mechanical testing and material
characterization methods

Course Outcomes: At the end of this course, the student will be able to

• determine the elastic properties of materials using UTM and torsion testing machine
• calculate the impact strength of a material using Izod and Charpy tests
• evaluate surface properties of materials using wear and hardness testing machines
• identify defects using non-destructive testing methods
• identify the microstructure of engineering metals and alloys.

Pre-Requisite: Mechanics of Solids and Mechanical engineering sciences.

1
Course Content:

1. Tensile test on mild steel specimen.

2. Compression test on Cast Iron specimen

3. Shear test on given metallic specimen.

4. Bending test on Mild steel specimen.

5. Torsion test on Mild Steel specimen.

6. Izod impact test on Aluminium and Mild steel specimen.

7. Charpy impact test on Aluminium and Mild steel specimen.

8. Rockwell Hardness test for Steel, cast iron, Copper, Aluminium and Brass.

9. Vickers Hardness test for ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.

10. Brinell Hardness test for Steel, cast iron, Copper, Aluminium and Brass.

11. Wear test of ferrous and non-ferrous materials.

12. Non-destructive test: Magnetic particle inspection.

13. Open Ended Experiment.

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 Materials characterization & Testing Laboratory

INDEX

Expt.
# Contents Page No

1. Tension Test 4–6

2. Compression Test 7–8

3. Shear Test 9 – 10

4. Bending Test 11-12

5. Torsion Test 13–14

6. Izod 15–17

7. Charpy Impact Test 15–17

8. Rockwell Hardness Test 18–19

9. Vickers Hardness Test 20–21

10. Brinell Hardness Test 22–23

11. Wear Test 24–26

12. Non-destructive test: Magnetic particle 27-28

inspection.
13. Open Ended Experiment 28

3
 EXPERIMENT No. : 1 – TENSION TEST [IS 1608:1995]
AIM:
A) To determine mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, elastic modulus,
proportionality limit, yield point, fracture stress, percentage elongation & reduction in area
etc. of metals and alloys.
B) To study the behavior of materials & characterize types of fracture under tensile load.

APPARATUS USED:
Universal testing machine, Extensometer, Caliper, Scale, test specimen, etc.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
Universal testing machine (capacity 40 KN) is used for evaluating stress - strain properties of
materials in tension, compression, bending, and shear. Different load ranges like 40KN,
10KN, and 20KN are selected depending on the nature of the materials. Specimens are
mounted and gripped using special grips and load is applied axially and continuously.
Extensometers are used for measuring extension accurately and they are recorded suitably.

THEORY:
In static tension test, the operation is accomplished by gripping opposite ends of the piece of
the material and pulling it apart. In a tension test the test specimen elongates in a direction
parallel to load applied.

PROCEDURE:
Diameter ‘d’ of the given specimen as shown in fig 1 is measured using a micrometer and the
mean value is noted. Using this average diameter, initial area of the cross section is
calculated. The gauge length ‘Lo’ is marked on the specimen accurately using central punch.
One end of the specimen is firmly fixed on the top plate using grips such that the gauge
length marks face the operator. Extensometer is fixed in the area containing gauge marks. Lift
the bottom plate of the machine using a hydraulic control and fix the bottom end of the
specimen using special grips available with the machine.

Load range is selected depending on the nature (Ferrous / Non-ferrous, composition,

heat treatment etc.) of the material. Load is applied slowly and continuously. Load and
extensometer readings are noted simultaneously. After reaching the yield point
(disproportionate elongation) extensometer is removed and elongation is measured using a
scale mounted on the machine. Load is applied continuously till the specimen fractures and
maximum load is applied. Broken pieces are removed; location and characteristics of the
fracture are studied. Two fractured pieces are kept together & final diameter ‘du’ and final
gauge length ‘lu’ of the specimen is measured using a caliper. Final area of the specimen is
calculated. Using load - extension data, stress and strain are calculated and a graph is plotted.

4
SPECIMEN DETAILS:
1. Thickness of the test piece.
2. Width of parallel length of the flat test piece.
3. Diameter of the parallel of a circular test piece.
4. Original gauge length.
5. Parallel length of extensometer gauge length.
6. Total length of test piece.
7. Final gauge length after fracture.
8. Original cross-sectional area of the parallel length.
9. Minimum cross-section area after fracture.
10. Gripped ends.

