Chameli Devi Group of Institutions Department of Computer Science and Engineering CS-801)

INTERNET OF THINGS 1
Chameli Devi Group of Institutions

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Subject: Internet of Things (CS-801)
UNIT-III (CO3)
Basics of IoT Networking, IoT Components, Functional components of IoT, IoT service-oriented architecture,
IoT challenges, 6LowPAN, IEEE 802.15.4, ZigBee and its types, RFID Features, RFID working principle and
applications, NFC (Near Field communication), Bluetooth, Wireless Sensor Networks and its Applications
1. Basics of IoT Networking
An IoT network refers to a collection of devices such as sensors, gadgets, appliances, and software that
communicate with each other and exchange information and data without the need for human intervention.
If you’ve ever turned your lights on from your phone or told Alexa to play your favorite song, you’ve
experienced the power of an IoT network. But IoT networks do a lot more, especially for big businesses.
Through the power of cloud and edge computing businesses can now collect new insights from devices through
IoT networks. This bridges the gap between the digital and physical world and allows organizations to monitor
environmental, geolocation, and atmospheric conditions in real time. When paired with automation, businesses
can instantly react to changes in an environment, allowing for less downtime, better insights, and improved
efficiency.
How Does an IoT Network Work?
With the basics covered, let’s explore how exactly IoT networks work, what sensors do, and how administrators
manage them.
IoT Sensors
IoT networks rely on small inexpensive sensors to collect information about the environment. For example,
farmers use IoT sensors to monitor moisture levels while industrial plants use similar sensors to monitor pipe
pressure. IoT sensors are highly configurable and can monitor hundreds of different changes.
A few examples of what IoT sensors can monitor include the following:
 Geolocation
 Fluid levels
 Temperature, humidity, and other atmospheric conditions
 Electrical currents
 Data packets
 The presence of particular gases or chemicals
CHAMELI DEVI GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, INDORE. Prepared by: Dayanand Yadav (Asst. Professor, CSE)
IoT Connectivity
IoT sensors continuously send data back to the cloud or an edge computing device for processing. IoT sensors
typically use little power and send small amounts of data rather than large streams of information. Businesses
that require the lowest latency and fastest response time often opt for edge computing as it shortens the distance
between the sensor and the server.
Depending on the technology and use case, businesses can choose from various IoT networks to meet their
goals. The two most common ways sensors send their data are through Wi-Fi or cellular connection. We’ll
touch more on the different types of networks and their advantages later on.
IoT Processing
Once the data is collected, software processes and records that data in the cloud or on an edge server. Many
platforms use artificial intelligence and machine learning to take action when specific data is sent from a sensor.
For example, if moisture levels reach a certain threshold, artificial intelligence can send a command to turn on
overhead fans or deactivate a water source. The beauty of this process is that it’s done without the need of
human intervention.
Enterprises pair IoT networks with automation to orchestrate device management in a way that’s affordable,
predictable, and highly scalable. IoT management systems can process data from various systems allowing
enterprises to monitor everything from machine maintenance to the weather outside.
IoT Interface
Administrators simply set rules for the software to follow and teach the software what actions to trigger when
certain conditions are met. In some cases where automation isn’t appropriate, the software can automatically
alert a human when a specific event occurs.
For instance, in an industrial IoT setting sensors can automatically create a maintenance request to change a
machine’s oil when it reaches a certain level. If that request isn’t fulfilled and the device is in danger of
overheating, the sensors can send a more urgent alert and shut down the machine to prevent significant damage
if needed.
The back-end interface allows administrators to set conditional rules and service levels to shape how monitoring
and automation occur. These interfaces have come a long way since the early days and are much easier to use
and navigate.
Types of IoT Networks
There are a few different ways administrators can design their IoT networks. One of the biggest differences is
what protocol sensors use to share information. Keep in mind a single IoT network can use a combination of
these options for different applications. Below we’ll explore some of the most common types of IoT network
designs and look at the advantages of each.
Enterprise Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a popular choice for IoT networks since many businesses already have Wi-Fi coverage across their
organization. Wi-Fi is a solid option for stationary IoT sensors that need to share data across a medium range.
Administrators using Wi-Fi should segment IoT sensors on a different subnet and implement quality of service
to help provide better reliability to their sensors. However, Wi-Fi IoT networks aren’t without their drawbacks.
Due to their power limitations, Wi-Fi networks don’t offer as much coverage as cellular networks. Wi-Fi
networks also don’t process device handover as smoothly as cellular networks, meaning mobile IoT sensors
might experience connectivity issues on Wi-Fi networks. Wi-Fi IoT networks are best for the following uses:
 Small- to medium-sized networks

 Indoor areas with few obstructions
 Serving stationary IoT sensors
 Private Cellular
Cellular networks offer long-range reliable connectivity for both stationary and mobile IoT sensors.
Autonomous vehicles can rely on public cellular networks for latency connectivity and very large area coverage
across cities.
Since the advent of private mobile networks, more enterprises are choosing to build their IoT networks using
private cellular networks. Private 4G LTE / 5G connectivity allows businesses to untether themselves from
commercial carriers and control every aspect of their cellular network, apply the appropriate network security
policies, much like how enterprises control their own Wi-Fi.
This change gives businesses unprecedented control over their cellular coverage, budget, and resources.
Businesses can opt for a 5G connection for low latency IoT networks. Industrial plants, safety systems, and
emergency sensors can rely on 5G wireless performance standards for the most sensitive connections.
Since private cellular networks operate on a different frequency than Wi-Fi, both networks can coexist in the
same space without interference. This allows enterprises to segment their traffic and reserve their private 5G
implementations for critical IoT infrastructure.
The improved reliability, coverage, and capacity private cellular networks provide make this design a popular
choice among large enterprises and businesses that must meet strict service-level objectives for IoT connectivity
and performance. Private cellular IoT networks are best for the following uses:
 Strict service level requirements for QoS, throughput, packet error rate and latency
 Very large area coverage indoors and outdoors
 Clean interference free operation next to existing Wi-Fi networks
Bluetooth
Bluetooth has been around since 1994, but that doesn’t make it any less viable for IoT networks. Bluetooth
offers an affordable way to connect stationary IoT sensors to edge devices over short distances.
In most use cases, IoT networks using Bluetooth can send signals up to 25 feet away using very little power and
bandwidth. While Bluetooth isn’t the most popular choice, it does have its place in IoT networks.
Bluetooth IoT networks are best for the following uses:
 Short distances
 Low-power consumption requirements
 Low-bandwidth applications
Low-Power Wide Area Networks
An LPWAN uses specialized cellular connections that provide ample coverage while serving low-power
devices. These networks offer coverage similar to that of cellular networks but are limited in terms of
bandwidth and data rate.
Oil fields, agricultural operations, and rural job sites can leverage LPWAN for their low-power IoT sensors.
While these networks tend to be less expensive, businesses that want to expand their IoT network to include
high bandwidth sensors often switch from LPWAN to a full cellular solution.
LPWAN IoT networks are best for the following uses:
 Low-power sensors
 Low data rates and bandwidth
 Rural areas with limited infrastructure
The Future of IoT Networks: 5G LAN
In recent years 5G has changed the way people and businesses build IoT networks. In particular, private 5G has
changed how IoT networks scale and how they are controlled. Much like how 4G ushered in the smartphone
era, 5G is paving the way for real-time monitoring and wide-scale IoT orchestration.
By blending the reliability and control of a traditional LAN with the performance and coverage of 5G, Celona
has developed a new type of IoT network design called 5G LAN.
5G LAN architecture provides unmatched visibility and control for enterprise IoT networks that integrate
seamlessly with existing applications and infrastructure. Administrators can control and orchestrate their IoT
sensors from a single management console and even synchronize existing service level objectives into their new
5G LAN.
5G LANs use MicroSlicing to give administrators granular application-level control over their cellular
resources. Unlike traditional QoS, MicroSlicing adheres to detailed latency and throughput requirements.
Machine learning algorithms enforce these rules by continuously monitoring network conditions and changing
settings to reflect your service level requirements.
This same technology allows for self-healing networks, automated provisioning, and application-aware
onboarding. Simply put, 5G LAN is the first network designed specifically for enterprise applications and
demands.
The Celona Solution
Celona partners with enterprise organizations to provide private cellular IoT networks as a seamless turnkey
solution. Sensors can be quickly deployed throughout the facility, while proactive monitoring ensures network
service levels, such as throughput and latency requirements, are consistently being met.
Celona uses cloud networking principles to make implementing private 4G and 5G networks an out-of-box
experience. Onboarding can be done alongside existing wireless and IT infrastructure, without interrupting
business operations.
If you’re building your IoT network for the future, check out our network planner to estimate the size of your
private cellular network, or test-drive the Celona 5G LAN solution for yourself with a free trial.
2. Major Components of IOT:
Things or Devices
The key physical items being tracked are Things or Devices. Smart sensors are connected to things/devices
which further continues to collect data from the device and send it to the next layer, which is the portal or also
called as the gateway Small smart sensors for a variety of applications are now possible because of new
advancements in microelectronics.
Some commonly used sensors are:
 Temperature sensors and thermostats

