-Reflexes are an automatic reaction to a stimulus.

-Receptors in the skin detect a

stimulus. -Electrical impulses are passed through neurones. -These impulses pass
from sensory neurones into the CNS. -To do this, it travels through relay
neurones, to motor neurones. -There are gaps between neurones called synapses
where chemicals diffuse across a gap. -Finally, nerve impulses reach the
effector, eg. a muscle, which would then contract.
PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE: - Stage, - Clip, - Lamp/Mirror, - Lenses (4x,10x,40x), -
Eyepiece, - Coarse Focussing Dial, - Fine Focussing Dial. - METHOD: - Place the
slide onto the stage, - Use clips to keep it in place, - Select the lowest power
lens (4x), - Position the lens so that it almost touches the slide by adjusting the
COARSE focussing dial, - Look at the microscope from the side when adjusting the
lens to avoid damaging the slide, - Now look through the eyepiece, - Slowly turn
the coarse focussing dial (This increases the distance between the objective lens
and the slide), - Now, use the fine focussing dial to bring the cell into clear
focus, - At this point, select a higher magnification eg. 10x, - Adjust the fine
focussing dial to bring the cell into focus, - Once you can see the cell, use a
pencil to make a clear, labelled drawing. - On the drawing should be a clear
magnification scale, - Place a clear plastic ruler over the stage, - Measure
diameter of FOV in mm, - Show this on the drawing using a scale bar + magnification
(eg. 40x) - USING AN OPTICAL MICROSCOPE YOU CAN ONLY SEE: - Nucleus, - Cytoplasm, -
Cell Membrane, Mitochondria, - Vacuole, - Chloroplasts, - NOT: - Ribosomes - HOW TO
CALCULATE TOTAL MAGNIFICATION: Multiply magnification of the eyepiece by that of
the lens (eg. Eyepiece is 10x, and lens is 4x, total is 40x.)
- Agar gel plate (Agar gel + Petri dish), - Must avoid contamination: * Sterilise
Petri dish * Sterilise inoculating loop by passing it through a Bunsen burner flame
* Sterilise surroundings with disinfectant solution (killing bacteria that could
contaminate the culture) * Attach the lid using tape * Place it upside down into an
incubator (stops moisture from lid dripping down) * Bacteria in schools is
incubated at 25 Degrees C, to reduce harmful bacteria grown, * Open the sterile
agar gel plate near a Bunsen burner, killing bacteria in the air. - Use inoculating
loop to spread bacteria over the plate, - Place sterile filter paper discs
containing the antibiotic into the plate, - Incubate at 25 Degrees C. - RESULTS: -
Around the antibiotic discs, there are regions where bacteria hasn't grown called
the zone of inhibition, - To measure the effect of the antibiotic, calculate the
area of the zone of inhibition using Pi x R squared.
- A gene is the smallest section of DNA. DNA makes up genes, which make up
chromosomes. One copy of all your chromosomes is called your genome. The version of
a characteristic shown by an individual is called its phenotype. Organisms that
carry out sexual reproduction are able to combine different forms of genes from two
parents, which increases variation in offspring. DNA is a polymer made from 4
different nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of alternating sugar and phosphate
sections with one off the 4 different bases attached to that sugar. T is linked to
A, G is linked to C. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: The DNA code for the protein remains in the
nucleus, although a copy called mRNA moves from the nucleus to the ribosomes, where
proteins are synthesised in the cytoplasm. Carrier molecules bring specific amino
acids to add to the growing protein in the correct order. There are only about 20
different naturally-occurring amino acids, codons including CGA, TGT, AAG etc.. DNA
structure determines the protein synthesised. If this changes a different protein
will be made. A copy of the DNA is made, but is now mRNA. The copy moves to the
ribosome into to the cytoplasm. Amino acids are connected together in a specific
order at the ribosome to create a specific protein molecule. Each protein molecule
has hundreds/thousands of amino acids joined together in a unique sequence. It's
then folded to the correct shape.
The structure of DNA is important in synthesising specific proteins needed in
biological processes. Not all parts of the DNA code for proteins, there is a coding
and non-coding part of DNA, which can switch genes on and off, so variations in
these areas may affect gene expression, and if the correct protein is synthesised
or not. In different cells around the body, genes will be switched on and others
will be switched off. This will vary depending on which cells you examine.
