i

The Relationship of Internalizing Patriarchal Oppression

and Autonomy Deficits with Married Women's Intellect

By

Syeda Anum Tahir

CIIT/FA19-BPY-077/ISB

BS Research project

In

Psychology

Department of Humanities

COMSATS University,

ISLAMABAD- PAKISTAN

Spring 2023
 ii

COMSATS University Islamabad

The Relationship of Internalizing Patriarchal Oppression and Autonomy Deficits with

Married Women's Intellect

A Research project presented to

Department of Humanities

COMSATS University, Islamabad

In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

BS PSYCHOLOGY

By

Syeda Anum Tahir

CIIT/FA19-BPY-077

Spring 2023
 iii

The Relationship of Internalizing Patriarchal Oppression and Autonomy

Deficits with Married Women's Intellect

An undergraduate Research Project submitted to the Department of Humanities as partial

fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of BS Psychology

Name Registration Number

Syeda Anum Tahir CIIT/FA19-BPY-077

Supervisor

Dr Waqar Hussain Sukoon

Associate Professor, Department of Humanities

COMSATS University (CU)

Islamabad campus

June 2023
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FINAL APPROVAL

This thesis is titled

The Relationship of Internalizing Patriarchal Oppression

and Autonomy Deficits with Married Women's Intellect

By

Syeda Anum Tahir

CIIT/FA19-BPY-077/ISB

has been approved.

For COMSATS University

Islamabad

External Examiner: _______________________________________________________

Supervisor: ______________________________________________________________

Dr. Waqar Husain,

Associate Professor, Department of Humanities, CU Islamabad

Head of Department: ______________________________________________________

Dr. Farhat Nisar

Head, Department of Humanities, CU Islamabad

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DECLARATION

I, Syeda Anum Tahir, CIIT/FA19-BPY-077/ISB hereby declare that I have produced the work

presented in this thesis, during the scheduled period of study. I also declare that I have not taken

any material from any source except referred to wherever due that amount of plagiarism is within

acceptable range. If a violation of HEC rules on research has occurred in this thesis, I shall be

liable to punishable action under plagiarism rules of the HEC.

Date:

_______________ __

Syeda Anum Tahir

CIIT/FA19-BPY-077/ISB
 vi

CERTIFICATE

It is certified that Syeda Anum Tahir, CIIT/FA19-BPY-077/ISB has carried out all the work

related to this research project under my supervision at the Department of Humanities

COMSATS University, Islamabad and work fulfils all the requirement for award of BS degree

Date: _______________

Supervisor:

___________________

Dr. Waqar Husain

Associate Professor

Department of Humanities,

COMSATS University, Islamabad

Head of the Department:

_______________________________________

Dr. Farhat

Department of Psychology

COMSATS University Islamabad

 vii

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my family, friends and to all the Married Women
 viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praise to ALLAH Almighty, nourisher, and the cherisher of the whole world for bestowing

his countless blessings that helped surpass all the difficulties and lead to the completion of this

research project with the best of one’s knowledge.

I share deep gratitude and feel privileged to pay my profound respect to my inspirational

Supervisor, Dr. Waqar Hussain Sukoon, Associate professor, Department of Psychology,

COMSATS University, Islamabad for his guidance, valuable advice, and constructive feedback

for doing this research. He provided me with an excellent environment throughout my research.

His expertise and knowledge helped me throughout my research and led to the completion of this

project.

I carry no words that can acknowledge the countless efforts and everlasting support of my loving

parents and friends. Their presence and moral support always helped me in my work. I also want

to share deep gratitude and respect to all of my teachers for being true guides throughout my

educational process.

Syeda Anum Tahir

CIIT/FA19-BPY-077/ISB
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Title No.

