Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00288

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

The effects of pumping on the air content and void structure of

air-entrained, wet mix fibre reinforced shotcrete
S. Talukdara,*, R. Heereb
a
British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby, BC, Canada
b
Metro Testing Laboratories, Burnaby, BC, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The air content and void structure of hardened shotcrete is essential for its durability and
Received 18 July 2019 resistance against freeze thaw damage. However, producing a mix which is pumpable,
Received in revised form 3 October 2019 shootable, and also meets durability requirements is not always easy. The situation is
Accepted 8 October 2019
further complicated when adding fibres to the mix. This paper presents some observations
concerning air content and air void systems of fresh and hardened fibre reinforced
Keywords: shotcrete mixes used for a ground support project in Western Canada. The most critical
Shotcrete
findings were that altering the time the mix spends in the line and presumably while under
Air voids
Air content
pressure may affect the overall air content and the air void structure of the hardened
Spacing factor material, and that the pumping process itself has an adverse effect on the total air content
Slump and spacing factor in the hardened material.
Pumping © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
Durability BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Freeze thaw

1. Introduction and Background

The (wet-mix) shotcreting process consists of pumping a plastic or flowable concrete through a conveying hose or tube,
and then adding pressurized air at the nozzle to spray the concrete towards the substrate at a high velocity to achieve
compaction. It is used for a variety of structural and repair applications including shoring walls, lining tunnels, or renovating
existing structures [1].
Incorporating an adequate number of properly sized and distributed air voids in shotcrete is key to avoiding freeze-thaw
induced cracking and scaling [1]. Air is typically entrained by the addition of an air entraining admixtures before or during
mixing. Such admixtures are often used in combination with water reducing and viscosity modifying admixtures to produce
a mix which meets specifications for plastic air content while remaining pumpable and shootable. Proper use of air-
entraining admixtures ensures the development of the correct spacing, size, and amount of air voids. A well-entrained air-
void system provides empty chambers within the hydrated matrices to relieve the internal hydrostatic pressure driven by
the expansion of water on freezing.
Once concrete has set, the casts of the original air bubbles remain in the hardened concrete as voids. They are commonly
referred to as the “air-void system” in hardened concrete. The major parameters of the air-void system are the total air
content, average spacing factor between adjacent air voids, and specific surface [2].
The common method of measuring air content in fresh concrete is via the pressure method using an air meter (ASTM
C231, CSA A23.2-4C). The difficulty of obtaining the bubble size distribution in fresh concrete generally makes it more

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: stalukdar1@bcit.ca (S. Talukdar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2019.e00288
2214-5095/© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
2 S. Talukdar, R. Heere / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00288