MUTATION is a change in a gene or chromosome. It is a rare, random change in the
genetic material and it can be inherited. Mutation can happen because of ionising
radiation, and chemical mutagens like cigarette smoke. Ionising radiation includes
gamma rays, X rays, and Ultraviolet rays. These mutations may change the activity
of a protein, in coding a part of the DNA, or it might change how the genes are
expressed if the change is in a non-coding section of DNA. These could result in
phenotype changes, or just nothing. Also, they could result in a serious disease
like cystic fibrosis lol. TYPES OF MUTATIONS: Substitution: For example, a C base
could be substituted with a G base. As the bases are read in threes, this may
result in a different amino acid being synthesised, and a different protein.
Insertion: An extra base, like G, may be inserted somewhere between two other
bases. As bases read in threes, this could affect the amino acid produced.
Deletion: A base, like a G base, could be removed between two other bases.
Inversion: In this case, the order of the bases would change, for example the
positions of a C and A base.
Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal conditions of a cell or organism to
maintain optimum conditions for function in response to internal and external
changes. This includes the control of - Blood Glucose Concentration, - Body Temp, -
Water Levels. All of these systems include: - Cells called receptors, which detect
stimuli, - Coordination centres, eg. the brain, that receive and process
information from receptors, - Effectors, muscles, or glands, which bring about
responses which restore optimum levels.
ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL: - Produces variation in offspring, - If the environment
changes variation gives a survival advantage through natural selection, - Natural
selection can be speeded up by humans through selective breeding to increase food
production. ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL: - Only one parent needed, - More time and energy
efficient: do not need to find a mate, - Faster than sexual reproduction, - Many
identical offspring can be produced when conditions are favourable. SOME ORGANISMS
USE BOTH: - Malarial parasites reproduce asexually in the human host, but sexually
in the mosquito. - Many fungi reproduce asexually by spores but also reproduce
sexually to give variation. - Many plants produce seeds sexually, but also
reproduce asexually by runners such as strawberry plants, or bulb division such as
daffodils.
Tissue culture: using small groups of cells from part of a plant to grow identical
new plants. This is important for preserving rare plant species or commercially in
nurseries. CUTTINGS: An older, but simple method used by gardeners to produce many
identical new plants from a parent plant. EMBRYO TRANSPLANTS: Splitting apart cells
from a developing animal embryo before they become specialised, then transplanting
the identical embryos into host mothers. ADULT CELL CLONING: The nucleus is removed
from an unfertilised egg cell. - The nucleus from an adult body cell, such as a
skin cell, is inserted into the egg cell. - These embryo cells contain the same
genetic information as the adult skin cell. When the embryo has developed into a
ball of cells, it is inserted into the womb of an adult female to continue its
development.
Formation: - An antigen is injected into a mouse, - The mouse naturally produces
lymphocytes, which produce antibodies specific to the antigen. - Spleen cells which
produce the lymphocytse are removed during a small operation. - The spleen cells
are fused with human cancerous white blood cells called myeloma cells to form
hybridoma cells, which divide indefinitely. - These hybridoma cells divide and
produce millons of monoclonal antibodies specific to the original antigen
- Effects of Osmosis on Plant Tissue: - Peel the potato (Potato skin can affect
osmosis). - Use a CORK BORER to produce three cylinders of potato. - Using a cork
borer makes all of the cylinders the same diameter. - Use a scalpel to trim the
cylinders to around the same length. - Measure the length of each cylinder using a
ruler, and the mass using a scale. - Now place each cylinder into a test tube. Add
10cm3 of a 0.5 MOLAR sugar solution to the first test tube. Add 10cm3 of 0.25 MOLAR
sugar solution to the second test tube. Add 10cm3 of distilled water to the third
test tube (Contains no dissolved substances, does not affect rate of osmosis).
Leave potato cylinders overnight. Next, remove the cylinders and gently roll them
on a paper towl to remove surface moisture. Measure length and mass again.
Calculate the percentage change in length and mass (change in original value
divided by change in original value * 100)
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) causes the maturation of an egg in the ovary.
Luteinising Hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the egg. Oestrogen is involved
in repairing and thickening the uterus lining, inhibits release of FSH.
Progesterone maintains lining, inhibits release of both LH and FSH. If a woman is
pregnant, the placenta produces more Progesterone. Contraceptive 'The Pill,'
contains Progesterone and Oestrogen to inhibit LH and FSH, so eggs can't mature.