 Pressure sensors
 Humidity / Moisture level
 Light intensity detectors
 Moisture sensors
 Proximity detection
 RFID tags
User Interface
User interface also termed as UI is nothing but a user-facing program that allows the user to monitor and
manipulate data.
The user interface (UI) is the visible, tangible portion of the IoT device that people can interact with.
Developers must provide a well-designed user interface that requires the least amount of effort from users and
promotes additional interactions.
Cloud
Cloud storage is used to store the data which has been collected from different devices or things. Cloud
computing is simply a set of connected servers that operate continuously(24*7) over the Internet.
IoT devices, applications, and users generate massive amounts of data, which must be managed efficiently. Data
collection, processing, management, and archiving are among the responsibilities of IoT clouds. The data can be
accessed remotely by industries and services, allowing them to take critical decisions at any time.
In the simplest terms, an IoT cloud is a network of servers optimized to handle data at high speeds for a large
number of different devices, manage traffic, and analyze data with great accuracy. An IoT cloud would not be
complete without a distributed management database system.
Analytics
After receiving the data in the cloud, that data is processed. Data is analyzed here with the help of various
algorithms like machine learning and all.
Analytics is the conversion of analog information via connected sensors and devices into actionable insights
that can be processed, interpreted, and analyzed in depth. Analysis of raw data or information for further
processing is a prerequisite for the monitoring and enhancement of the Internet of things (IoT).
Among the most significant benefits of a well-designed IoT system is real-time smart analysis, which enables
designers to spot anomalies in gathering information and respond quickly to avoid an undesirable situation. If
information is collected correctly and at the right moment, network operators can plan for the next steps.
Network Interconnection
Over the past few years, the IoT has seen massive growth in devices controlled by the internet and connected to
it. Although IoT devices have a wide variety of uses, there are some common things among them also along
with the differences between them.
IoT is enabled by a variety of technologies. The network used to communicate with other devices in an IoT
deployment is critical to the field, a position that numerous wireless or wired technologies can fill.
System Security
Security is a crucial component of IoT implementation, but this security point of view is too often overlooked
during the design process. Day after day weaknesses within IoT are being attacked with evil intent – however,
the majority of them that can be easily and inexpensively addressed.
A secure network begins with the elimination of weaknesses within IoT devices as well as the provision of tools
to withstand, recognize, and recoup from harmful attacks.
Central Control Hardware
The two or more data flow among multiple channels and interfaces is managed by a Control Panel. The
additional duty of a control panel is to convert various wireless interfaces and ensure that linked sensors and
devices are accessible.
3. Functional components of IoT
Functional model of the IoT reference architecture.
Functional model of the IoT reference architecture.
4. Service-Oriented Architecture
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a stage in the evolution of application development and/or integration.
It defines a way to make software components reusable using the interfaces.
Formally, SOA is an architectural approach in which applications make use of services available in the network.
In this architecture, services are provided to form applications, through a network call over the internet. It uses
common communication standards to speed up and streamline the service integrations in applications. Each
service in SOA is a complete business function in itself. The services are published in such a way that it makes
it easy for the developers to assemble their apps using those services. Note that SOA is different from
microservice architecture.
SOA allows users to combine a large number of facilities from existing services to form applications.
SOA encompasses a set of design principles that structure system development and provide means for
integrating components into a coherent and decentralized system.
SOA-based computing packages functionalities into a set of interoperable services, which can be integrated into
different software systems belonging to separate business domains.
The different characteristics of SOA are as follows:
 Provides interoperability between the services.