CALCULATION OF DIAMETER:

SI. NO MSR CVD TR AVG

SPECIMEN CALCULATION:
Material = Mild Steel
Original gauge length = Lo mm =
Final gauge length = Lu mm =
Initial diameter = d mm =
Final diameter du mm =
Original area of cross-section, So (mm2 ) = πd2/ 4 =
Final area of cross-section, Su (mm2) = πdu2/ 4 =
Ultimate tensile strength = Pmax / So = Rm =
% Elongation, A = (( Lu - Lo) /Lo) × 100 =
Fracture load Pf =
Fracture stress = Pf / So =
Elastic modulus E = Slope of the straight line portion of stress – strain graph.

TABLE:

SI. No Load P (Newton’s) Extension (mm) Stress (N/mm2) Strain

L R

GRAPH: Stress V/S Strain

5
QUESTION BANK EXPT. 1

1. Define:
Elastic limit, proportional limit, elastic modulus, yield strength, secant modulus,
tangent modulus, true stress, true strain, resilience, toughness, poisson ratio.
2. Write expressions for the following,
a) Resilience in terms of yield point.
b) True stress in terms of engg. stress.
c) True strain in terms of engg. stress.
d) Elastic modulus in terms of Poisson ratio.
3. Draw the stress-strain curve for the following materials and compare:
a) Mild steel, b) Copper, c) Aluminium, d) Cast iron, e) Glass, f) Rubber
4. a) Discuss yield point phenomenon in mild steel. Write a note on Luder’sband and
their formation.
b) What is gauge length and describe its applications.
5. How do you measure strain accurately? Explain the principle of resistance strain
gauges.
6. Draw the stress strain curve for carbon steel containing 0.3% carbon, 0.6% carbon,
and 1.5% carbon.
7. Draw stress - strain curve for copper at -200C room temperature and 4000C.
8. Distinguish between
a) Resilience and Toughness
b) Elastic limit and proportional limit
c) Elastic deformation and plastic deformation
d) Ductile fracture and brittle fracture
9. Why necking is observed only in ductile fracture.
10. What are the different modes of deformation? Explain them using suitable sketches.
11. What are the effects of strain rate on mechanical properties of materials?
12. Describe Bauschinger effect and its consequences on metal forming applications
13. Compare engineering stress - strain curve and true stress-true strain curve for mild
steel.
14. How does a universal testing machine work?
15. What is a ductile fracture? Discuss its features and mechanisms.

6
 EXPERIMENT No.: 2 – COMPRESSION TEST [IS 13780 : 1993]

AIM:
To conduct conduction test on the given material and to determine properties such as
compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, % of contraction & % increase in area.

APPARATUS USED:
Universal testing machine, extensometer, dial gauge, micrometer, caliper, scale, cylindrical
test specimens etc.

THEORY:
Accurate determination of stress and strain in compression is difficult compared to tension
due to the lateral deflection and bending stresses introduced while testing. If the specimen is
long, lateral buckling takes place resulting in failure of the specimen. Ductile materials bulge
after reaching the maximum compression load where as there is no change in cross section or
height of the specimen for brittle materials and they suddenly fracture.

PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the lower and upper compression platens above the bottom cross head and below
the top cross head.
2. Measure the initial diameter do and height of the specimen Lo using a slide caliper.
3. Place the specimen at the center of the bottom platen and bring the top of the
specimen in contact with the top plate by moving the cross head downwards.
4. Mount the compression dial gauge in the lower head and bring the indicator to zero.
Move the indicator of the load scale to zero.
5. Record the compression dial gauge readings for every 250kg load increase for
Aluminium, Brass, Copper and every 500kg load for steel and cast iron.
6. The experiment is continued till the specimen fractures and the maximum load is
noted. Stress strain curve is drawn.
INITIAL DIAMETER:

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

FINAL DIAMETER:

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

7
SPECIMEN CALCULATION:
Initial gauge length = Lo mm =
Initial diameter = do mm =
Original Area, So (mm2) = πd2 / 4 =
Final gauge length = L1 mm =
Final diameter = d mm =
Final area of cross section, S1 (mm2) = πd12 / 4 =
Ultimate load = Fcu (N) =
Compressive strength = Rcm = Fcu / So (N/mm2) =
Proof stress, Rc from graph =
Slope of the straight line portion of the graph, E (N/mm2) =
Max compression stress = (max force) / (original area) =
% increase in area = ((So-S1) / S1) × 100 =
% contraction at fracture = ((Lo - L1) / L1) × 100 =

TABULAR COLUMN

SI. No. Load P Deformation Stress Strain

Δ L (mm) (N/mm2)

GRAPH: STRESS – STRAIN

GRAPH: Load Vs Compression of Ductile Materials.