List of Tables ……………………………………………………………….... xii

List of Appendices ………………………………………………………….... xiii

Abstract …………………………………………………………………......... xiv

CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………...... 2

Patriarchy ……………………………………………….................................... 2

Definitions of Patriarchy ……………………....................................... 2

Theories of Patriarchy……………………………………………….... 3

History of Patriarchy............................................................................... 5

Patriarchal Oppression………………………………………………………… 7

Definitions of Patriarchal oppression ………………………………… 7

Theories of Patriarchal oppression ……………………………………. 9

History of patriarchal oppression ……………………………………... 10

Intelligence ……………………………………………………………………. 12

Definitions of Intelligences ………………………………………......... 12

Theories of Intelligences ………………………………………………. 14

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Types ………………………………………………………………………………… 17

Sexual Intelligence…………………………………………………………………. 17

Emotional Intelligence……………………………………………………………. 19

Social Intelligence…………………………………………………………………... 21

Cognitive Intelligence………………………………………………………………. 23

Religious Intelligence……………………………………………………............... 25

Moral Intelligence…………………………………………………………………. 26

Spiritual Intelligence ……………………………………………………………… 28

Earlier studies of Intelligence on gender-based differences …………………………. 30

Earlier studies of Intelligence on age-based differences ……………………………. 31

Earlier studies of Intelligence on marital-based differences ……………………………. 31

Earlier studies of intelligence on education-based differences ………………………. 32

Earlier studies of Intelligence on profession-based differences ……………………… 34

Earlier studies of Intelligence on cultural based differences ………………………… 35

CHAPTER: 2

Sample ………………………………………………………………………... 39

Measure/ Instrument …………………………………………………………. 40

Procedure ……………………………………………………………………. .. 40

Analysis scheme ……………………………………………………………… 41

CHAPTER: 3

RESULTS …………………………………………………………………… 42
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CHAPTER: 4

DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………… 53

LIMITATIONS……………………………………………………………….. 59

RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………………………… 60

IMPLICATIONS……………………………………………………………… 62

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………. 63

References... ………………………………………………………………….. 65

Appendices …………………………………………………………………… 109

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Descriptive statistics, reliability, and data accuracy for variables measured in the

study …………………………………………………………... 56

Table 2 The correlation for Women Autonomy and other scales in the study … …58

Table 3 Difference between married and unmarried women variables in the study……… 60
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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix. Demographic sheet…………………. ...…………….. 99

 xiv

ABSTRACT

This quantitative study investigates the impact of internalizing patriarchal oppression and

autonomy on the intelligence of married women. The study examines the relationships between

internalized patriarchal oppression, autonomy within marriage, and indicators of intellectual

development using a sample of married women from diverse cultural contexts. A structured

survey questionnaire employing a 7-point Likert scale with 69 items in total integrated with

Sukoon Intelligence scales and Women’s Psychosocial Autonomy scale, was administered to

participants to determine their levels of agreement with statements pertaining to these constructs.

A sample size of N= 249 married and unmarried women, from diverse backgrounds within

Pakistan, participated in the study. To examine the data, descriptive and inferential statistical

analyses were performed. The findings emphasize the negative impact of internalized patriarchal

oppression on the intellectual development of women, demonstrating the influence of self-

limiting beliefs and attitudes on cognition, learning, and educational pursuits. In addition, the

study emphasizes the significance of autonomy, decision-making power, and freedom of choice

in promoting women's intellectual development within the context of marriage. The study

contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing empirical evidence on the complex

interplay between patriarchal norms, internalization processes, autonomy, and women's sexual,

moral, religious, spiritual, and cognitive intelligence within the context of marital satisfaction.

Keywords: patriarchy, patriarchal oppression, marital satisfaction, sexual intelligence, autonomy,

married women
 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
 2

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

This study investigates the effects of patriarchal oppression and autonomy on the

intelligence of married women. It seeks to investigate the connection between power dynamics in

marital relationships, women's autonomy, and various aspects of intellectual functioning. Higher

levels of autonomy are correlated with cognitive, social, emotional, sexual, religious, moral, and

spiritual intellect, among others, according to this study.

Patriarchy

Definitions.