 Provides methods for service encapsulation, service discovery, service composition, service reusability
and service integration.
 Facilitates QoS (Quality of Services) through service contract based on Service Level Agreement (SLA).
 Provides loosely couples services.
 Provides location transparency with better scalability and availability.
 Ease of maintenance with reduced cost of application development and deployment.
There are two major roles within Service-oriented Architecture:
Service provider: The service provider is the maintainer of the service and the organization that makes
available one or more services for others to use. To advertise services, the provider can publish them in a
registry, together with a service contract that specifies the nature of the service, how to use it, the requirements
for the service, and the fees charged.
Service consumer: The service consumer can locate the service metadata in the registry and develop the
required client components to bind and use the service.
Services might aggregate information and data retrieved from other services or create workflows of services to
satisfy the request of a given service consumer. This practice is known as service orchestration Another
important interaction pattern is service choreography, which is the coordinated interaction of services without a
single point of control.
Components of SOA:
Guiding Principles of SOA:
 Standardized service contract: Specified through one or more service description documents.
 Loose coupling: Services are designed as self-contained components, maintain relationships that
minimize dependencies on other services.
 Abstraction: A service is completely defined by service contracts and description documents. They hide
their logic, which is encapsulated within their implementation.
 Reusability: Designed as components, services can be reused more effectively, thus reducing
development time and the associated costs.
 Autonomy: Services have control over the logic they encapsulate and, from a service consumer point of
view, there is no need to know about their implementation.
 Discoverability: Services are defined by description documents that constitute supplemental metadata
through which they can be effectively discovered. Service discovery provides an effective means for
utilizing third-party resources.
 Composability: Using services as building blocks, sophisticated and complex operations can be
implemented. Service orchestration and choreography provide a solid support for composing services
and achieving business goals.
Advantages of SOA:
 Service reusability: In SOA, applications are made from existing services. Thus, services can be reused
to make many applications.
 Easy maintenance: As services are independent of each other they can be updated and modified easily
without affecting other services.
 Platform independent: SOA allows making a complex application by combining services picked from
different sources, independent of the platform.
 Availability: SOA facilities are easily available to anyone on request.
 Reliability: SOA applications are more reliable because it is easy to debug small services rather than
huge codes
 Scalability: Services can run on different servers within an environment, this increases scalability
Disadvantages of SOA:
 High overhead: A validation of input parameters of services is done whenever services interact this
decreases performance as it increases load and response time.
 High investment: A huge initial investment is required for SOA.
 Complex service management: When services interact they exchange messages to tasks. the number of
messages may go in millions. It becomes a cumbersome task to handle a large number of messages.
 Practical applications of SOA: SOA is used in many ways around us whether it is mentioned or not.
 SOA infrastructure is used by many armies and air forces to deploy situational awareness systems.
 SOA is used to improve healthcare delivery.
Nowadays many apps are games and they use inbuilt functions to run. For example, an app might need GPS so
it uses the inbuilt GPS functions of the device. This is SOA in mobile solutions.
SOA helps maintain museums a virtualized storage pool for their information and content.
5. IoT challenges
Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)
Introduction :
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the interconnectivity of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other items
embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and connectivity which enables these objects to connect and exchange data.
The IoT concept involves extending Internet connectivity beyond traditional devices like desktop and laptop computers,
smartphones and tablets to a diverse range of devices and everyday things. The ultimate goal of IoT is to offer advanced
connectivity of devices, systems, and services that goes beyond machine-to-machine communications and covers a variety
of protocols, domains, and applications.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has fast grown to be a large part of how human beings live, communicate and do business.
All across the world, web-enabled devices are turning our global rights into a greater switched-on area to live in.
There are various types of challenges in front of IoT.
Security challenges in IoT :
 Lack of encryption –
Although encryption is a great way to prevent hackers from accessing data, it is also one of the leading IoT
security challenges.
These drives like the storage and processing capabilities that would be found on a traditional computer.
The result is an increase in attacks where hackers can easily manipulate the algorithms that were designed for
protection.
 Insufficient testing and updating –
With the increase in the number of IoT(internet of things) devices, IoT manufacturers are more eager to produce
and deliver their device as fast as they can without giving security too much of although.
Most of these devices and IoT products do not get enough testing and updates and are prone to hackers and other
security issues.
 Brute forcing and the risk of default passwords –
Weak credentials and login details leave nearly all IoT devices vulnerable to password hacking and brute force.
Any company that uses factory default credentials on their devices is placing both their business and its assets and
the customer and their valuable information at risk of being susceptible to a brute force attack.
 IoT Malware and ransomware –
Increases with increase in devices.
Ransomware uses encryption to effectively lock out users from various devices and platforms and still use a
user’s valuable data and info.
Example –
A hacker can hijack a computer camera and take pictures.
By using malware access points, the hackers can demand ransom to unlock the device and return the data.
IoT botnet aiming at cryptocurrency –
IoT botnet workers can manipulate data privacy, which could be massive risks for an open Crypto market. The exact value
and creation of cryptocurrencies code face danger from mal-intentioned hackers.
The blockchain companies are trying to boost security. Blockchain technology itself is not particularly vulnerable, but the
app development process is.
Inadequate device security : Inadequate device security refers to the lack of proper measures to protect electronic devices
such as computers, smartphones, and IoT devices from cyber attacks, hacking, data theft, and unauthorized access. This
can happen due to outdated software, weak passwords, unpatched vulnerabilities, lack of encryption, and other security
risks. It is important to regularly update the software and implement strong security measures to ensure the security and
privacy of sensitive information stored on these devices. Many IoT devices have weak security features and can be easily
hacked.
Lack of standardization: Lack of standardization refers to the absence of agreed-upon specifications or protocols in a
particular field or industry. This can result in different systems, products, or processes being incompatible with each other,
leading to confusion, inefficiency, and decreased interoperability. For example, in the context of technology, a lack of
standardization can cause difficulties in communication and data exchange between different devices and systems.
Establishing standards and protocols can help overcome this and ensure uniformity and compatibility. There is a lack of
standardization in IoT devices, making it difficult to secure them consistently.
Vulnerability to network attacks: Vulnerability to network attacks refers to the susceptibility of a network, system or
device to being compromised or exploited by cyber criminals. This can happen due to weaknesses in the network
infrastructure, unpatched software, poor password management, or a lack of appropriate security measures. Network
attacks can result in data theft, loss of privacy, disruption of services, and financial loss. To reduce vulnerability to
network attacks, it’s important to implement strong security measures such as firewalls, encryption, and regular software
updates, as well as educate users on safe internet practices. IoT devices rely on networks, making them vulnerable to
attacks like denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
Unsecured data transmission: Unsecured data transmission refers to the transfer of data over a network or the internet
without adequate protection. This can leave the data vulnerable to interception, tampering, or theft by malicious actors.
Unsecured data transmission can occur when data is transmitted over an unencrypted network connection or when
insecure protocols are used. To protect sensitive data during transmission, it is important to use secure protocols such as
SSL/TLS or VPN, and to encrypt the data before sending it. This can help to ensure the confidentiality and integrity of the
data, even if it is intercepted during transmission. IoT devices often transmit sensitive data, which may be vulnerable to
eavesdropping or tampering if not properly secured.
Privacy concerns: Privacy concerns refer to issues related to the collection, storage, use, and sharing of personal
information. This can include concerns about who has access to personal information, how it is being used, and whether it
is being protected from unauthorized access or misuse. In the digital age, privacy concerns have become increasingly
important as personal information is being collected and stored on an unprecedented scale. To address privacy concerns,
individuals and organizations need to implement appropriate security measures to protect personal information, be
transparent about how it is being used, and respect individuals’ rights to control their own information. Additionally,
privacy laws and regulations have been established to provide guidelines and protections for individuals’ personal
information. The vast amount of data generated by IoT devices raises privacy concerns, as personal information could be
collected and used without consent.
Software vulnerabilities: Software vulnerabilities are weaknesses or flaws in software code that can be exploited by
attackers to gain unauthorized access, steal sensitive information, or carry out malicious activities. Software
vulnerabilities can arise from errors or mistakes made during the development process, or from the use of outdated or
unsupported software. Attackers can exploit these vulnerabilities to gain control over a system, install malware, or steal
sensitive information. To reduce the risk of software vulnerabilities, it is important for software developers to follow
secure coding practices and for users to keep their software up-to-date and properly configured. Additionally,
organizations and individuals should implement robust security measures, such as firewalls, antivirus software, and
intrusion detection systems, to protect against potential threats. IoT devices often have software vulnerabilities, which can
be exploited by attackers to gain access to devices and networks.
Insider threats: Insider threats refer to security risks that come from within an organization, rather than from external
sources such as hackers or cyber criminals. These threats can take many forms, such as employees who intentionally or
unintentionally cause harm to the organization, contractors who misuse their access privileges, or insiders who are
coerced into compromising the security of the organization. Insider threats can result in data breaches, theft of intellectual
property, and damage to the reputation of the organization. To mitigate the risk of insider threats, organizations should
implement strict access controls, monitor employee activity, and provide regular training on security and privacy policies.
Additionally, organizations should have a plan in place to detect, respond to, and recover from security incidents
involving insiders. Employees or contractors with access to IoT systems can pose a security risk if they intentionally or
unintentionally cause harm.
To address these challenges, it is important to implement security measures such as encryption, secure authentication, and