- Network protocols are sets of rules that govern how computers communicate with
each other. - TCP/IP: Detects the location of a device on the internet, - UDP:
Alternative to TCP/IP, Communication is faster (used for gaming), - FTP: For the
transmission of files, - SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol; for sending emails
over a network to a mail server, - IMAP: For returning emails, - HTTPS/HTTP: -
Governs communication between a web server and client, HTTPS is secure and
encrypted so that transactions can be made. - MAC: An MAC address is a unique
serial number assigned to each NIC, allowing a network to identify any device. -
NIC: Network Interface Controller, a circuit board installed into a computer so it
can connect to a network. - PAN: (Personal Area Network) is a network spread over a
very small area (a few metres), examples including Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. - LAN:
(Local Area Network) is a network confined to one area or site, usually employed by
a single home or organisation. - WAN: (Wide Area Network) is a network spread over
a wide area. For example, organisations with more than one branch use them. They
are also typically wireless. Examples include the internet itself.
- INTERPRETER: * Can call machine code subroutines to carry out instructions
directly. * Translates code a line at a time, which it then executes. * If a
runtime error is found the interpreter stops. * Easier to debug than a compiler *
Interpreters do not produce any machine code, so the program needs to be translated
each time it's executed. - COMPILER: * Translates an entire program before
execution. * Compiled programs run quickly, since they have already been
translated. * A compiled program can be supplied as an executable file. * Compilers
optimise code; runs quicker, takes up less memory. * Source code will not run on
more than one platform, it must be recompiled. * If a change is made, code must be
compiled again. - ASSEMBLER: * Translates assembly language into machine code. *
Whereas compilers/interpreters create many machine code instructions for one high-
level instruction, assemblers create one machine code instruction for each assembly
instruction.
- Weak/Default passwords: * Examples of these passwords would be 'password',
'12345', or 'qwerty'. These are easy for a hacker to crack, and puts a computer at
risk. There are ways to prevent this, such as having a long password, including
both upper and lowercase letters, including numbers and symbols, and avoid
information which is easy to guess eg. birthdays. - Misconfigured access rights: *
Access rights set up what can and cannot be seen when someone logs into a system.
If these aren't set up correctly in an email system, someone might be able to see
someone else's emails, and could be breaking the law. - Removable media * USB
sticks, CD ROMs, DVDs etc. Removable media can contain malware, which will attempt
to move onto a system when connected to a computer, and other computers on that
network. - Unpatched/Outdated software poses a security risk, as newer versions
protect the computer from new threats.
- Penetration Testing: One way to make sure a system is safe from security threats
is to employ someone to test it using penetration testing. This can reveal if there
are any weaknesses that an attacker could use to get into or harm the system.
Penetration testing uses the same techniques a hacker would try, but the aim is to
identify the weaknesses. - BLACK BOX PENETRATION: Simulates a hacking attempt from
someone external to the company, whereas - WHITE BOX PENETRATION: Simulates a
hacking attempt from someone inside the company, who may have knowledge of how the
computer system is set up.
- Blagging: When someone makes up a story to gain a person's interest and uses this
to encourage them to give away information about themselves, or even send money eg.
Acting as a friend in need, asking them to send money over. - Phishing: A phishing
email will ask a person to send personal details, but pretends to be from a
business. To detect if it's fake, look for spelling errors, and URLs that don't
match the business's website. When a person logs in with one of these links, it
steals their information. - Pharming: A type of cyberattack that redirects a user
from a genuine website to a fake one. The fake website often looks like the genuine
one. When someone logs in, it steals their information. - Shouldering: looking at
someone's information over their shoulder (like looking at someone's PIN while they
are entering it at an ATM)
- Not all computers require secondary storage such as embedded systems eg. Washing
machines. - SOLID STATE: * Solid state storage uses silicon microchips, and
transistors. * It can be written and overwritten like RAM * It's non volatile, so
data is kept after the computer is switched off. * It's used as external secondary
storage, like in USB sticks. * It has no moving parts, so it is * more portable,
and * produces less heat so components last longer. * It is faster than hard disk
drives, because data is stored electronically
MAGNETIC: * Includes hard disk drives, * Tiny sections of a spinning metal disk are
magnetised. * Magnetised represents '1', non-magnetised represents '0'. * Disks can
contain terabytes of data (a lot). * A read/write head moves over the disk's
surface as it spins, (To read, it checks whether each section is magnetised or not.