Patriarchy forms a social system where the role of males tends to be highlighted as

‘primary’ and the law of the social structure promotes the idea of women as objects, and property

that is meant to be possessed; primarily for the economical, sexual, and social stability that of a

man (Nwadike et al., 2022). According to Ueno, patriarchy is extended to the field of sexuality,

and it becomes a more fitting way for feminism to perceive the problem, defining patriarchy as

one system where men have the freedom to expropriate women’s sexuality (Sechiyama, 2013a).

The female gender, the female body, merely becomes the target of masculine terror and atrocities

being subjected on them which sets the positioning of genders, place of women, the structure of

power, feminine objectification and lastly, their marginality within the society itself (Malik &

Anwar, 2021). Patriarchy includes two elements including gender and generation (Sechiyama,

2013b).

Patriarchy cannot have a single explanation since it is multifaceted, and thus a more in-

depth analysis of patriarchy would include its most essential features like that of social and
 3

political institutions, along with the proper qualifications related to the contextual nature of

patriarchies instilled in different places at different times (Burack, 2019). Gillian and Snider

express patriarchy: “If love marks the path leading out of patriarchy, why do we turn away from

love?” (Burack, 2019).

Patriarchy in a new multi-pronged definition is seen as: male dominance that is enforced

through violence as a by-product of war, the desire to control female sexuality as private

property and slaves as the spoil of wars for men. Carol P. describes Patriarchy as not being

eternal nor universal but to have risen from history, and it is something that cannot be separated

from warfare and other varying forms of domination (Christ, 2016).

Patriarchy comes under the framework of what ‘Domination’ would seem like, thus it

gives men the freedom to control and oppress women to their liking (Vrousalis, 2021).

Theories of patriarchy.

There are several theories of patriarchy, which seek to explain the ways in which male

dominance and power are maintained in society. Patriarchal mindscapes are the mental

frameworks that people use to understand and interpret gender roles, while patriarchal symbols

are the physical manifestations of these roles. They suggest that patriarchal mindscapes and

symbols are deeply ingrained in society and are used to justify the differential treatment of men

and women in the workplace (Semali & Shakespeare, 2014).

Feminist theorists argue that patriarchal mindscapes and symbols are deeply ingrained in

society, and that they reinforce gender stereotypes that perpetuate these power imbalances. For

example, patriarchal mindscapes may perpetuate the idea that women are emotional and

nurturing, while men are logical and rational. This reinforces the idea that women are not suited
 4

for positions of power and leadership, while men are (Semali & Shakespeare, 2014). This

specific mode of historical materialist theory rejects the concept behind patriarchy as the idea

being unnecessarily abstract and not efficient enough to advance knowledge related to the

construction of gender in everyday practice. Theory of practice is supposed to make sense of the

everyday life mess and use that to focus on gendered body, experiences, and spaces research

(Gottfried, 1998). Bell hooks, in her book "The Will to Change: Men, Masculinity, and Love"

(2004), discusses how patriarchy harms not only women but also men by limiting their emotional

range and perpetuating violence. She argues for the need for men to engage in feminist work to

dismantle patriarchy and create a more equitable society (Malik & Anwar, 2021).

Gender is performed and constructed through societal norms and expectations. Dornelles

critiques the idea that there are only two distinct gender categories and argues that this binary

reinforces patriarchal power structures (Dornelles, 2012). Intersectionality plays a role in

understanding the ways in which patriarchy operates in different communities. Black women

face unique forms of oppression due to their race and gender, and that feminist theory must take

this intersectionality into account (Rider, 2014). Susan Faludi, in her book "The Terror Dream:

Fear and Fantasy in Post-9/11 America" (2007), explores how patriarchy is reinforced through

the construction of a "terror dream" in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. She states that this

dream perpetuates traditional gender roles and reinforces patriarchal power structures (Dupuis-

DÉri, 2012).

Crenshaw proposes a different theory altogether known as the Intersectional Analysis of

Patriarchy which suggests that patriarchy does not only stand on gender, but it also consists of

other social categories including race, sexuality, and socio-economic status. He emphasizes on
 5

the interconnectedness of all these categories, how they influence one another, and how they

reinforce to create all existing systems of oppression (Healy et al., 2011).