software updates to ensure the safe and secure operation of IoT devices and systems.
Design challenge in IoT :
Design challenges in IoT (Internet of Things) refer to the technical difficulties and trade-offs involved in creating
connected devices that are both functional and secure. Some of the key design challenges in IoT include:
Interoperability: Interoperability refers to the ability of different systems, devices, or components to work together
seamlessly and exchange data effectively. In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), interoperability is a critical
challenge, as a large number of diverse devices are being connected to the internet. The lack of standardization in the IoT
can lead to difficulties in communication and data exchange between devices, resulting in an fragmented and inefficient
system. To overcome this challenge, organizations and industry groups are working to establish standards and protocols to
ensure interoperability between IoT devices. This includes the development of common communication protocols, data
formats, and security standards. Interoperability is important for enabling the full potential of the IoT and allowing
connected devices to work together effectively and efficiently. Ensuring that different IoT devices can work together
seamlessly and exchange data effectively.
Security: Security is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT) as it involves the protection of sensitive data and
systems from unauthorized access, theft, or damage. IoT devices are often vulnerable to cyber attacks due to their
increased exposure to the internet and their limited computing resources. Some of the security challenges in IoT include:
Device security: Ensuring that IoT devices are protected from malware and unauthorized access.
Network security: Protecting the communication between IoT devices and the network from cyber attacks.
Data security: Securing the data collected and transmitted by IoT devices from unauthorized access or tampering.
Privacy: Protecting the privacy of individuals whose personal information is collected and transmitted by IoT devices.
To address these security challenges, organizations should implement robust security measures such as encryption,
firewalls, and regular software updates. Additionally, they should conduct regular security audits and assessments to
identify and address potential security risks. By prioritizing security, organizations can help to protect the sensitive data
and systems involved in IoT and reduce the risk of cyber attacks.Protecting IoT devices and the sensitive data they collect
and transmit from cyber threats and unauthorized access.
Scalability: Scalability refers to the ability of a system to handle increasing workloads or numbers of users without a
significant decline in performance. In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), scalability is a major challenge as the
number of connected devices is rapidly growing, leading to an increased volume of data and communication. Scalability
challenges in IoT include:
Data management: Effectively managing and storing the large amounts of data generated by IoT devices.
Network capacity: Ensuring that networks have sufficient capacity to handle the increased volume of data and
communication.
Device management: Efficiently managing the growing number of IoT devices and ensuring that they can be easily
configured and maintained.
To address these scalability challenges, organizations should adopt scalable architectures, such as cloud computing,
that can accommodate the growing number of IoT devices and the data they generate. Additionally, they
should implement efficient data management and storage solutions, such as distributed databases and data lakes,
to handle the increased volume of data. By prioritizing scalability, organizations can ensure that their IoT systems can
handle the growing number of connected devices and continue to deliver high performance and efficiency.
Designing systems that can accommodate large numbers of connected devices and manage the resulting data
flow effectively.
Reliability: Reliability refers to the ability of a system to perform its intended function consistently and without failure
over time. In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), reliability is a critical concern, as the failure of even a single IoT
device can have significant consequences. Some of the reliability challenges in IoT include:
Device failure: Ensuring that IoT devices are designed and built to be reliable and function correctly even in harsh
environments.
Network connectivity: Maintaining stable and reliable connections between IoT devices and the network, even in the face
of hardware or software failures.
Data accuracy: Ensuring that the data collected and transmitted by IoT devices is accurate and reliable.
To address these reliability challenges, organizations should implement robust and reliable hardware and software
designs for IoT devices, and conduct regular testing and maintenance to identify and resolve any issues. They should also
implement redundant systems and failover mechanisms to ensure that the system continues to function in the event of a
failure. By prioritizing reliability, organizations can help ensure that their IoT systems perform consistently and without
failure, delivering the intended benefits and results. Ensuring that IoT systems remain functional and accessible even in
the face of hardware or software failures.
Power consumption: Power consumption refers to the amount of energy that a system or device uses. In the context of the
Internet of Things (IoT), power consumption is a critical challenge, as many IoT devices are designed to be small, low-
power, and operate using batteries. Some of the power consumption challenges in IoT include:
Battery life: Ensuring that IoT devices have sufficient battery life to operate without frequent recharging or replacement.
Energy efficiency: Making sure that IoT devices are designed to use energy efficiently and reduce the overall power
consumption of the system.
Power management: Implementing effective power management techniques, such as sleep modes, to reduce the power
consumption of IoT devices when they are not in use.
To address these power consumption challenges, organizations should adopt low-power technologies and energy-
efficient designs for IoT devices. They shouldbalso implement effective power management techniques, such as sleep
modes, to reduce the power consumption of IoT devices when they are not in use. By prioritizing power consumption,
organizations can help ensure that their IoT systems are energy efficient, reducing costs and environmental impact.
Minimizing the power consumption of IoT devices to extend battery life and reduce costs.
Privacy: Privacy is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT), as IoT devices collect, store, and transmit large
amounts of personal and sensitive information. Some of the privacy challenges in IoT include:
Data collection: Ensuring that only the necessary data is collected and that it is collected in a way that respects
individuals’ privacy rights.
Data storage: Ensuring that the data collected by IoT devices is stored securely and that access to it is strictly controlled.
Data sharing: Controlling who has access to the data collected by IoT devices and ensuring that it is not shared without
proper authorization.
To address these privacy challenges, organizations should implement robust privacy policies and procedures, such
as data protection, data minimization, and data retention. They should also educate users on the privacy
implications of using IoT devices and encourage them to take steps to protect their privacy. Additionally,
organizations should adopt privacy-enhancing technologies, such as encryption and anonymization, to protect the privacy
of individuals whose information is collected by IoT devices. By prioritizing privacy, organizations can help to
ensure that individuals’ rights and freedoms are respected, and that sensitive information is protected from
unauthorized access or misuse. Protecting the privacy of individuals whose personal information is collected and
transmitted by IoT devices.
Battery life is a limitation –
Issues in packaging and integration of small-sized chip with low weight and less power consumption. If you’ve been
following the mobile space, you’ve likely see how every yr it looks like there’s no restriction in terms of display screen
size. Take the upward thrust of ‘phablets’, for instance, which can be telephones nearly as huge as tablets. Although
helpful, the bigger monitors aren’t always only for convenience, rather, instead, display screen sizes are growing to
accommodate larger batteries. Computers have getting slimmer, but battery energy stays the same.
Increased cost and time to market –
Embedded systems are lightly constrained by cost.
The need originates to drive better approaches when designing the IoT devices in order to handle the cost modelling or
cost optimally with digital electronic components.
Designers also need to solve the design time problem and bring the embedded device at the right time to the market.
Security of the system –
Systems have to be designed and implemented to be robust and reliable and have to be secure with cryptographic
algorithms and security procedures.
It involves different approaches to secure all the components of embedded systems from prototype to deployment.
Designers and engineers must carefully balance these design challenges to create IoT systems that are functional, secure,
and scalable.
Deployment challenges in IoT :
The deployment of Internet of Things (IoT) systems can present several challenges, including:
Connectivity –
It is the foremost concern while connecting devices, applications and cloud platforms.
Connected devices that provide useful front and information are extremely valuable. But poor connectivity becomes a
challenge where IoT sensors are required to monitor process data and supply information.
Cross platform capability –
IoT applications must be developed, keeping in mind the technological changes of the future.
Its development requires a balance of hardware and software functions.
It is a challenge for IoT application developers to ensure that the device and IoT platform drivers the best performance
despite heavy device rates and fixings.
Data collection and processing –
In IoT development, data plays an important role. What is more critical here is the processing or usefulness of stored data.
Along with security and privacy, development teams need to ensure that they plan well for the way data is collected,
stored or processed within an environment.
Lack of skill set –
All of the development challenges above can only be handled if there is a proper skilled resource working on the IoT
application development.
The right talent will always get you past the major challenges and will be an important IoT application development asset.
Integration: Ensuring that IoT devices and systems integrate seamlessly with existing technology and infrastructure.
Network infrastructure: Building and maintaining the network infrastructure needed to support the large number of
connected IoT devices.
Device management: Efficiently managing and maintaining the large number of IoT devices in a deployment.
Data management: Managing and analyzing the large amounts of data generated by IoT devices, and integrating it with
existing data systems.
Security: Ensuring that the IoT deployment is secure from threats such as cyber attacks, data breaches, and unauthorized
access.
Cost: Balancing the cost of deploying and maintaining an IoT system with the benefits it delivers.
6. 6LowPAN
6LoWPAN is an IPv6 protocol, and It’s extended from is IPv6 over Low Power Personal Area Network. As the name
itself explains the meaning of this protocol is that this protocol works on Wireless Personal Area Network i.e., WPAN.
WPAN is a Personal Area Network (PAN) where the interconnected devices are centered around a person’s workspace
and connected through a wireless medium. You can read more about WPAN at WPAN. 6LoWPAN allows
communication using the IPv6 protocol. IPv6 is Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that allows
communication to take place over the network. It is faster and more reliable and provides a large number of addresses.
6LoWPAN initially came into existence to overcome the conventional methodologies that were adapted to transmit
information. But still, it is not so efficient as it only allows for the smaller devices with very limited processing ability to
establish communication using one of the Internet Protocols, i.e., IPv6. It has very low cost, short-range, low memory
usage, and low bit rate.
It comprises an Edge Router and Sensor Nodes. Even the smallest of the IoT devices can now be part of the network, and
the information can be transmitted to the outside world as well. For example, LED Streetlights.
 It is a technology that makes the individual nodes IP enabled.

