Summary of Linguistics for 2nd Year

1.1. Introduction: ‘Structural linguistics, or structuralism, in linguistics, denotes schools

or theories in which language is conceived as a self-contained, self-regulating semiotic
system whose elements are defined by their relationship to other elements within the
system. It is derived from the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and is part
of the overall approach of structuralism. Saussure's Course in General Linguistics,
published posthumously in 1916, stressed examining language as a dynamic system of
interconnected units. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_linguistics). Ferdinand
de Saussure and Leonard Bloomfield were both influential figures in the development
of structuralism within linguistics, but they had different emphases and approaches.
Here is a comparison of their structuralist theories, along with relevant references for
further reading.
1.2. De Saussure, F : De Saussure's structuralism is known for its emphasis on the
linguistic sign, consisting of the "signifier" (the word or symbol) and the "signified"
(the concept it represents). He stressed the arbitrary nature of language, where the
linguistic system establishes the connection between the signifier and the signified. His
work laid the foundation for semiotics, the study of signs. De Saussure's structuralism
primarily adopts a synchronic approach, which focuses on describing the structure of a
language at a particular point in time. His work was concerned with the relationships
between linguistic elements within a system. The ideas, which exerted the greatest
influence, were, first, the distinction which Saussure drew between langue and parole.
A langue (language) is the virtual system possessed by all those belonging to the same
linguistic community, which makes it possible for them to understand and be
understood by the other members of the community. Parole (speech) is the texts, the
utterances, produced by an individual, making use of the system that is the langue.
“Linguistics will have to recognise laws operating universally in language, and in a
strictly rational manner, separating general phenomena from those restricted to one
branch of languages or another” (De Saussure).
1.3. Bloomfield, L : Bloomfield's structuralism emphasises language as behaviour. He
was concerned with studying language as it is used in real-world contexts and
emphasised empirical analysis. While Bloomfield engaged in synchronic analysis, he
was also open to diachronic analysis, examining the historical development of
languages. His approach Sequence 1 defines and explains the ins and outs of an
approach to the definition of what language is. Collins dictionary says that Structuralism
is a method of interpreting and analysing such things as language, literature, and society,
which focuses on contrasting ideas or elements of structure and attempts to show how
they relate to the whole structure. was more concerned with language as it exists in
historical and contemporary contexts. Bloomfield posits that: "linguistic study must
always start from the phonetic form and not from the meaning."

2. ‘Functional linguistics is an approach to the study of language characterized by taking