practical to measure the total air content and use it as a quality control measure on its own. However, overall freeze-thaw
performance of a mix is affected by the size, spacing and distribution of air voids within a mix, rather than just by overall air
content. All of the above characteristics of air-void systems are typically evaluated only when called for by a specification
(which is rare) or as a result of substandard field performance. These analyses of air-void size, spacing and distribution are
almost always performed on hardened concrete specimens. Furthermore, in the event that air content in fresh concrete is
compared to air content in hardened concrete, differences commonly exist [2].
Spacing factor and specific surface are typically determined by analyzing hardened concrete specimens using the linear
traverse method (ASTM C457). The nominal distance between adjacent voids is termed the spacing factor [3]. The spacing
factor is commonly assumed to be roughly the distance water would have to travel before entering an air void, to relieve the
pressure. If this distance is less than the critical maximum distance at which excessive stresses develop, the concrete would
be adequately protected. Therefore, smaller spacing is better. According to CSA A23.1-14 Clause 4.3.3.4, hardened concrete is
considered to have a satisfactory air-void system when the average spacing factor from all tests does not exceed 230 mm,
with no single result greater than 260 mm, and the air content is 3.0%. For concrete with a water-to-cementing materials
ratio of 0.36 or less, the average spacing factor shall not exceed 250 mm, with no single value greater than 300 mm. Specific
Surface is a measure of voids surface area per unit volume of voids. Specific surface is therefore a good indicator of average
void size. As average void size increases, specific surface decreases [4].
It is generally accepted that the wet-mix shotcreting process as well as pumping concrete over longer distances correlates
to a substantial loss of initial air contents [5], and a detrimental modification of the air voids system [4,6]. The three
mechanisms that are believed to account for the diminished air content individually or, in combination with one another are
suction, dissolution, and mechanical rupture when the mix impacts a surface.
The suction mechanism occurs when the concrete is subjected to lower than atmospheric pressures. In a piston-actuated
pump, a pump cylinder fills up with concrete not only due to gravity alone but also by suction from the retracting piston. This
suction causes the air to expand to larger bubbles and (later) escape from the concrete [7].
The dissolution mechanism is explained by Dyer [8]. His hypothesis is that while the concrete is pressurized, the smaller
air bubbles dissolve in the surrounding water. When the concrete depressurizes upon exiting the hose, air is expelled from
the water and can form bubbles again. However, such secondary air bubbles tend to be larger, and have less advantageous
spacing factors.
Yingling et al. [9] report that the air loss mechanism in pumped concrete may largely be due to the impact of rapidly
moving concrete contacting stationary objects (such as shotcrete impacting the substrate at high velocity) thereby breaking
the internal air voids through mechanical action. Pleau et al [6] concluded that impact destroys mainly larger air voids,
whereas the number of smaller air voids (<300 mm in diameter) is less affected.
Consequently, the mix designer should take into account the effects which pumping and placement will have on the air
voids system of the mix after it has been discharged from the nozzle. The mix must be fluid enough to be easily pumped
through a hose, but stiff enough so that it does not sag or slough after placement. A good compromise was proposed by Jolin
and Beaupré [10] who developed the ‘Temporary High Initial Air Content’ concept. This concept is a clever and simple system
by which the workability of the fresh concrete is increased to meet the pumpability requirement by introducing a large
amount of entrained air bubbles into the mix, recognizing that a significant amount of air will be lost between discharge and
placement. Therefore, it is common to batch the mix with a high initial (as-batched) air content (typically between 8 and
20%) recognizing that this high air content will reduce to 3 to 6% in the in-place shotcrete. Hence, the high initial air content
will not detrimentally affect the compressive strength. More details on this concept can be found in Jolin and Beaupre [10]
and Zhang [11].
The Temporary High Initial Air Concept works well to meet requirements for pumpability and shootability of the mix. In
addition, the measured ‘as-shot’ air content typically meets specifications when measured using a regular air meter. In fact, it
is common practice for practitioners to test the air content of a shotcrete mix at the truck once, and then after discharge from
the nozzle to obtain a value for the as-shot air content. The difference is then used to correlate and establish an approximate
value for air loss in conveying and placement process, such that subsequent batches need only be tested at the truck [11].
This remainder of this paper presents some observations concerning air content and air void systems of fresh and
hardened fibre reinforced shotcrete mixes used for a ground support project in Western Canada. In particular, the effects of
pumping air-entrained wet mix shotcrete on its air content and air void system are discussed, along with the possible
ramifications of using different pump rates.

2. Equipment, materials, and procedure

The fibre reinforced wet-mix shotcrete was similar to materials used for some of the ground support work in Western
Canada. Two different placement machines were used, here referred to as Sprayer 1 and Sprayer 2. Technical specifications
for each sprayer are presented in Table 1.
The pump lines’ internal diameters were 75 mm on both machines. The shotcrete mix design is provided in Table 2:
To facilitate pumping and spraying with accelerator addition at the nozzle, the typical as-batched slump was
approximately 200 mm. In order to evaluate how the air contents varied during placement, they were measured in four
steps:
 S. Talukdar, R. Heere / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00288 3

Table 1
Equipment Details.

Equipment Max. Vertical Max Lateral Max Pump Max Pump Pressure
Reach (m) Reach (m) Output (m3/h) on Concrete (MPa)
Sprayer 1 17 15 30 7.5
Sprayer 2 10 8 20 6.5

Table 2
Shotcrete Mix Design (/m3).