 6LoWPAN can interact with 802.15.4 devices and also other types of devices on an IP Network. For example,
Wi-Fi.
 It uses AES 128 link layer security, which AES is a block cipher having key size of 128/192/256 bits and encrypts
data in blocks of 128 bits each. This is defined in IEEE 802.15.4 and provides link authentication and encryption.
Basic Requirements of 6LoWPAN:
 The device should be having sleep mode in order to support the battery saving.
 Minimal memory requirement.
 Routing overhead should be lowered.
Features of 6LoWPAN:
 It is used with IEEE 802.15,.4 in the 2.4 GHz band.

 Outdoor range: ~200 m (maximum)
 Data rate: 200kbps (maximum)
 Maximum number of nodes: ~100
Advantages of 6LoWPAN:
 6LoWPAN is a mesh network that is robust, scalable, and can heal on its own.
 It delivers low-cost and secure communication in IoT devices.
 It uses IPv6 protocol and so it can be directly routed to cloud platforms.
 It offers one-to-many and many-to-one routing.
 In the network, leaf nodes can be in sleep mode for a longer duration of time.
Disadvantages of 6LoWPAN:
 It is comparatively less secure than Zigbee.

 It has lesser immunity to interference than that Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
 Without the mesh topology, it supports a short range.
Applications of 6LoWPAN:
 It is a wireless sensor network.

 It is used in home-automation,
 It is used in smart agricultural techniques, and industrial monitoring.
 It is utilised to make IPv6 packet transmission on networks with constrained power and reliability resources
possible.
Security and Interoperability with 6LoWPAN:
 Security: 6LoWPAN security is ensured by the AES algorithm, which is a link layer security, and the transport
layer security mechanisms are included as well.
 Interoperability: 6LoWPAN is able to operate with other wireless devices as well which makes it interoperable in
a network.
7. IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4 is a low-cost, low-data-rate wireless access technology for devices that are operated or work on batteries.
This describes how low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs) function.
IEEE 802.15.4e:
802.15.4e for industrial applications and 802.15.4g for the smart utility networks (SUN)
The 802.15.4e improves the old standard by introducing mechanisms such as time slotted access, multichannel
communication and channel hopping.
IEEE 802.15.4e introduces the following general functional enhancements:
1. Low Energy (LE): This mechanism is intended for applications that can trade latency for energy efficiency. It allows a
node to operate with a very low duty cycle.
2. Information Elements (IE) It is an extensible mechanism to exchange information at the MAC sublayer.
3. Enhanced Beacons (EB): Enhanced Beacons are an extension of the 802.15.4 beacon frames and provide a greater
flexibility. They allow to create application-specific frames.
4. Multipurpose Frame: This mechanism provides a flexible frame format that can address a number of MAC operations.
It is based on IEs.
5. MAC Performance Metric: It is a mechanism to provide appropriate feedback on the channel quality to the networking
and upper layers, so that appropriate decision can be taken.
6. Fast Association (FastA) The 802.15.4 association procedure introduces a significant delay in order to save energy. For
time-critical application latency has priority over energy efficiency.
IEEE 802.15.4e defines five new MAC behavior modes.
1. Time Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH): It targets application domains such as industrial automation and process
control, providing support for multi-hop and multichannel communications, through a TDMA approach.
2. Deterministic and Synchronous Multi-channel Extension (DSME): It is aimed to support both industrial and
commercial applications.
3. Low Latency Deterministic Network (LLDN): Designed for single-hop and single channel networks
4. Radio Frequency Identification Blink (BLINK): It is intended for application domains such as item/people
identification, location and tracking.
5. Asynchronous multi-channel adaptation (AMCA): It is targeted to application domains where large deployments are
required, such as smart utility networks, infrastructure monitoring networks, and process control networks.
Properties:
1. Standardization and alliances: It specifies low-data-rate PHY and MAC layer requirements for wireless personal area
networks (WPAN).
IEEE 802.15. Protocol Stacks include:
ZigBee: ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with a low rate task group 4. It is a technology of home
networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling and sensing the network. As we know that ZigBee
is the Personal Area network of task group 4 so it is based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
6LoWPAN: The 6LoWPAN system is used for a variety of applications including wireless sensor networks. This form of
wireless sensor network sends data as packets and uses IPv6 – providing the basis for the name – IPv6 over Low power
Wireless Personal Area Networks.
ZigBee IP: Zigbee is a standards-based wireless technology that was developed for low-cost and low-power wireless
machine-to-machine (M2M) and internet of things (IoT) networks.
ISA100.11a: It is a mesh network that provides secure wireless communication to process control.
Wireless HART: It is also a wireless sensor network technology, that makes use of time-synchronized and self-organizing
architecture.
Thread: Thread is an IPv6-based networking protocol for low-power Internet of Things devices in IEEE 802.15. 4-2006
wireless mesh network. Thread is independent.
2. Physical Layer: This standard enables a wide range of PHY options in ISM bands, ranging from 2.4 GHz to sub-GHz
frequencies. IEEE 802.15.4 enables data transmission speeds of 20 kilobits per second, 40 kilobits per second, 100
kilobits per second, and 250 kilobits per second. The fundamental structure assumes a 10-meter range and a data rate of
250 kilobits per second. To further reduce power usage, even lower data rates are possible. IEEE 802.15.4 regulates the
RF transceiver and channel selection, and even some energy and signal management features, at the physical layer. Based
on the frequency range and data performance needed, there are now six PHYs specified. Four of them employ frequency
hopping techniques known as Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). Both PHY data service and management service
share a single packet structure so that they can maintain a common simple interface with MAC.
3. MAC layer: The MAC layer provides links to the PHY channel by determining that devices in the same region will
share the assigned frequencies. The scheduling and routing of data packets are also managed at this layer. The 802.15.4
MAC layer is responsible for a number of functions like:
Beaconing for devices that operate as controllers in a network.
used to associate and dissociate PANs with the help of devices.
The safety of the device.
Consistent communication between two MAC devices that are in a peer-to-peer relationship.
Several established frame types are used by the MAC layer to accomplish these functions. In 802.15.4, there are four
different types of MAC frames:
 frame of data
 Frame for a beacon
 Frame of acknowledgement
 Frame for MAC commands
4. Topology: Networks based on IEEE 802.15.4 can be developed in a star, peer-to-peer, or mesh topology. Mesh
networks connect a large number of nodes. This enables nodes that would otherwise be out of range to interact with each
other to use intermediate nodes to relay data.
5. Security: For data security, the IEEE 802.15.4 standard employs the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a 128-
bit key length as the basic encryption technique. Activating such security measures for 802.15.4 significantly alters the
frame format and uses a few of the payloads. The very first phase in activating AES encryption is to use the Security
Enabled field in the Frame Control part of the 802.15.4 header. For safety, this field is a single bit which is assigned to 1.
When this bit is set, by taking certain bytes from its Payload field, a field known as the Auxiliary Security Header is
formed following the Source Address field.
6. Competitive Technologies: The IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers serve as a basis for a variety of networking
profiles that operate in different IoT access scenarios. DASH7 is a competing radio technology with distinct PHY and
MAC layers.
The architecture of LR-WPAN Device:
IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4
Advantages of IEEE 802.15.4:
IEEE 802.15.4 has the following advantages:
 cheap cost
 long battery life,
 Quick installation
 simple
 extensible protocol stack
Disadvantages of IEEE 802.15.4:
IEEE 802.15.4’s drawbacks include:
 IEEE 802.15.4 causes interference and multipath fading.

 doesn’t employ a frequency-hopping approach.
 unbounded latency
 interference susceptibility
Applications of IEEE 802.15.4:
IEEE 802.15.4 Applications:

 Wireless sensor networks in the industry
 Building and home automation
 Remote controllers and interacting toys
 Automotive networks
8. ZigBee and its types
ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4. It is a technology of home networking. ZigBee
is a technological standard created for controlling and sensing the network. As we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area
Network of task group 4 so it is based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
ZigBee is an open, global, packet-based protocol designed to provide an easy-to-use architecture for secure, reliable, low
power wireless networks. Flow or process control equipment can be place anywhere and still communicate with the rest of
the system. It can also be moved, since the network doesn’t care about the physical location of a sensor, pump or valve.
IEEE802.15.4 developed the PHY and MAC layer whereas, the ZigBee takes care of upper higher layers.
ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation of Low power devices with Low data rates
for short-range wireless communications.
IEEE 802.15.4 supports star and peer-to-peer topologies. The ZigBee specification supports star and two kinds of peer-to-
peer topologies, mesh and cluster tree. ZigBee-compliant devices are sometimes specified as supporting point-to-point
and point-to-multipoint topologies.
Why another short-range communication standard??
Types of ZigBee Devices:
 Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used for connecting the devices.
 Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
 Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.
General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:
 Low Power Consumption

 Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
 Short-Range (75-100 meters)
 Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
 Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240 devices (Practically))
 Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source Protocol)
 Extremely low-duty cycle.
 3 frequency bands with 27 channels.
Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be selected for use in a network):
 Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)

 Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (the US and Australia)
 Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World)
Features of Zigbee:
1. Stochastic addressing: A device is assigned a random address and announced. Mechanism for address conflict
resolution. Parents node don’t need to maintain assigned address table.
2. Link Management: Each node maintains quality of links to neighbors. Link quality is used as link cost in routing.
3. Frequency Agility: Nodes experience interference report to channel manager, which then selects another channel
4. Asymmetric Link: Each node has different transmit power and sensitivity. Paths may be asymmetric.
5. Power Management: Routers and Coordinators use main power. End Devices use batteries.
Advantages of Zigbee:
 Designed for low power consumption.