To write, the head magnetises or demagnetises a section of the disc spinning under
it.) * They are relatively cheap * High durability * High Capacity * Susceptible to
nearby magnetic fields.
OPTICAL: Uses a laser to scan the surface of a spinning disk. * Flat areas are
known as 'lands,' and the holes as 'pits'. * When the laser shines on the land, it
is reflected. * When the laser shines in the pit, it scatters. * Lands = 1, Pits =
0. * A sensor looks for reflected light. * ROM media, R(Read) Media, RW(Read/Write)
Media are optical.
The cycle consists of a few stages: 1. The memory address held in the program
counter (PC) is copied into the MAR. 2. The address in the PC is then incremented
by 1. The PC now holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched. 3 The
processor sends a signal along the address bus to the memory address held in the
MAR. 4. The instruction/data held in that memory address is sent along the data bus
to the MBR. 5. The instruction/data held in the MBR is copied into the CIR. 6. The
instruction/data held in the CIR is decoded and then executed. Results of
processing are stored in the ACC. 7. The cycle returns to step 1.
Data Compression: Modern computers generate files of large sizes, so they need lots
of storage space and are difficult to transmit, which can be overcome by data
compression. There are two types of compression : Lossy, and lossless. With LOSSY
COMPRESSION : Some data is removed and discarded, reducing the amount of data, and
size of the file. An image can be compressed by reducing its colour depth. For
sound, lossy compression can remove sounds outside the range of human hearing, not
decreasing quality, just decreasing file size. LOSSLESS : There are some files we
would not want to lose data from. For example: * Text files, * Spreadsheets *
Emails. With lossless compression, files are reduced in size without the loss of
data. This does not usually achieve the same file size as lossy. There are various
lossless standards, including PDF and PNG. One method of lossless compression is
Run-Length-Encoding (RLE). For example, if red is '11' and white is '00', a stretch
of 3 red, 3 white, and 3 red would be written as '111111000000111111'. With RLE, it
is instead written as '61 60 61', meaning 6 1s, 6 0s, 6 1s. In large files, this
can save a lot of storage.
Huffman coding is a form of lossless compression which makes files smaller by using
the frequency with which characters appear. This works well when characters appear
multiple times in a string, as it can be represented with fewer bits, decreasing
storage size. 1. Calculate how many times the character appears in the string. 2.
Put them in order from least to most frequent. 3. Place the two least common
characters along with their frequency in a binary tree. This is done by combining
these in a new node and adding the individual frequencies of each character
together. 4. Update the table showing the combined characters. 5. Take the next two
frequent characters and repeat steps 3 and 4 using single letters until all
characters are combined. 6. Follow the tree until the bottom is reached (0 for
left, 1 for right) - that creates a unique code for each character. 7. A set of
optimal and unique bit patterns will have been created. It is effective because the
most frequent characters have the shortest bit patterns.
In computers, the CPU receives instructions and data from an input/memory. They are
then processed by the CPU. Results are sent to an output or secondary storage. Key
elements of the von Neumann cycle are: * Data and instructions are stored in
binary. * Data and instructions are both stored in main memory. * Instructions are
fetched from memory one at a time, and in order - serially. * The processor decodes
and executes an instruction, before cycling to the next instruction. * The cycle
continues until no more instructions are available. | A processor based on von
Neumann architecture has 5 special registers (the section of high-speed memory
within the CPU that stores data to be processed) which it uses for processing. * PC
- Program counter - Holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched
from main memory. * MAR - Memory Address Register - Holds the memory address of the
current instruction to be fetched from memory, or the address in memory to which
data will be transferred. * Memory Buffer Register (MBR) - Holds the contents found
at the address held in the MAR, or data which is to be transferred to main memory
(Also called MDR) * CIR - Current Instruction Register - Holds the instruction that
is currently being processed and executed. * ACC - Accumulator - Holds the data
being processed and the results of processing.
- Controlling Hardware Components, - Providing a platform for software to run on, -
Providing a user interface, - Managing processes, - Managing the computer's memory,
- Managing I/O devices, - Managing Applications, - Managing Security
SYSTEM SOFTWARE is any software that assists with the running or management of the
computer system eg. operating systems, security software etc. - APPLICATION
SOFTWARE s any software added to the system that allows the user to perform a task.