Another theory proposed by Mohanty in her research in 2013 focuses on Postcolonial

Feminism (Naoual, 2019). This theory critiques the western-centric approach to feminism and

argues that patriarchy is also perpetuated through colonialism and imperialism (Alexander &

Mohanty, 2013). It highlights the ways in which colonialism has impacted gender relations and

the importance of decolonizing feminist theory and practice (Anderl, 2022).

Connell and his Masculinities Theory has been mentioned in various research. This

theory emphasizes the diversity of masculinities and the ways in which they intersect with other

social categories (Beasley, 2012). It critiques the notion of a singular, dominant form of

masculinity and highlights the ways in which different forms of masculinity are both privileged

and marginalized (Louie, 2012). Moreover, in her book, the Queer Art of Failure, Judith

Halberstam proposes a Queer theory of patriarchy. This theory challenges heteronormative

assumptions about gender and sexuality and argues that patriarchy is not just about the

domination of men over women but also about the marginalization of non-normative forms of

gender and sexuality. It highlights the need for a more inclusive approach to gender and sexuality

that recognizes the diversity of identities and experiences (McBean, 2012).

History of Patriarchy.

Patriarchy is derived from the Greek word πατριάρχηςi, which means ‘the father who has

power over the family’ and this immediately connotates of social hierarchy, familial

relationships, and power (Pierik, 2022). The #MeToo movement, which began in 2017, brought

renewed attention to issues of sexual harassment, assault, and abuse of power in the workplace
 6

and beyond. The movement was sparked by allegations against Hollywood producer Harvey

Weinstein, and it quickly spread to other industries and countries. The movement highlighted the

pervasive nature of patriarchal attitudes and behaviors, and it has led to increased awareness and

advocacy for gender equality and women's rights (Dunn, 2020).

The Women's Marches, which began in January 2017, were a response to the election of

Donald Trump as President of the United States and to the threat that his administration posed to

women's rights and marginalized communities. The marches, which took place in cities around

the world, were a powerful display of feminist solidarity and resistance, and they called attention

to the ongoing struggle against patriarchal power structures (Bennett, 2007). The concept of

intersectionality, which highlights the ways in which different forms of oppression (such as

racism, classism, ableism, and homophobia) intersect and compound one another, has gained

increased prominence in discussions of patriarchy and feminism. Intersectionality reminds us

that women's experiences are not monolithic, and that solutions to gender inequality must

consider the ways in which other forms of oppression intersect with gender (Patil, 2013).

Violence against women remains a pervasive problem in many parts of the world, with

rates of domestic violence, sexual assault, and femicide remaining alarmingly high. The COVID-

19 pandemic has exacerbated this issue, as lockdowns and other restrictions have left many

women trapped in abusive relationships with few options for escape (Keynejad, 2021). Efforts to

combat violence against women are ongoing, but they require significant political and social will

to be effective according to UN Women in 2020 (Botting, 2021). Joan Wallach Scott argued that

patriarchy was a system of power that was "not only expressed in male domination, but also in

the constitution of femininity as subordinate.” (Scott, 2012).

 7

Judith Bennett examined how women in the Middle Ages worked within patriarchal

structures to assert their own power and agency (Raw, 2022). She argued that "women were

neither powerless victims nor completely marginalized figures" but instead found ways to

challenge patriarchy (Loengard, 2000). Lynn Hunt discussed how the French Revolution

challenged patriarchy by promoting the idea of "liberty, equality, and fraternity." She argued that

this challenged the traditional gender roles of the time and paved the way for later feminist

movements (Katzenberg, 2000). Gerda Lerner argued that patriarchy was not a natural or

inevitable part of human society, but rather a social construct that could be dismantled through

political action(Gordon, 2013). She wrote, "Patriarchy is a historic phenomenon, created and

maintained by men in order to dominate women.” (Gangoli, 2017).

Patriarchal Oppression

Definitions.