 Provides network security and application support services operating on the top of IEEE.
 Zigbee makes possible completely networks homes where all devices are able to communicate and be
 Use in smart home
 Easy implementation
 Adequate security features.
 Low cost: Zigbee chips and modules are relatively inexpensive, which makes it a cost-effective solution for IoT
applications.
 Mesh networking: Zigbee uses a mesh network topology, which allows for devices to communicate with each
other without the need for a central hub or router. This makes it ideal for use in smart home applications where
devices need to communicate with each other and with a central control hub.
 Reliability: Zigbee protocol is designed to be highly reliable, with robust mechanisms in place to ensure that data
is delivered reliably even in adverse conditions.
Disadvantages of Zigbee :
 Limited range: Zigbee has a relatively short range compared to other wireless communications protocols, which
can make it less suitable for certain types of applications or for use in large buildings.
 Limited data rate: Zigbee is designed for low-data-rate applications, which can make it less suitable for
applications that require high-speed data transfer.
 Interoperability: Zigbee is not as widely adopted as other IoT protocols, which can make it difficult to find
devices that are compatible with each other.
 Security: Zigbee’s security features are not as robust as other IoT protocols, making it more vulnerable to hacking
and other security threats.
Zigbee Network Topologies:
 Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a coordinator and several end devices, end devices
communicate only with the coordinator.
 Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology consists of one coordinator, several routers, and end
devices.
 Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists of a central node which is a coordinator, several routers,
and end devices. the function of the router is to extend the network coverage.
Architecture of Zigbee:
Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers.
1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. Physical Layer
 Physical layer: The lowest two layers i.e the physical and the MAC (Medium Access Control) Layer are defined
by the IEEE 802.15.4 specifications. The Physical layer is closest to the hardware and directly controls and
communicates with the Zigbee radio. The physical layer translates the data packets in the over-the-air bits for
transmission and vice-versa during the reception.
 Medium Access Control layer (MAC layer): The layer is responsible for the interface between the physical and
network layer. The MAC layer is also responsible for providing PAN ID and also network discovery through
beacon requests.
 Network layer: This layer acts as an interface between the MAC layer and the application layer. It is responsible
for mesh networking.
 Application layer: The application layer in the Zigbee stack is the highest protocol layer and it consists of the
application support sub-layer and Zigbee device object. It contains manufacturer-defined applications.
Channel Access:
1. Contention Based Method (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance Mechanism)
2. Contention Free Method (Coordinator dedicates a specific time slot to each device (Guaranteed Time Slot
(GTS)))
Zigbee Applications:
1. Home Automation
2. Medical Data Collection
3. Industrial Control Systems
4. meter reading system
5. light control system
6. Commercial
7. Government Markets Worldwide
8. Home Networking
9. RFID Features
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a form of wireless communication that incorporates the use of electromagnetic
or electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to uniquely identify an object,
animal or person. It uses radio frequency to search ,identify, track and communicate with items and people. it is a method
that is used to track or identify an object by radio transmission uses over the web. Data digitally encoded in an RFID tag
which might be read by the reader. This device work as a tag or label during which data read from tags that are stored in
the database through the reader as compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes. It is often read outside the road of sight
either passive or active RFID.
Kinds of RFID :
There are many kinds of RFID, each with different properties, but perhaps the most fascinating aspect of RFID
technology is that most RFID tags have neither an electric plug nor a battery. Instead, all of the energy needed to operate
them is supplied in the form of radio waves by RFID readers. This technology is called passive RFID to distinguish it
from the(less common) active RFID in which there is a power source on the tag.
UHF RHID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ). It is used on shipping pallets and some driver’s licenses. Readers send signals
in the 902-928 MHz band. Tags communicate at distances of several meters by changing the way they reflect the reader
signals; the reader is able to pick up these reflections. This way of operating is called backscatter.
HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ). It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in your passport, credit cards, books, and
noncontact payment systems. HF RFID has a short-range, typically a meter or less because the physical mechanism is
based on induction rather than backscatter.
There are also other forms of RFID using other frequencies, such as LF RFID(Low-Frequency RFID), which was
developed before HF RFID and used for animal tracking
There are two types of RFID :
Passive RFID –
Passive RFID tags does not have their own power source. It uses power from the reader. In this device, RF tags are not
attached by a power supply and passive RF tag stored their power. When it is emitted from active antennas and the RF tag
are used specific frequency like 125-134KHZ as low frequency, 13.56MHZ as a high frequency and 856MHZ to 960MHZ
as ultra-high frequency.
Active RFID –
In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a signal and there is an antenna which receives the data.
means, active tag uses a power source like battery. It has it’s own power source, does not require power from
source/reader.
10. Working Principle of RFID :
Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for Automatic Identification and Data Capture
technology which performs object identification and collection and mapping of the data.
An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for communication between reader and
tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from RFID tag which detects the tag and reads or writes the data into the tag. It
may include one processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.
Working of RFID System :
Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a transceiver and a transponder. When the scanning
antenna and transceiver are combined, they are referred to as an RFID reader or interrogator. There are two types of RFID
readers — fixed readers and mobile readers. The RFID reader is a network-connected device that can be portable or
permanently attached. It uses radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once activated, the tag sends a wave
back to the antenna, where it is translated into data.
The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based on factors including the type of tag,
type of reader, RFID frequency and interference in the surrounding environment or from other RFID tags and readers.
Tags that have a stronger power source also have a longer read range.
Features of RFID :
 An RFID tag consists of two-part which is an microcircuit and an antenna.

 This tag is covered by protective material which acts as a shield against the outer environment effect.
 This tag may active or passive in which we mainly and widely used passive RFID.
Application of RFID :
 It utilized in tracking shipping containers, trucks and railroad, cars.

 It uses in Asset tracking.
 It utilized in credit-card shaped for access application.
 It uses in Personnel tracking.
 Controlling access to restricted areas.
 It uses ID badging.
 Supply chain management.
 Counterfeit prevention (e.g., in the pharmaceutical industry).
Advantages of RFID :
 It provides data access and real-time information without taking to much time.
 RFID tags follow the instruction and store a large amount of information.
 The RFID system is non-line of sight nature of the technology.
 It improves the Efficiency, traceability of production.
 In RFID hundred of tags read in a short time.
Disadvantages of RFID :
 It takes longer to program RFID Devices.