QUESTION BANK

1. Why compression strength is an important mechanical property? Describe its role in

design.
2. Is elastic modulus same for compression and tension for a given material.
3. Define lateral strain, Poisson’s ratio. What are the values of Poisson’s ratio for the
following materials?
4. How do you decide the specimen dimensions in compression testing?

8
 EXPERIMENT No.: 3 – SHEAR TEST [IS 5242: 1979]
AIM:
To determine ultimate shear stress of the given specimens in single and double shear.

APPARATUS:
Universal Testing Machine

THEORY:
A type of force which causes or tends to cause two continuous parts of the body to slide
relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact is known as shear force.
The stress required to produce fracture in a plane of cross section acted on by the shear force
is called shear strength. Shear can be applied either in tension or compression. Rivets, bolts,
screw threads and cotter pins are a few examples of parts that are subjected to shear forces.
Forces must be applied perpendicular to the test specimen otherwise it will experience tensile
force.

If the force is resisted by failure through one plane and single area then the material is
said to be in single shear. If two areas resist the fracture then the material is said to be in
double shear. Figure 1 shows single and double shear applied on the given specimen.
Ultimate shear strength = P/A for single shear where P is fracture load and A is the area of
cross section of the given specimen. In double shear, Ultimate shear strength = P/2A.

PROCEDURE:
Average diameter of the given specimen is measured using a single caliper and the area of
cross section is calculated. For conducting single shear test, specimen is loaded using a
special fixture till fracture. Fracture load and type of fracture is noted. Repeat the experiment
for double shear as described below.

DIAMETER: (AL – Single and Double Shear)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

SPECIMEN CALCULATION:

Area of CS, Fracture Ultimate shear

Material Type of shear Diameter A = πd2 / 4, load strength
d (mm) (mm2) P kg (kg /mm2)
Single
Aluminium
Double

9
 QUESTION BANK
1. Discuss the significance of shear test. Explain the necessary theory, the procedure to
be adopted in single and double shear strength test.
2. What are the shear modulus for the following materials (a)Brass, (b)Bronze,
(c)Aluminium, (d)Copper?
3. Write the relationship between rigidity modulus and young’s modulus and explain.

10
 EXPERIMENT No.: 4 - BENDING TEST [IS: 1599 - 1985]
AIM: To study the behavior of the given specimen in bending and to determine modulus of
elasticity.

APPARATUS USED:
Universal Testing Machine, bending fixture, deflect meter etc.

THEORY:
A specimen is said to be in bending when it is loaded in such a way that compressive stresses
are acting over one part and tensile stresses on the other part. Bending equation is M/I = f/y =
E/R where M is bending moment, I is moment of inertia of cross section, f is bending stress,
R is radius of curvature, E is modulus of elasticity and y is the distance from the neutral axis
to the outer most fiber. To avoid the specimen from shear, the span L must not be too small
with respect to depth H. The value of L = 6H to L = 12H is common.

PROCEDURE: Measure the dimensions of the given specimen and mark the span length L
with respect to the length of the specimen. Place the specimen firmly over the supports.
Attach a deflect meter near the centre of the span and adjust it to read zero. Apply load at the
centre of the span and increase it slowly and continuously. Note down the load P and
deflection Y. Record the fracture load and observe the type of fracture. Plot load deflection
curve and determine the properties of the material in bending.

SPECIMEN CALCULATION:

BREADTH:

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

DEPTH:

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Calculations:
P Deflection
Span length, L (mm) = load in KN Y mm
Breadth, b (mm) =
Depth, d (mm) =
Maximum load, P (N) =
Maximum deflection Y (mm) =
Moment of inertia, I (mm4) = bd3 / 12 =
Maximum bending moment, M = P × L / 4 =
Modulus of elasticity, E (N/mm2) = L3 / 48I (Slope of load deflection graph)

11
 QUESTION BANK EXPT. 10
1. State and explain the assumptions on which the theory of simple bending is based.
2. What type of loading will give constant moment & shear over a length of the beam?
Does this type of loading have any advantage?
3. Define the following terms.
i) Neutral axis
ii) Centroidal axis
4. Why it is preferable to measure the deflection of a beam specimen to the top rather
than the bottom of the beam?
5. What are the limits of Length to diameter ratio (L/d) for flexural test & why?
6. How failure in bending occurs in the following materials?
a) Cast iron
b) Mild steel
c) Wood.