Multiply the height by the width, by the colour depth. Colour depth can be worked
out through the amount of bits per pixel. eg. a colour depth of 2 means 2 bits per
pixel (00,01,10,11), so 4 colours are possible (But 3 colours would still have a
colour depth of 2.)
Sound is picked up through a microphone, and converted into an anologue signal so
that it can be stored in binary. SAMPLE RATE: Sample rate is the number of samples
recorded per second. The higher the sample rate, the closer the recorded signal is
to the original. Sample rate is measured in hertz. The larger the sample rate, the
larger the file size. BIT DEPTH: Bit depth refers to the number of bits used to
record each sample. The higher the bit depth, the more accurately a sound can be
recorded, but the larger the file size. Typical bit depths are 16 bit and 24 bit.
BIT RATE: Bit rate is a measure of how much data is processed for each second of
sound. It is calculated by multiplying the sample rate by bit depth. Higher bit
rate means better quality.
- It stores instructions while a program is being executed, - It stores data while
a program is being executed, - Each memory location has a unique address, - Data
and instructons are replaced in memory as needed.
APPLICATION LAYER - Applications such as web browsers and email programs operate at
this layer. Protocols such as HTTP, HTTPS, SMTP, IMAP, and FTP operate at this
layer. - TRANSPORT LAYER - This breaks down the message into packets. Each packet's
given a number and the total number of packets. This layer sets up the
communication between hosts. This uses TCP and UDP. - INTERNET LAYER - This adds
the sender's and recipient's IP addresses to the packet, and packages the data,
making it ready for transmission. It also routes packets across the network. LINK
LAYER - The NIC and operating system drivers are at this layer.
VIRUSES - A piece of malware that ifects a computer, and replicates itself to be
passed onto another computer. Anti-virus software holds a large database of
viruses. If a file that is opened appears to be similar to one of these, it will
warn the user. TROJAN - A trojan appears to be a piece of harmless software, that
contains malicious code inside. RANSOMWARE - Ransomware hijacks the data on a
computer by encrypting it, and demanding owners pay money for it to be decrypted.
SPYWARE - Spyware is a type of malware that collects the activity on a computer
system and sends the data it collects to another person without the owner being
aware. ADWARE - Adware is a software that causes popups or windows that will not
close, generally displaying advertisements.
CAPTCHA forms challenge humans to prove that they are human. This is because humans
are better able to understand images. This can include being asked to type words
shown in a picture, or finding all images that contain a certain object, in a
gallery of images. EMAIL CONFIRMATIONS - When a person signs up for a new account,
they often receive an email asking them to confirm they asked for the account to be
created, by clicking a link. This alerts them that their email is being used to
create an account, and allows them to prove their identity. AUTOMATIC SOFTWARE
UPDATES - By regularly updating the software on a computer, users are as protected
as they can possibly be. This means fixes or patches will be installed as soon as
they are available. If this was left to a user to do manually, it is possible they
could forget or ignore updates.
CLOCK SPEED - The number of pulses the CPU's clock generates per second. It is
measured in hertz. CPU clocks can be sped up by users, known as overclocking. The
more pulses per second, the more FDE cycles that can be performed, and more
instructions that are processed in a given time frame. Overclocking can cause long
term damage, as it's working harder, and producing more heat. CACHE SIZE - Cache is
a small amount of high-speed RAM built directly within the processor. It's used to
temporarily hold data and instructions that the processor is likely to reuse.
Bigger the cache, less time a processor has to wait for instructons to be fetched.
NUMBER OF CORES - A processing unit within a CPU is known as a core. Each is
capable of the FDE cycle. The more cores a CPU has, the greater the number of
instructions it can process in a given space of time.
https://www.stcuthberts.com/media/2605/gcse-english-poetry-storm-on-the-island.pdf
https://pmt.physicsandmathstutor.com/download/English-Literature/GCSE/Notes/AQA/
Poetry/Power-and-Conflict-Anthology/The%20Prelude%20-%20William%20Wordsworth%20-
%20Poetry.pdf
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43673/london-56d222777e969
https://www.poetrybyheart.org.uk/poems/the-emigr-e
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43768/my-last-duchess