 RFID intercepted easily even it is Encrypted.
 In an RFID system, there are two or three layers of ordinary household foil to dam the radio wave.
 There is privacy concern about RFID devices anybody can access information about anything.
 Active RFID can costlier due to battery.
11. NFC (Near Field communication)
NFC stands for Near Field Communication. It enables short range communication between compatible devices. At least
one transmitting device and another receiving device is needed to transmit the signal. Many devices can use the NFC
standard and are considered either passive or active.
So NFC devices can be classified into 2 types:
Passive NFC devices –
These include tags, and other small transmitters which can send information to other NFC devices without the need for a
power source of their own. These devices don’t really process any information sent from other sources, and can not
connect to other passive components. These often take the form of interactive signs on walls or advertisements.
Active NFC devices –
These devices are able to both the things i.e. send and receive data. They can communicate with each other as well as with
passive devices. Smartphones the best example of active NFC device. Card readers in public transport and touch payment
terminals are also good examples of the technology.
How does NFC work?
Like other wireless signals Bluetooth and WiFi, NFC works on the principle of sending information over radio waves.
Near Field Communication is another standard for wireless data transition which means devices must adhere to certain
specifications in order to communicate with each other properly. The technology used in NFC is based on older
technology which is the RFID (Radio-frequency identification) that used electromagnetic induction in order to transmit
information.
This creates one major difference between NFC and Bluetooth/WiFi. NFC can be used to induce electric currents within
passive components rather than just send data. This means that their own power supply is not required by passive devices.
Instead they can be powered by the electromagnetic field produced by an active NFC component when it comes into
range. NFC technology unfortunately does not command enough inductance to charge our smartphones, but QI charging
is based on the same principle.
The transmission frequency is 13.56 megahertz for data across NFC. Data can be sent at either 106, 212, or 424 kilobits
per second which is quick enough for a range of data transfers like contact details to swapping pictures and music.
The NFC standard currently has three distinct modes of operation to determine what sort of information will be exchanged
between devices.
The most common used in smartphones is the peer-to-peer mode. Exchange of various piece of information is allowed
between 2 devices. In this mode both devices switch between active when sending data and passive when receiving.
The second mode i.e. read/write mode is a one-way data transmission. The active device, possibly your smartphone, links
up with another device in order to read information from it. NFC advertisement tags use this mode.
The third mode of operation is card emulation. The NFC device can function as a smart or contactless credit card and
make payments or tap into public transport systems.
Comparisons with Bluetooth –
There are several important technological differences between NFC and bluetooth but NFC has some significant benefits
in certain circumstances.
The major advantage of NFC over bluetooth is that it requires much less power consumption than Bluetooth. This makes
NFC perfect for passive devices, such as the advertising tags as they can operate without a major power source.
But this power saving does have some major drawbacks. First and the foremost is that the range of transmission of NFC is
much shorter than Bluetooth which is a major drawback. NFC has a range of around 10 cm, just a few inches whereas
Bluetooth connections can transmit data up to 10 meters or more from the source. Another drawback is that NFC is quite a
bit slower than Bluetooth. NFC can transmit data at a maximum speed of just 424 kbit/s, whereas Bluetooth 2.1 can
transmit 2.1 Mbit/s and with Bluetooth Low Energy around 1 Mbit/s .
NFC has one another major advantage i.e. faster connectivity. It uses inductive coupling(i.e. the absence of manual
pairing) which takes less than one tenth of a second to establish a connection between two devices. While modern
Bluetooth connects pretty fast, NFC is still super handy for certain scenarios as mobile payments.
Samsung Pay, Android Pay, and even Apple Pay use NFC technology though Samsung Pay works a bit differently than
the others. While Bluetooth works better for connecting devices together for file transfers, sharing connections to
speakers, and more, we anticipate that NFC will always have a place in this world thanks to mobile payments — a quickly
expanding technology.
12. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices
over short distances and building personal area networks (PANs). In the most widely used mode, transmission power is
limited to 2.5 milliwatts, giving it a very short range of up to 10 metres (33 ft). It employs UHF radio waves in the ISM
bands, from 2.402 GHz to 2.48 GHz.[3] It is mainly used as an alternative to wired connections to exchange files between
nearby portable devices and connect cell phones and music players with wireless headphones.
Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 35,000 member companies in
the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as
IEEE 802.15.1 but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees the development of the specification,
manages the qualification program, and protects the trademarks. A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to
market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents applies to the technology, which is licensed to individual qualifying
devices. As of 2021, 4.7 billion Bluetooth integrated circuit chips are shipped annually.
Ericsson Bluetooth module PBA 313 01/2S R2A, manufactured in week 22 of 2001
Etymology
The name "Bluetooth" was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach of Intel, one of the founders of the Bluetooth SIG. The name was
inspired by a conversation with Sven Mattisson who related Scandinavian history through tales from Frans G. Bengtsson's The Long
Ships, a historical novel about Vikings and the 10th-century Danish king Harald Bluetooth. Upon discovering a picture of the
runestone of Harald Bluetooth[7] in the book A History of the Vikings by Gwyn Jones, Kardach proposed Bluetooth as the codename
for the short-range wireless program which is now called Bluetooth.[8][9][10]
According to Bluetooth's official website,
Bluetooth was only intended as a placeholder until marketing could come up with something really cool.
Later, when it came time to select a serious name, Bluetooth was to be replaced with either RadioWire or PAN (Personal Area
Networking). PAN was the front runner, but an exhaustive search discovered it already had tens of thousands of hits throughout the
internet.
A full trademark search on RadioWire couldn't be completed in time for launch, making Bluetooth the only choice. The name caught
on fast and before it could be changed, it spread throughout the industry, becoming synonymous with short-range wireless technology.
[11]
Bluetooth is the Anglicised version of the Scandinavian Blåtand/Blåtann (or in Old Norse blátǫnn). It was the epithet of King Harald
Bluetooth, who united the disparate Danish tribes into a single kingdom; Kardach chose the name to imply that Bluetooth similarly
unites communication protocols.[12]
The Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes (ᚼ, Hagall) and (ᛒ, Bjarkan), Harald's initials.[13][14]
History
Ericsson Bluetooth module PBA 313 01/2S R2A, manufactured in week 22 of 2001
The development of the "short-link" radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson
Mobile in Lund, Sweden. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-
6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE 9202239, issued 1992-07-24. Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Dutchman Jaap
Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing.[15] Both were working for Ericsson in Lund.[16] Principal design and development
began in 1994 and by 1997 the team had a workable solution.[17] From 1997 Örjan Johansson became the project leader and
propelled the technology and standardization.[18][19][20][21]
In 1997, Adalio Sanchez, then head of IBM ThinkPad product R&D, approached Nils Rydbeck about collaborating on integrating a
mobile phone into a ThinkPad notebook. The two assigned engineers from Ericsson and IBM studied the idea. The conclusion was
that power consumption on cellphone technology at that time was too high to allow viable integration into a notebook and still achieve
adequate battery life. Instead, the two companies agreed to integrate Ericsson's short-link technology on both a ThinkPad notebook
and an Ericsson phone to accomplish the goal.
Since neither IBM ThinkPad notebooks nor Ericsson phones were the market share leaders in their respective markets at that time,
Adalio Sanchez and Nils Rydbeck agreed to make the short-link technology an open industry standard to permit each player maximum
market access. Ericsson contributed the short-link radio technology, and IBM contributed patents around the logical layer. Adalio
Sanchez of IBM then recruited Stephen Nachtsheim of Intel to join and then Intel also recruited Toshiba and Nokia. In May 1998, the
Bluetooth SIG was launched with IBM and Ericsson as the founding signatories and a total of five members: Ericsson, Intel, Nokia,
Toshiba, and IBM.
The first Bluetooth device was revealed in 1999. It was a hands-free mobile headset that earned the "Best of show Technology Award"
at COMDEX. The first Bluetooth mobile phone was the Ericsson T36, but it was the revised Ericsson model T39 that actually made it
to store shelves in 2001. In parallel, IBM introduced the IBM ThinkPad A30 in October 2001 which was the first notebook with
integrated Bluetooth.
Bluetooth's early incorporation into consumer electronics products continued at Vosi Technologies in Costa Mesa, California, initially
overseen by founding members Bejan Amini and Tom Davidson. Vosi Technologies had been created by real estate developer Ivano
Stegmenga, with United States Patent 608507, for communication between a cellular phone and a vehicle's audio system. At the time,
Sony/Ericsson had only a minor market share in the cellular phone market, which was dominated in the US by Nokia and Motorola.
Due to ongoing negotiations for an intended licensing agreement with Motorola beginning in the late 1990s, Vosi could not publicly
disclose the intention, integration, and initial development of other enabled devices which were to be the first "Smart Home" internet
connected devices.
Vosi needed a means for the system to communicate without a wired connection from the vehicle to the other devices in the network.
Bluetooth was chosen, since Wi-Fi was not yet readily available or supported in the public market. Vosi had begun to develop the
Vosi Cello integrated vehicular system and some other internet connected devices, one of which was intended to be a table-top device
named the Vosi Symphony, networked with Bluetooth. Through the negotiations with Motorola, Vosi introduced and disclosed its
intent to integrate Bluetooth in its devices. In the early 2000s a legal battle[22] ensued between Vosi and Motorola, which indefinitely
suspended release of the devices. Later, Motorola implemented it in their devices which initiated the significant propagation of
Bluetooth in the public market due to its large market share at the time.
In 2012, Jaap Haartsen was nominated by the European Patent Office for the European Inventor Award.[17]
Implementation
Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2.402 and 2.480 GHz, or 2.400 and 2.4835 GHz, including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the
bottom end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top.[23] This is in the globally unlicensed (but not unregulated) industrial, scientific and medical
(ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum.
Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each channel
has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 1600 hops per second, with adaptive frequency-hopping (AFH) enabled.[23] Bluetooth
Low Energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels.[24]
Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of
Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK (differential quadrature phase-shift keying) and 8-DPSK modulation may also be used between
compatible devices. Devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode, where an instantaneous bit rate
of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to describe π/4-DPSK (EDR2) and 8-DPSK (EDR3) schemes,
each giving 2 and 3 Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR) modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as
a BR/EDR radio.
In 2019, Apple published an extension called HDR which supports data rates of 4 (HDR4) and 8 (HDR8) Mbit/s using π/4-DQPSK
modulation on 4 MHz channels with forward error correction (FEC).[25]
Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master/slave architecture. One master may communicate with up to seven slaves in a
piconet. All devices within a given piconet use the clock provided by the master as the base for packet exchange. The master clock
ticks with a period of 312.5 μs, two clock ticks then make up a slot of 625 µs, and two slots make up a slot pair of 1250 µs. In the
simple case of single-slot packets, the master transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots. The slave, conversely, receives in even
slots and transmits in odd slots. Packets may be 1, 3, or 5 slots long, but in all cases, the master's transmission begins in even slots and
the slave's in odd slots.
The above excludes Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0 specification,[26] which uses the same spectrum but somewhat
differently.
Communication and connection
A master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a piconet (an ad hoc computer network
using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave
can become the master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master—as an initiator of the
connection—but may subsequently operate as the slave).
The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form a scatternet, in which certain devices
simultaneously play the master/leader role in one piconet and the slave role in another.
At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device (except for the little-used broadcast mode). The
master chooses which slave device to address; typically, it switches rapidly from one device to another in a round-robin fashion. Since
it is the master that chooses which slave to address, whereas a slave is (in theory) supposed to listen in each receive slot, being a
master is a lighter burden than being a slave. Being a master of seven slaves is possible; being a slave of more than one master is
possible. The specification is vague as to required behavior in scatternets.[27]
Uses
Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range
based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device.[28] Because the devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system,
they do not have to be in visual line of sight of each other; however, a quasi optical wireless path must be viable.[29]
Historically, the Bluetooth range was defined by the radio class, with a lower class (and higher output power) having larger range.[2]
The actual range achieved by a given link will depend on the qualities of the devices at both ends of the link, as well as the air and
obstacles in between. The primary hardware attributes affecting range are the data rate, protocol (Bluetooth Classic or Bluetooth Low
Energy), the transmitter power, the receiver sensitivity, and the gain of both antennas.[30]
The effective range varies depending on propagation conditions, material coverage, production sample variations, antenna
configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications are for indoor conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal
fading due to signal reflections make the range far lower than specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products.
Most Bluetooth applications are battery-powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range whether the other end of the link is a
Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower-powered device tends to set the range limit. In some cases the effective range of the data link
can be extended when a Class 2 device is connecting to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than
a typical Class 2 device.[31] Mostly, however, the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class
1 devices with both high sensitivity and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending on the throughput
required by the application. Some such devices allow open field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond between two similar devices without
exceeding legal emission limits
13. Wireless Sensor Networks and its Applications
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an
ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the environment in a particular area. They are
connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing unit in the WSN System.
Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.
WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
Applications of WSN:
1. Internet of Things (IoT)

2. Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
3. Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
4. Noise Level of the surrounding
5. Medical applications like patient monitoring
6. Agriculture
7. Landslide Detection
Challenges of WSN:
1. Quality of Service
2. Security Issue
3. Energy Efficiency
4. Network Throughput
5. Performance
6. Ability to cope with node failure
7. Cross layer optimisation
8. Scalability to large scale of deployment
A modern Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) faces several challenges, including:
 Limited power and energy: WSNs are typically composed of battery-powered sensors that have limited energy resources.
This makes it challenging to ensure that the network can function for long periods of time without the need for frequent
battery replacements.
 Limited processing and storage capabilities: Sensor nodes in a WSN are typically small and have limited processing and
storage capabilities. This makes it difficult to perform complex tasks or store large amounts of data.
 Heterogeneity: WSNs often consist of a variety of different sensor types and nodes with different capabilities. This makes it
challenging to ensure that the network can function effectively and efficiently.
 Security: WSNs are vulnerable to various types of attacks, such as eavesdropping, jamming, and spoofing. Ensuring the
security of the network and the data it collects is a major challenge.
 Scalability: WSNs often need to be able to support a large number of sensor nodes and handle large amounts of data.
Ensuring that the network can scale to meet these demands is a significant challenge.
 Interference: WSNs are often deployed in environments where there is a lot of interference from other wireless devices. This
can make it difficult to ensure reliable communication between sensor nodes.
 Reliability: WSNs are often used in critical applications, such as monitoring the environment or controlling industrial
processes. Ensuring that the network is reliable and able to function correctly in all conditions is a major challenge.
Components of WSN:
1. Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is used for data acquisition. Sensor signals are
converted into electrical signals.
2. Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN access point. It consists of a microcontroller,
transceiver, external memory, and power source.
3. WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally through the internet.
4. Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software called as Evaluation Software for presenting the report
to the users for further processing of the data which can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):
Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy, making them a cost-effective solution for many
applications.
Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired connections, which can be costly and difficult to install. Wireless
communication also enables flexible deployment and reconfiguration of the network.
Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to conserve energy, enabling long-term operation without the need for
frequent battery replacements.
Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing sensors, making them suitable for a range of applications
and environments.
Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical phenomena in the environment, providing timely information
for decision making and control.
Disadvantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):
Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited, which can be a challenge for large-scale deployments or in
environments with obstacles that obstruct radio signals.
Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have limited processing power and memory, making it difficult
to perform complex computations or support advanced applications.
Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as eavesdropping, tampering, and denial of service attacks, which can
compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to interference from other wireless devices or radio signals, which
can degrade the quality of data transmission.
Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the need for proper sensor placement, power management, and
network configuration, which can require significant time and resources.
while WSNs offer many benefits, they also have limitations and challenges that must be considered when deploying and using them in
real-world applications.

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INTERNET OF THINGS 1

Chameli Devi Group of Institutions

How Does an IoT Network Work?

Types of IoT Networks

 Small- to medium-sized networks

Bluetooth IoT networks are best for the following uses:

Low-Power Wide Area Networks

LPWAN IoT networks are best for the following uses:

The Future of IoT Networks: 5G LAN

The Celona Solution

2. Major Components of IOT:

Some commonly used sensors are:

 Temperature sensors and thermostats

3. Functional components of IoT

Functional model of the IoT reference architecture.

Functional model of the IoT reference architecture.

The different characteristics of SOA are as follows:

 Provides interoperability between the services.

There are two major roles within Service-oriented Architecture:

Guiding Principles of SOA:

Challenges in Internet of things (IoT)

There are various types of challenges in front of IoT.

Security challenges in IoT :

 Insufficient testing and updating –

 Brute forcing and the risk of default passwords –

 IoT Malware and ransomware –

Increases with increase in devices.

A hacker can hijack a computer camera and take pictures.

IoT botnet aiming at cryptocurrency –

Design challenge in IoT :

Battery life is a limitation –

Embedded systems are lightly constrained by cost.

Security of the system –

Deployment challenges in IoT :

Cross platform capability –

Its development requires a balance of hardware and software functions.

Data collection and processing –

Lack of skill set –

 It is a technology that makes the individual nodes IP enabled.

 It is used with IEEE 802.15,.4 in the 2.4 GHz band.

 It is comparatively less secure than Zigbee.

 It is a wireless sensor network.

Security and Interoperability with 6LoWPAN:

IEEE 802.15.4e introduces the following general functional enhancements:

IEEE 802.15.4e defines five new MAC behavior modes.

IEEE 802.15. Protocol Stacks include:

Beaconing for devices that operate as controllers in a network.

used to associate and dissociate PANs with the help of devices.

The safety of the device.

The architecture of LR-WPAN Device:

Advantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4 has the following advantages:

Disadvantages of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4’s drawbacks include:

 IEEE 802.15.4 causes interference and multipath fading.

Applications of IEEE 802.15.4:

IEEE 802.15.4 Applications:

8. ZigBee and its types

Why another short-range communication standard??

Types of ZigBee Devices:

General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:

 Low Power Consumption

 Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)