12
 EXPERIMENT No.: 5 – TORSION TEST [IS: 1717-1984]
AIM:
To observe the behavior of the given specimen in torsion and find out the material properties.

OBJECTIVES:
• To study the behavior of the given test specimen in torsion.
• To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material.
• To observe the effect of yielding and mode of fracture.
• To determine the modulus of resilience and modulus of rupture.

APPARATUS:
Torsion Testing Machine.

THEORY:
Modulus of rigidity:
G = (T .L) / ( θ . J)
Where,
G = Rigidity modulus
L = Length of the specimen, m
θ = Angle of twist, radians
J = Polar moment of inertia, m4
Polar moment of inertia:
J = (π × d4) / 32
Where d = diameter of the specimen, m

PROCEDURE:
The diameter and the length of the specimen provided is measured very carefully using
calipers. The specimen is fixed in the chuck using loose pieces provided and tightened them
using allen key. The pointer of the protractor is adjusted to the zero position just when the
weighting scale starts showing a deflection. At this point the weighing machine pointer is set
to zero of the scale. A monotonically (or steadily) increasing torque is applied using the
handle of the worm. At any value of torque applied the corresponding angle of twist indicated
by the protractor is noticed simultaneously. In the initial stage of the handle is turned very
slowly and load reading is taken for every one or half degree twist indicated on the protractor,
since during this phase load deflection is too high.
In the later stages i.e. when yielding has taken place and there is almost no deflection, in the
weighing scale readings can be taken for every 5-10 degree intervals without much
appreciable errors. A graph of torque v/s angle of twist is plotted ( the scale should be so
chosen that the linear portion and the point of yielding can be easily observed on the plot.)
The slope of linear portion is found out and substituted in equations to get the modulus of
rigidity. The specimen id taken out of the chuck and the failure surface is observed to
understand the type of shear that has taken place (A ductile fracture shows orthogonal shear
surface while a brittle material shows a spiral failure surface.)

13
TABULAR COLUMNS:
Diameter:

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Length:

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Tabular Column:

SI.No Load indicated P (N) Angle of twist θ (deg) Toque applied N-m

Specimen Calculation:
Diameter of the specimen = d (mm) =
Length of the specimen = L (mm) =
4
Polar moment of inertia, J (mm ) =
𝑳 𝑻 𝑳
Modulus of rigidity, G = × = × (𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑻 − 𝜽)
𝑱 𝜽 𝑱

QUESTION BANK
1. Why is torsion formula not applicable to non-circular cross section?
2. List the relative advantages & disadvantages of tabular & solid cylindrical torsion
specimens for determinations of shearing strength.
3. Explain torsion fracture as in the case of ductile & brittle materials.