Material Mass (kg)

Cement 425
Coarse Aggregate 490
Fine Aggregate 1115
Silica Fume 23
Water 166
Macrosynthetic Fibre 5

Air Entraining Admixture (Surfactant) 0.3

Retarding Admixture (Hydration Controlling) 0.8
High Range Water Reducing Admixture (Polycarboxylate) 2.7

A Air content was first measured using an air meter immediately upon discharge from the truck.
B Material directly after discharge from the truck was used to cast cylinders for further air voids analysis and compressive
strength testing in the laboratory.
C A shotcrete sample was sprayed directly into the pot of the air meter and tested (as-shot).
D A sample of the material which had just been sprayed onto the substrate was scraped off and consolidated into cylinder
moulds for further air voids analysis (as per ASTM C457) and compressive strength testing (as per CSA A23.2-14C / ASTM
C39) in the laboratory.

This sampling procedure was conducted at three different discharge rates of 9, 11 and 17 m3/h. Note that no accelerator
was added to the mix for any of the tests.
In addition, one batch of fresh shotcrete, which was placed at 17 m3/h, was repeatedly tested as above at 3 ages. The last 2
tests were performed on the material after it was retempered with high range water reducing admixture to study the effect
of retempering on slump, air content and the air void structure.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Pump rates

The measured air contents, spacing factors, specific surfaces and compressive strengths at different pump rates are
presented in Table 3:
We clearly see a decrease in air content from the as-batched to as-shot state. The decrease was measured both in the air
meter readings on site, and in the air void analysis conducted in the laboratory. Furthermore, as discussed in Portland
Cement Association [2], when the air content of fresh concrete is compared to the air content in hardened concrete, it is
common to find a discrepancy. Therefore, these results are quite plausible.
In all cases, the Air Void Analysis indicated that the Spacing Factor for the hardened as–shot samples exceeded the
acceptable maximum limit of 230 mm. The larger spacing factors indicate that although the air content meets prescribed
proportions, the distance between adjacent bubbles is greater than specified and adequate protection against freeze-thaw
damage may not be provided [12]. This finding is also supported by a recent study by [13]. They investigated the effects of
spraying on the air content of wet mix shotcrete, and also concluded that the pumping and shooting processes substantially
affected the air-void characteristics such as air content, spacing factor and specific surface area of air entrained into wet mix
shotcrete. Furthermore they indicated that it would be difficult for the wet-mix shotcrete mixures they studied to meet the
freeze-thaw criteria for conventional cast-in-place concrete.
Reviewing overall changes in air content indicates that as the pump rate increases, loss of air content seems to reduce. In
other words, higher pump rates appear to result in less reduction of air content than lower pump rates. This trend was
noticed both for fresh concrete and for hardened specimens (Fig. 1).
Overall, analysis of the results lends credence to a combination of suction, dissolution and impact affecting the air content
and voids structure of the shotcrete. In particular, the dissolution mechanism would explain the change in the air void
structure and the spacing factor. Boulet et al [14] reported that the dissolution mechanism affects the smaller entrained air
4 S. Talukdar, R. Heere / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00288

Table 3
Measured Air Contents and Spacing Factors.

Sprayer 1
Pump Air Meter Reading Air Meter Hardened Air Void Hardened Air Void Spacing Specific Compressive
Rate as batched (%) Reading As Shot Analysis as batched (%) Analysis As Shot (%) Factor Surface Strength (MPa)
(%) (mm) (mm 1)
Before 19.0 – 20.3 – 0.15 8 37.9
pumping
11 m3/h – 4.4 – 6.9 0.25 16 56.9
9 m3/h – 4.0 – 6.4 0.32 14 60.7

Sprayer 2
Pump Air Meter Reading Air Meter Hardened Air Void Hardened Air Void Spacing Specific Compressive
Rate as batched (%) Reading As Shot Analysis as batched (%) Analysis As Shot (%) Factor Surface Strength (MPa)
(%) (mm) (mm 1)
Before 18.0 – 19.4 – 0.08 19 48.8
pumping
3
17 m /h – 4.1 – 8.1 0.26 14 57.1

Fig. 1. Change in Air Content vs Pump Rate.