Bell Hooks defines patriarchal oppression as "a political-social system that insists that

males are inherently dominating, superior to everything and everyone deemed weak, especially

females, and endowed with the right to dominate and rule over the weak and to maintain

dominance through various forms of psychological terrorism and violence.” (hooks, 2004). Iris

Marion Young describes patriarchal oppression as "the systematic limitation of women's access

to social power and the exploitation of their labor." She argues that patriarchal oppression is

reinforced by both social structures and cultural norms (Goodin & Barry, 2021). Weldon and

Htun deem patriarchy as a set of cultural, economic, and political practices that systematically

disadvantage women and reinforce male dominance.

 8

Sally Haslanger calls patriarchal oppression "a set of social practices that serve to

privilege men by treating women as subordinate or inferior." (Zheng, 2019). Haslanger

emphasizes the importance of recognizing that patriarchy is a social construct that can be

changed through collective action. Patricia Hill Collins states that patriarchal oppression is a

form of intersecting oppression that affects not only women, but also people of color and other

marginalized groups (Gines, 2015). She writes, "Patriarchy refers to a set of social relations that

establish male dominance and female subordination through gender stratification." (“Patricia Hill

Collins’s Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of

Empowerment,” 2015). Patriarchal oppression is "a system of power that is organized around

gender and operates to the disadvantage of women and other gendered minorities" (Pierik, 2022).

Patriarchy and patriarchal oppression refer to how the institutionalized system of society

manifest its effects on the women population, in Hindu terminology, where the father and male

members of the family rule and have complete control over the mother and all other female

family members. Furthermore, it goes beyond and continues to confine women according to the

routinized law and order of men (Pandey, 2022). In their article "Theorizing Patriarchy"

published in the journal Sociology, Sylvia Walby and Jude Brown define patriarchal oppression

as "a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit

women" (Pandey, 2022). In her book "Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center," Chela

Sandoval argues that patriarchal oppression is "a matrix of domination that intersects with other

forms of oppression to create interlocking systems of power" (Naegler & Salman, 2016).

According to Angela Davis in her book "Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: Ferguson,

Palestine, and the Foundations of a Movement," patriarchal oppression is "a system of power that

operates not only in the realm of gender relations but also in the interlocking systems of race,
 9

class, and sexuality” (Seghaier, 2016). Patriarchal oppression is not limited to discrimination

against women but also encompasses other marginalized groups. It recognizes that this form of

oppression has existed for centuries and is deeply ingrained in societal structures and cultural

norms (Chowdhury, 2009).

"Patriarchal oppression is the systematic way in which men maintain power and control

over women and other marginalized groups through the use of cultural and societal norms,

economic and political structures, and individual actions that reinforce male privilege.” (Asturi &

Rosyidi, 2022). "Patriarchal oppression is the manifestation of the dominant male-centered

cultural and societal norms that have existed for centuries, and that have resulted in the

subjugation and marginalization of women and other marginalized groups." (Glover, 2021).

Theories.

According to the Grounded theory, gender-based oppression in Mozambique has resulted

in women being seen as a sex-dolls in a patriarchal society, where they deal with their oppression

by developing a critical consciousness, remaining silent, and practicing a sense of self-control

over their own struggles silently; that is how they socialize and remain relevant in their male-

dominated societies (Tomm-Bonde et al., 2021).

Feminism approach focuses on how the structural gender inequalities have continuously

denied favor of transferring the responsibility that will overcome sexism onto the individuals in

society, especially women (Bell et al., 2019). Throughout time and space feminists have

portrayed how the society discriminates between men and women on the bases of their gender.

Patriarchal oppression comes in many different forms and versions, including sexism, misogyny,

and discrimination (Bell et al., 2019).

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Pakistan is one example where patriarchy is wide-spread and keenly practiced in a way

that it continues to dishonor women as individuals with their rights and freedom (Isran & Isran,

2012). Some abnormal traditions practiced in Pakistan includes honor killings, sexual assault like

rape and domestic violence, acid attacks, burning women alive; human trafficking, forced

marriages where dowry murders take place, and custodial murder and torture. In patriarchal

societies, violence is used as a form of ‘social mechanism’, that perpetuates women subjugation

(Hadi, 2017).