14
EXPERIMENT No.: 6 & 7 – IMPACT TEST [IS 1598 & 1499 : 1977]
AIM: To find out the impact strength of the given-notched specimens.
APPARATUS:
Pendulum type impact testing machine.
THEORY:
Impact test is used to find out the energy required to rupture a material under sudden
application of load. Different types of notched bar impact tests are carried out to determine
the tendency of the material to behave in a brittle manner. Notch creates stress concentration
which will ensure that fracture does occur in notch, energy will spread evenly along the bar
and causes it to plastically deform by breaking rather than bending.
Two standard impact test presently used in industry are the Izod and Charpy. In the charpy
test a notched bar is held horizontally as it is hit by the pendulum. In the Izod test the test bar
is held vertically at the bottom end. Both these tests measure energy by using a swinging
pendulum, to strike a test sample.
Dimensions of standard Izod and Charpy test specimens are shown in figure 1. The mounting
of the test specimen is shown in figure 2.
The differences between these two tests are in the design of test specimens and the velocity
with which the pendulum hits the test bar. Figure 2(c) illustrates the position of the pendulum
at an angle α called the ‘angle of fall’.
At this position, the pendulum has potential energy = Wa, where W is the weight of the
pendulum. In falling through an angle α, it picks up momentum & when hits the sample at B,
potential energy is zero, whereas it has acquired kinetic energy depending on the velocity.
Impact velocity = √2gr (1-cosα) where r is the radius of the pendulum and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. In the standard Izod test the pendulum is set to strike the
specimen at a velocity of 11.5 ft/sec while in Charpy the standard velocity is 17.5 ft/sec. At O
a part of the energy is absorbed to create fracture and the pendulum swings up to the position
C indicated by an angle β known as ‘angle of rise’. The energy absorbed by the specimen at
the time of breaking is given by the equation E = Wr (cosβ - cosα). Where E is the energy
required to break the specimen, W is the weight of the pendulum, r is the radius or length of
the pendulum, α is the angle of fall and β is the angle of rise. Fracture surface reveals two
distinct zones - one bright and granular area, which represents brittle fracture, and the other
dull area which represents shear fracture where slight plastic deformation has taken place.
PROCEDURE:
Measure the dimensions of the specimen (Izod or Charpy) and note down the weight of the
pendulum W (engraved on the surface) and the length of the pendulum r. Using positioning
gauge place the specimen on the anvil correctly. For Charpy test the specimen is arranged
with the notch on the side away from the striking towards the edge. Lift the pendulum to its
upper position and with no specimen on the anvil, release it and note down the reading. This
reading gives friction offered by bearings and air resistance of the pendulum. Now place the
specimen and allow the pendulum to strike it and rupture it. Stop the pendulum swing by
means of a hand brake. Calculate the angle of rise β and repeat the experiment with different
samples and tabulate the results.

15
 Breadth (Izod and Charpy): (Brass and MS)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Least count = 1MSD / No. of Divisions on VSD = 1/50 = 0.02

Depth (Izod and Charpy): (Brass and MS)

S.N MSR CVD TR AVG

Specimen Calculation:

β = angle of rise, U = 𝑾𝒓(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶)

Weight of the pendulum = W(N) = 21.25 Kg

Radius of the pendulum = r(m) = 0.825 m
Angle of fall, 𝛼𝐼𝑧𝑜𝑑 = 85° & 𝛼𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑦 = 140°

Impact velocity, V (m/s) = √2gr (1-cosα) =

Angle of Scale Frictional Energy Depth Area of Impact

Material rise reading loss consumed Breadth below the C.S strength = I/A
β U f I=u-f (b) notch A mm2 (N-m)/mm2
(d) A = b×d

MS

Brass

Charpy Impact Test

Weight of the pendulum, W(N) = 20.59 Kg
Radius of pendulum, r(m) = 0.825 m

Angle of Scale Frictional Energy Depth Area of Impact

Material rise reading loss consumed Breadth below the C.S strength = I/A
β U f I=u-f (b) notch A mm2 (N-m)/mm2
(d) A = b×d

MS

Brass

16
 QUESTION BANK
1. Name the important mechanical test which give valuable information about materials.
Discuss one test in detail.
2. What does impact test signify? Explain with necessary theory, the procedure adopted
in the impact test conducted using a pendulum type impact testing machine.
3. What is an impact test? What are the advantages and how does it help in finding out
ductile to brittle transformation?
4. What are the differences between charpy and izod impact tests? Why an impact
specimen has a notch?
5. Draw energy absorbed curves for the following.
a) Low, medium and high carbon steels.
b) Low temperature, room temperature, and high temperature.
c) Fine grain size and coarse grain size in a given metal.
d) FCC, BCC and HCP metals.
e) Different directions in a rolled plate.

17
 EXPERIMENT No. : 8 – ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST [IS 5652 Part
1: 1993]
AIM: To determine Rockwell hardness for the given specimens.
APPARATUS: Rockwell hardness tester and indicators.
THEORY:
The test utilizes the depth of indication under constant load as a measure of hardness. The
indenter is selected depending on the nature and on the condition of the material. Brale
indenter, a conical shaped diamond penetrator with 120 degrees apex angle is used for steel
and cast iron. A hardened steel ball (1/16-inch diameter) is used for non-ferrous metals. A
minor load of 10kg is first applied to seat the specimen and the major load is then applied
(60, 100, 150 kg). The depth of indentation is recorded on a dial gauge in term of hardness
numbers. Hardened steel is tested on C scale with diamond indenter and 150kg major load.
Softer materials are tested on the B scale with 1.6mm diameter steel ball and 90kg major
load.