systematically into account the speaker's and the hearer's side, and the communicative needs of
the speaker and of the given language community. Linguistic functionalism spawned in the 1920s
to 1930s from Ferdinand de Saussure's systematic structuralist approach to language (1916).
Functionalism sees functionality of language and its elements to be the key to understanding
linguistic processes and structures. Functional theories of language propose that since language
is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analysed and
understood with reference to the functions they carry out. These include the tasks of conveying
meaning and contextual information.’
3.1. The field of education and psychology : is enriched with diverse learning theories that offer
unique perspectives on how individuals acquire knowledge and learn. Cognitivism and
Constructivism are two prominent theories that have significantly influenced educational
practices and pedagogy. This essay will provide a comprehensive analysis of both theories and
highlight the notable contributions of Lev Vygotsky to the Constructivist framework.
3.2. Focus on Mental Processes Cognitivism emphasizes the importance of mental processes
such as thinking, memory, problem-solving, and information processing in learning. It views
learning as an active process of acquiring and organizing knowledge. Constructivism also focuses
on mental processes, highlighting the active construction of knowledge by individuals through
experiences, interactions, and reflection. Learners actively build mental models and frameworks
to interpret and understand new information. 3.3. Active Learning Cognitivist theories stress the
importance of active engagement and participation in the learning process. Learners are
encouraged to think critically, make connections, and apply existing knowledge to new situations.
Constructivist theories similarly emphasize active learning, where learners actively engage with
the learning materials, collaborate with peers, and construct their understanding based on prior
knowledge and experiences.
3.4. Cognitivism: Understanding the Mind Cognitivism is a learning theory that centres on the
mental processes that underlie learning. This theory, which emerged in the mid-20th century,
views learners as active processors of information and places great importance on cognitive
structures such as memory, problem-solving, and information processing (Ertmer & Newby,
2013). According to cognitivists, learning is an active process where individuals acquire
knowledge and understanding by processing information, making connections, and employing
cognitive strategies. Cognitivism highlights the significance of cognitive development and
emphasizes the role of memory, attention, and problem-solving skills in the learning process.
Cognitive psychologists, such as Jean Piaget, have made substantial contributions to our
understanding of how individuals think, reason, and learn (Piaget, 1976).
4.1. Introduction : The concept of "meaning" is a fundamental aspect of language and
communication. Whether analysed in a specialist context or examined in general English
language use, it plays a pivotal role in shaping our understanding and interpretation of the world.
This essay explores the multifaceted nature of "meaning" in both specialist and general English
contexts, shedding light on its significance and relevance.
4.2. The notion of "Meaning" in General English Contexts :In everyday language and general
English contexts, "meaning" is the essence of communication. When we speak, we aim to convey
meaning; when we listen, we strive to comprehend it. It is not confined to words alone; non-
verbal communication, such as gestures and facial expressions, also conveys meaning (Knapp &
Hall, 2014). When reading a book, the "meaning" of the text is the message or information
communicated by the author. Understanding this meaning requires an interpretation of the
author's words and intentions. In conversations, the "meaning" of what is said goes beyond words;
it includes tone, context, and the relationship between speakers. Misunderstandings can arise
when there is a mismatch in the interpretation of meaning (Schegloff, 1997). "Meaning" is a
concept that transcends linguistic boundaries, encompassing both specialised definitions in
various fields and the everyday sense of interpretation and understanding in general English.
While specialists meticulously analyse and define meaning within their domains, the general
populace relies on meaning to navigate the complexities of everyday communication.
Understanding the multifaceted nature of "meaning" enriches our appreciation of language,
communication, and the dynamic interplay between technical precision and everyday
interpretation
. 4.3. The technical dimensions of "Meaning" in ESP Contexts :In specialist or technical fields,
"meaning" assumes a more precise and contextspecific definition. In linguistics, for instance,
"meaning" relates to the interpretation or significance conveyed by words, phrases, or symbols.
This concept is studied through various linguistic theories, such as semantics and pragmatics
(Chierchia & McConnell-Ginet, 2000). Researchers delve into the intricacies of how language
conveys meaning through the analysis of word definitions, sense relations, and the structure of
sentences. Mathematics is another field where "meaning" takes on a specialized interpretation.
Here, it is related to the significance or interpretation of mathematical equations, symbols, or
theorems. Mathematical notation carries specific meanings, and mathematical statements are
considered meaningful based on their logical coherence and adherence to mathematical principles
(Stewart, 2015). In computer science, "meaning" pertains to the semantics of programming code
and data. It is essential for ensuring the correct functioning of software and systems. The field of
Sequence 4 tackles the very complex notion of meaning, how it is constructed and understood.
Collins dictionary defines it as: “The meaning of a word, expression, or gesture is the thing or
idea that it refers to or represents and which can be explained using other words.” formal
semantics in programming languages is dedicated to precisely defining the meaning of code
constructs (Nielson, Nielson, & Hankin, 2015).
4.4. Business English Business English (also commercial English, economics English) : is a
specialized form of English used in the context of business, commerce, and professional
environments. Specific linguistic, communicative, and cultural features that make it distinct from
every day or general English characterize it. Business English is said to be characterised by
several features. Business English typically maintains a formal tone, avoiding overly casual or
colloquial language. Polite and respectful language is emphasized, particularly in written
communication. Besides, it includes a specialized vocabulary related to business, industry,
finance, management, marketing, economics, and other professional domains. Business jargon
and acronyms are common, and they are understood and used within the professional context.
More, communication in business English aims for clarity and precision in conveying ideas,
instructions, and information. Sentences and expressions are often structured in a straightforward
manner to avoid ambiguity or misunderstanding.