In reference to the social theory of patriarchy, a qualitative study conducted within

Rawalpindi with a sample of seventeen cases and two focus group discussions showed that

patriarchal oppression is internalized through socialization in early stages of a woman’s life, who

then goes through re-socialization at the hands of in laws after marriage. This constant process of

socialization and re-socialization maintains the control and power of men over women and of

elderly women, who act like male patriarchs and facilitates in this process, younger and

vulnerable women population (Habiba et al., 2016).

History.

In Afghanistan, there was a high percentage of honour killing. In a sample of 1461

women showed that 2.3% of the women experienced extreme patriarchal attitudes and intimate

partner violence: in comparison to men (Gibbs et al., 2019).

Patriarchal oppression has been reinforced ever since the time of economic, political, and

social movements came into being. It is ingrained within all sorts of systems, whether those are

politically influenced, whether personal and intimate terms, or social constructs. Patriarchy

oppression in marriage particularly, comes in various forms including intimate partner violence,

marital rape, domestic violence, custodial torture, and dowry murders (Montgomery & Rayment-
 11

Jones, 2016). Women face restrictions over their freedom in respect to the right to speech,

financial freedom, economical pressure, and denial of reproductive autonomy.

One of the most significant manifestations of patriarchal oppression on married women is

domestic violence. According to the World Health Organization by WHO in 2013 (Jun, 2020).

approximately one in three women worldwide have experienced physical or sexual violence from

an intimate partner or sexual violence from a non-partner in their lifetime (Meyer et al., 2020).

Patriarchal oppression on married women is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon

that has evolved over time and is deeply rooted in cultural and societal norms. The Aurat march

in 2020 was opposed by multiple religious groups and conservatives from around Pakistan,

confirming the feminist approach on how patriarchy has manifested itself into religious

teachings, allowing people to oppress women by using twisted cultural and religious norms

against their freedom (Afzal et al., 2021).

Patriarchal oppression on married women also affects women's economic opportunities

and financial independence (Qasim et al., 2015).

Another key area of patriarchal oppression on married women is in the area of

reproductive health and heath care rights. Middle Eastern women try to navigate the effects of

patriarchy and cultural discrimination present in healthcare organizations by being persistent

(Tlaiss, 2013). Women from around the world have faced barriers to accessing contraception,

safe abortion, and maternal healthcare, which lead to serious consequences for their health and

well-being. This has been driven by patriarchal attitudes that prioritize men's desires and

preferences over women's autonomy and decision-making in matters related to their own bodies

(Zala & Binders, 2018).

 12

To determine the history of patriarchal oppression on married and working women,

‘Cultural biography’ was used. Findings indicate that although women in Bangladesh have

access to financial privileges because of their employment, most of them continue to cope with

the harassment, violence, and abuse carried out within their homes; due to the stigma that

surrounds the concept of divorce. Lack of laws relating to guardianship and property access,

women are still oppressed and silenced (Akhter et al., 2022).

One of the most significant manifestations of patriarchal oppression on married Pakistani

women is domestic violence. According to a study by the Aurat Foundation, a women's rights

organization in Pakistan, 84% of women in Pakistan experience some form of domestic violence

during their lifetime (Zimmerman, 2013). This violence is often fueled by patriarchal attitudes

that normalize men's use of violence to assert control over their partners and can have

devastating consequences for women's physical and mental health (von Werlhof, 2013).

Intelligence

Definitions.

Intelligence may sound like an easy word to describe but in fact, it holds so many

underlying meanings, it becomes a complex area of agreement and disagreements. In literature,

intelligence starts from the manifestation of literature. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein,

intelligence can be simply defined as being able to solve our problems not by looking out for

new solutions but by arranging and organizing all the knowledge existing within our mind (Pili,

2019).