PROCEDURE:
Select suitable load and indenter depending on the nature of the material to be tested.
Specimen is placed on the hardened anvil of the machine which can be raised or lowered by
using a hand operated wheel so that the surface of the specimen just touches the indentor,
smaller pointer in the dial starts moving and continue to rise the anvil slowly till the pointer
comes to RED dot. This indicates that minor load (10kg) has been applied. Turn the dial until
the mark B-30 (C-0) and the word “SET” is directly behind the pointer. Release the hand to
apply major load. The indentor starts penetrating, which is read on the dial. Remove the
major load by bringing back the handle to the original position. Read the position of the
pointer on the scale, which gives Rockwell Hardness Number.
Specimen Calculation:

Material Scale Indentor Total Trail-1 Trail-2 Trail-3 Average

used Load

Aluminium RB 1/16 - Ball 100Kg

Mild steel RB 1/16 - Ball 100Kg

Cast Iron RC Diamond 150Kg

Brass RB 1/16 - Ball 100Kg

M.S RC Diamond 150Kg

18
 QUESTION BANK
1. Define hardness. What are the units?
2. What are the different forms of hardness? Explain them.
3. What is MHOS scale hardness? Explain.
4. Why major and minor load is used in Rockwell hardness test.
5. What are the indenters used in RB and RC scale? How do you convert hardness
values from one scale to another?
6. Explain the precautions to be taken in Rockwell hardness test and write expressions
relating BHN, RB and RC.

19
 EXPERIMENT No.: 9 – Vickers Hardness Test
AIM: To find the Vickers hardness Number for mild steel specimen.

THEORY:
Very hard material (eg. Mild steel, case hardened steel etc.) can be tested by the Vickers
method. If the moderately hard materials like brass, copper, and aluminium are tested in this
machine, the indenter makes a deep impression. Hence, a proper indentation cannot be made
on the specimen and a correct value of the hardness cannot be obtained for these materials by
V.H. test.

VHN = Load / (slope or pyramidal area of indentation)

Note: The impression is a pyramidal base impression where ‘d’ is the diagonal distance and
‘a’ side of the square base. The type of indenter is diamond to cone indenter with apex angle
of 1360 = α (square base)

VHN =

Equipments Required:

Vickers – cum – Brinell’s hardness testing machine.

Cone indenter with pyramidal square base of 1360 apex angle.
Standard test specimens same as in the previous experiments.

Procedure: The experimental procedure is exactly same as in experiment no. 3 except for the
following differences.
The type of indenter is a diamond tip cone indenter with 1360 apex angle.
The standard load to be applied is between 5-30 kg Vickers load.
The type of impression is a square base pyramidal impression.
The diagonal of the impression is measured as follows.

First bring through ‘0’ of main scale to ‘0’ of vernier by operating the micrometer screw.
Bring one edge of the square base impression to coincide with main scale division by
operating the focusing screen screw. Count the number of M.S.D. from the coincided edge to
the division near the coincided edge. This gives main scale reading. Now turn the micrometer
till the right edge coincides with next forward main scale division. Now count the vernier
scale divisions from ‘0’ of main scale to ‘0’ of vernier scale. Record the number of divisions
of the micrometer scale which is just ahead and above ‘0’ index mark. Hence, diagonal width
= d1 = MSR + VSR + Micrometer reading. Similarly, the other diagonal ‘d2’ is calculated.

Calculation:

𝑑 𝑑
𝑎= =
sin 45° √2

𝑎 𝑑
=
2 2√2

20
 𝑑
Sloping Side: 𝛼
[2×√2×sin ]
2

𝑏ℎ
area of the shaded triangle = 2

𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝐴1 = 𝑎 ×
2
𝑑 𝑑
= 1⁄2 × ×
√2 2 × √2 × sin 𝛼⁄2

𝑑2
=
4 × 2 × sin 𝛼⁄2

Area of pyramidal impression, A=𝐴1 × 4

𝑑2
2 × sin 𝛼⁄2

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑉𝐻𝑁 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

[𝑃 × 2 × sin 𝛼⁄2]
𝑉𝐻𝑁 = .
𝑑2

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 EXPERIMENT No.: 10 – Brinell Hardness Test [IS 1500: 1983]
AIM: To determine the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) of the given specimens.