bubbles rather than the larger ones. Their paper stated that when concrete was exposed to a 5.5 MPa pressure, the number of
voids decreased by two orders of magnitude, and all of the voids less than 100 mm disappeared. In their study, Pleau et al [6]
also observed that the loss of air due to dissolution correlates with a very significant decrease of the number of small air voids
(<100 mm in diameter). Vosahik et al [5] have also hypothesized that the dissolution mechanism may be more pronounced
in ‘higher flow’ mixes as they are being pumped. Due to the lower viscosity of such mixes, they will shear more readily,
causing greater disturbance to air voids. In this research project, the initial slump of the trial batches was around 200 mm,
meaning they were ‘higher flow’ mixes.
Pleau et al [6] state that the detrimental influence of pumping due to the dissolution of small air voids is also a function of
the length of time during which this pressure is applied. At higher pump rates, for a constant line geometry, shotcrete would
be in the line for a shorter amount of time. Therefore, it is suggested that at higher pumping rates, for probably only slightly
increased pressure, the dissolution of air content (and loss of small air voids) in the shotcrete may be reduced, as it is
subjected to such pressure for a shorter time. Thereafter, if the fraction of small air voids in the mix exiting the nozzle
increases, the amount of total air loss would decrease, as the impact mechanism has less effect on small air voids then on
larger ones. This theory logically describes the trend noticed in Fig. 1.
After shotcrete exits the nozzle, larger air bubbles may be able to consolidate and reform. However, at that time the air
void structure is already damaged due to the dissolution of the smaller air bubbles, increasing the spacing factor. Elkey et al
[4] also concluded that the duration and magnitude of the static pressure on fresh concrete contributed to the shift in the air
void distribution and worsening of the associated parameters. Therefore, regardless of the pump rate the air void structure
and resistance to freeze thaw damage may still be adversely affected.

3.2. Retempering

For the samples of shotcrete that were pumped at 17 m3/h, the effects of changing the slump by retempering the mix with
high range water reducing admixture are presented in Table 4 and Fig. 2:
 S. Talukdar, R. Heere / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00288 5

Table 4
Air Content and Spacing Factors of Retempered Mix.

Slump as Air Meter Reading, Air Meter Hardened Air Void Spacing Factor as Specific Surface as Compressive Strength as
batched (mm) as batched (%) Reading as shot Analysis as batched (%) batched (mm) batched (mm 1) batched (MPa)
(%)
150 17.0 5.4 18.2 0.1 15 45.3
190 18.0 4.1 19.4 0.08 19 48.8
215 19.0 5.4 18.7 0.09 15 45.9

Fig. 2. Air Content vs Slump.

Overall, in this study, it appears that retempering the mix does not significantly affect the overall plastic air contents of
the mix when measured as discharged from the mixer truck, and as-shot. Retempering also does not appear to significantly
affect the air contents in hardened concrete samples. As expected, the overall air content of the concrete decreased when it
was pumped and shot. Although samples were not cast for the as-shot material, it was confirmed that the spacing factor for
the as-batched samples met maximum allowable limits.
Zhang [11], however sounds a note of caution. Certain brands of high range water reducing admixtures can increase the
air content. Therefore, while there appeared to be a minimal effect on the overall air content of the mix using a particular
high-range water reducing admixture, the findings may not be the same for other types of such admixtures. Other studies
have also found a relation between air content and slump. Du and Folliard [15] noted an increase in slump from 75 to 150 mm
(with all other mixture parameters remaining the same) will increase the air content; however, above a slump of 150 mm,
the large air bubbles become less stable due to buoyancy forces and the air content drops.

4. Conclusions

1 Although the ‘temporary high initial air’ concept works well to pump and place a mix which meets specifications for air
content, the process of pumping the material appears to adversely affect the air void structure, and increase the spacing
factor to a potentially unacceptably high level which may affect its durability and resistance against freeze thaw damage.
2 It is postulated that while pumping the material will adversely affect the air void structure regardless of the pump rate, the
overall change in the structure may be decreased by reducing the retention time of fresh concrete in a pressurized system.
3 The common practice of testing the air content of a shotcrete mix at the mixer truck once (as batched), and again at the
nozzle (as-shot) to establish an approximate ratio for air loss in the mix due to pumping and shooting appears to be
acceptable. However, it should only be done if the pump rate of the placing machine, line length, line geometry and all
other relevant variables remain relatively constant. Altering any of these variables may affect the overall air content and
the air void structure of the as-shot material.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
6 S. Talukdar, R. Heere / Case Studies in Construction Materials 11 (2019) e00288

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