Intelligence has various forms; one is known as Cultural Intelligence. In this way, it is

being demonstrated that Intelligence cannot be defined singularly but instead it is categorized
 13

into multiple types to make it far easier to grasp an idea of its broadness. Cultural intelligence

refers to the ability of an individual to interpret unfamiliar gestures and verbal/non-verbal cues,

as if they are used to them (Solomon & Steyn, 2017).

Kaufman and Scott highlight the importance of both learning and adaptation, and

suggests that intelligence involves not just the ability to acquire new knowledge and skills, but

also the ability to apply that knowledge and skill in novel situations (Kaufman, 2012). The

ability to learn and adapt is thought to be influenced by a range of factors, including cognitive

abilities, personality traits, motivation, and environmental factors (Roberts et al., 2021).

Gottfredson focuses on cognitive aspects of intelligence, including problem-solving and

reasoning. The ability to learn is also highlighted, suggesting that intelligence is not a fixed or

static trait, but can be developed and improved over time through experience and education

(Lubinski, 2009).

Another definition of intelligence expands the scope of intelligence beyond purely

cognitive abilities to include social and emotional intelligence (Peter & Krishnakumar, 2010).

Social intelligence refers to the ability to understand and navigate social relationships, while

emotional intelligence involves the ability to recognize and regulate one's own emotions as well

as the emotions of others (Mayer et al., 2008).

Theories.

The Multiple Intelligence theory states that there are multiple types and forms of

intelligence, with each being distinct and independent on its own. Gardner identified around

eight form of intelligences, including linguistic and language, logical and mathematical, bodily
 14

and kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, spatial, intrapersonal, and lastly, naturalistic intelligence

(Geeta & Gupta, 2017).

Triarchic theory of Intelligence states that intelligence is made of three distinctive

components including: analytical intelligence (ability of problem solving and analyzing),

creative intelligence (ability of creative thing and producing new ideas from scratch), and

practical intelligence (ability of being adaptable to different or new situations and solving life

problems). This theory was put to use in testing how the children in Bahasa Indonesia Junior

High school utilize the their intellectual creative skills into reading activities (Solang, 2008).

According to Sternberg’s theory of Successful Intelligence, intelligence is not just about

one’s cognitive abilities, but it is comprised of how well individuals are able to utilize abilities in

achieving their life goals. (Ferrando et al., 2016). According to this theory, successful

intelligence involves three key components: analytical, creativity, and practicality, along with the

ability to adapt to new situations and use one's strengths to overcome weaknesses. Sternberg uses

this theory for The Rainbow project, including diversity and validity of tests for all kinds of

students (Sternberg, 2021a).

Theory of musical intelligence, that is based on the foundations of Theory of Successful

Intelligence, involves wisdom-based, analytical, and creative aspects to it. These components

allow the performer to understand and apply to their musical composition. Performers use this to

devise creative music interpretations and perform it in a way that reaches their audience

practically and makes them feel emotionally good (Sternberg, 2021b).

There are two types of implicit theories of intelligence: entity theories (the belief that

intelligence is fixed and unchangeable) and incremental theories (the belief that intelligence can
 15

be developed through effort and learning) (Blackwell et al., 2007). A study explored how L2

writers’ implicit theories of intelligence predicted their motivation and feedback orientation.

Findings suggest that L2 writers’ implicit theories of intelligence can have important

implications for their motivation and feedback orientation. Students who believe that intelligence

is malleable and can be developed through effort and learning may be more motivated to engage

in the writing process and more receptive to feedback that can help them improve (Waller &

Papi, 2017).

Regarding implicit theories of intelligence, another study found that older students were

more likely to hold incremental (growth-oriented) theories of intelligence than younger students.

In addition, girls were more likely to hold incremental theories than boys, and boys were more

likely to hold entity (fixed) theories of intelligence than girls (Diseth et al., 2014). In terms of

implicit theories of intelligence, a different study found that students held more incremental

(growth-oriented) theories of intelligence than entity (fixed) theories. However, older students

(grades 11-12) were more likely to hold incremental theories than younger students (grades 7-8).