APPARATUS: Brinell Hardness Tester, Microscope with a micrometer eye piece.

THEORY:
Hardness is the resistance offered by the body to the penetration of another body which does
not undergo plastic deformation. In this test, a 10mm case hardened steel ball or tungsten
carbide ball penetrates the surface of the test specimen with one of the three standard loads –
500kg, 1500kg, 3000kg. once the indenter is forced into the metal, load is released and the
diameter of the indentation is measured by means of a microscope. BHN is calculated using
the equation = 2P / π D [D - √D2 – d2], where P is load in kgs, D is diameter of the indenter
and d is diameter of indentation. Load is calculated for different materials as follows:

P = 30D2 for iron and steel

P = 10D2 for bronze & brass
P = 5D2 for aluminium
P = D2 for lead, tin and tin alloys
BHN = P / (Area of indentation)

2𝑃 𝑘𝑔⁄
𝜋𝐷[𝐷 − √𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 ] 𝑚𝑚2

Where, h = depth of impression or indentation in mm

d = diameter of impression or indentation in mm
D = diameter of indenter ball in mm

In triangle OAD,
OA = √(OD2 – AD2
= √[(D/2)2 – (d/2)2]

Depth of impression = h = OB – OA
= (D/2) - √[(D/2)2 – (d/2)2]

Area of indentation = A = Arc length ‘CBD’ × Depth

= 3.142 × D × h
= 3.142 × (D/2) × [(D) - √ [D2 – d2]]

Procedure:
Select suitable load and indenter depending on the nature of the material to be tested.
Specimen is placed on the hardened anvil of the machine, which can be raised or lowered by
using a hand-operated wheel. Specimen is made to touch the indenter and load is applied.
After applying the load for thirty seconds, load is removed and the diameter of the
indentation is measured using microscope. BHN is calculated using the above formula.

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Specimen Calculation:

Load Surface Diameter of Diameter of indentation

Sample Kg condition indenter, d mm BHN
D mm
Aluminium Machined 5mm - ball
Copper Machined 5mm – ball

Brass Machined 5mm – ball

Steel Machined 5mm – ball

Cast iron Machined 5mm - ball

QUESTION BANK

1. Discuss Brinell hardness test as applied to ductile and brittle materials.

2. How do you calculate load for different materials? What are the different loads and
indenters used in BHN.?
3. Write the relation between diameter of the indenter and indentation. How do you
measure the diameter of the indentation accurately?
4. Discuss surface preparation & precautions to be taken in Brinell Hardness testing.
5. Discuss the relation between BHN and other mechanical properties.

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 EXPERIMENT No.: 11 - WEAR TEST
AIM: To determine the wear rate of different materials by using pin & disc apparatus.

APPARATUS USED: Pin & disc apparatus, Brass & Aluminium specimens.

THEORY:
In a pin-on-disc wear test a standard test specimen is held pressed against a rotary flat disc,
then brought perpendicular to the disc. They may be positioned vertical horizontal but the test
results may differ. The specimen may have a spherical end or flat end. Normally the load is
applied through a lever arm. The wear results are generally reported as volume loss or weight
loss. Wear results are usually obtained by conducting a test for a selected sliding distance and
for selected values of load and speed. The test specimen is cylindrical or spherical and the
diameter ranges from 2mm to 10mm.

Procedure:

1. Clean and dry the surface of the specimen. Remove all dirt and foreign matter from
the surface of the specimen using suitable cleaning agent.
2. Measure the appropriate specimen dimension and also weigh the specimen.
3. Insert the pin specimen securely in the holder and set the specimen perpendicular to
the disc.
4. Add suitable weight to the lever.
5. Start the motor and adjust the speed to the desired value while holding the pin
specimen out of contact with the disc and stop the motor.
6. Begin the test with the specimen in contact under the load and start the stop clock.
7. Remove the specimen and clean off any loose debris. Re measure the specimen
dimension and weight.
8. Repeat the test with additional specimen.

Specimen Calculation:

Material : Brass, MS and Aluminium

Length before the test:
Diameter:
Weight before the test:
Weight after the test:
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
% Loss in weight = × 100 =
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

% Loss in volume = × 100 =
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

% Reduction in length = × 100 =
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

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Distance from the loading point of the fulcrum L2:

Distance between the specimen and the fulcrum L1:

Applied load, P:

Frictional force Fr:

Normal load on the specimen: F = (P × L2) / L1

Coefficient of friction: µ = Fr / F

Time: 5 min

Calculation Of Length (Initial):

Material Tr. No. MSR CVD TR AVG

Brass

Aluminium

Mild steel

Calculation of Diameter:

Material Tr. No. MSR CVD TR AVG

Brass

Aluminium

Mild steel

Calculation Of Length (Final):

Material Tr. No. MSR CVD TR AVG

Brass

Aluminium

Mild steel

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SL. Material W1 W2 W = W1 – W2 Frictional Coeff. Of Avg.
No (g) force Fr (N) friction (µ)
( µ)

1. Brass

2. M.S

3. Aluminium

QUESTION BANK

1. What is wear?
2. What are the different types of wear? Explain.
3. What are the different types of wear testing machine?
4. What is the importance of wear testing?
5. Define wear coefficient.

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 EXPERIMENT No.: 12 - NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST:
Non-Destructive Testing of Metals

A Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is an examination of a component in any manner which

will not impair its future use. Although NDT do not provide direct measurement of any
properties (mechanical, physical, etc) yet they are extremely useful in revealing the defects in
the component that, could impair their performance when put into service. NDT makes
components more reliable and safer and economical.

Comparison Between Destructive and Non-Destructive Testing:

Destructive Testing Non-Destructive Testing

• Sample is destroyed when tested.
• Needs a specimen preparation.
• Numerical value cannot be assigned.
• Cannot be done during intermediate
stages of processing.
• Does not need skilled labour.
• Sample is tested without destroying.
• No need of specimen preparation.
• It reveals the defects in the
components, that could affect its
performance.
• Can be done during intermediate
stages.
• Needs skilled labour.

Advantages of Ndt:

1. Component is not destructive, so cost is reduced and saving of material.

2. No specimen preparation.
3. Testing of component can be done during its intermediate stages of
production/processing thus, saving of money and time.
4. Defects size, location and its criminality can be exactly found out. Thus helps in
designing the product and to improve a processing method.
5. Remaining life of a component can be assessed by testing a component.
6. Reduction of costly re-work.

Disadvantages of Ndt:

1. Needs skilled labors.

2. Damage to operator (only in few techniques).
3. Results depend on area of testing / inspection.

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 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
AIM: To detect the surface / sub surface defects in a given ferro-magnetic material.

APPARATUS: Magnetic field generator and ferro-magnetic powder.

Theory:
This method of inspection is used on magnetic ferrous casting for detecting invisible surface
of slightly sub surface defects. Deeper sub surface defects are not satisfactorily detected
because of the influence of distorted lines of magnetic flux on the magnetic field spread over
the casting surface becomes weaker with distance. So that sensitivity falls away rapidly by
the depth. The defects that are commonly revealed by magnetic particle inspection are
quenching cracks, seams, laps, hot tears etc.

The principle of this method is when a piece of material is placed in a magnetic field and
the lines of magnetic flux get intersected by a dis-continuity such as cracks of slag inclusion
in casting, magnetic poles are induced on either side of dis-continuity causing an abrupt
change in path of magnetic flux flowing through the casting normal to the dis-continuity
resulting in local flux leakage and interference with the magnetic lines of force. This local
flux disturbance can be detected by its affect upon magnetic particles that collect on the
region of discontinuity and pile up and bridge over the discontinuity.

Procedure:

1. Clean the surface of the test specimen.

2. Demagnetize the component to remove any residual magnetic field in it.
3. Apply a thin layer of ferro magnetic particles over the surface to be tested.
4. Magnetize the test specimen.
5. Observe the shape and size of the magnetic particles collected, which is the shape and
size of the defect.

Result:
Report the type and size of the defect in the given component.

EXPERIMENT No.: 13 – Open Ended Experiment:

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Textbook/s:
1: Laboratory Manual prepared by the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, PESU.
Reference Books:
1: “Characterization of Materials‖, Elton N Kauffman, John Wiley &
Sons, NewJersey, Vol.1 and 2 Edition, 2003.
2: ―The Science and Engineering of Materials‖, Donald R Askeland and
Pradeep, P. Phule, Cengage Learning, Stanford, Sixth Edition, 2010.
3: ―Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction‖, William D.
Callister, Jr., John Wiley & Sons, Newyork, Eighth Edition, 2009.

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