There were no significant gender differences in implicit theories of intelligence (Ayoub et al.,

2022).

Finding the basis of intelligence can be a complex journey. There are multiple theories,

assumptions, and frameworks that were founded to explain intelligence as a general term, break

it down into multiple categories to explore more scientific basis of intelligence, and merge it with

biological and psychological research to better understand the differences in behaviour and

cognition.

Evolutionary theories suggest that the evolution of intelligence came as an adaptive trait

that was primarily used to solve problems and overall navigate through complex environmental
 16

obstacles (Huber & Gajdon, 2006). A study published in 2003 by Byrne and Whiten explored the

social intelligence hypothesis, suggesting that intelligence evolved in response to the challenges

of living in complex social groups (Huber & Gajdon, 2006).

Studies in the 2000s were also focused on the genetic basis of intelligence and its

evolution (Plomin & Spinath, 2004). A study by Plomin and colleagues in 2005 conducted a

meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. They concluded that genetic factors account for a

very significant area of individual differences in terms of intelligence (Deary et al., 2009).

Another study by Deary et al. published in 2010 examined the relationship between genetic

variants and intelligence, providing evidence for a polygenic influence on cognitive abilities

(Deary et al., 2022).

Cognitive scientists have researched and investigated the role of cognitive processes and

brain mechanisms in the manifestation of intelligence. A study by Duncan introduced a

framework that was named ‘Unified theory of cognitive abilities’ (Duncan et al., 2000). It

suggests how general intelligence arises from a shared neural network that supports multiple

cognitive processes (Blair, 2007).

Throughout recent years, we find that there tends to be an increasing interest in how the

environment lands a role in the development and progress of intelligence. A study by Tucker that

was published in 2011, also did its investigation of the interplay between environmental and

genetic factions in intelligence, through which, the study concluded significance of both nature

and nurture (Tucker-Drob et al., 2011). A study published by Hill et al. identify hundreds of

genetic variants that are associated with cognitive abilities, while a study published in 2021 by

Liu and colleagues found that epigenetic modifications in genes related to synaptic function were

associated with intelligence (Silvia et al., 2009).

 17

Types of Intelligence.

Sexual Intelligence.

Sexual intelligence is defined as being the ability to have perceptions, understanding, and

responses to one’s or another’s sexual needs and desires on a personal and social contextual

level. Sexual intelligence has a significant positive correlation to sexual health, when measured

on the ‘Sexual Intelligence Scale’. (Husain et al., 2023a). It is an integral part of sexual health

(Mulhall et al., 2008). The term ‘sexual intelligence’ was first proposed in 2001 by Conrad and

Milburn (Husain et al., 2023b).

To understand sexual intelligence on a larger scale, there has been research on how

emotional intelligence corresponds to sexual needs and desires on the surface, and how that has a

role in a man’s sexual performance (Mokhtari et al., 2020). Emotional intelligence is found to

correlate positively to sexual functions and sexual understanding of one’s desires, as concluded

by Leila Asadi in 2020 in her study ‘The evaluation of emotional intelligence and sexual

function of reproductive age women.’ (Asadi et al., 2020).

Sexual intelligence correlates to sexual dysfunction and sexual disorders. Sexual

dissatisfaction is a leading cause of regular medical and psychological consultations throughout

history (Morales et al., 2018). It is the sense of sex, and sexual well-being in mature adults and

adolescents (Attwood et al., 2015). Sexual intelligence is a post-modern term that is widely

promoting sexual well-being and satisfaction within intimate relationships. It emphasizes the

importance of communication, empathy, and sexual self-awareness in fostering positive sexual

experiences, especially in successful martial relationships (Jalali Asil et al., 2017).

 18

A study by Masoumi in 2017, concluded how infertile couples focus only conceiving

than maintaining a healthy and sexually balanced relationship, which resulted in lack of sexual

satisfaction of self and the partner’s, increasing stress and psycho-social constraints in martial

relationship (Masoumi et al., 2017). Sexual intelligence and satisfaction has a significant effect

on distress and openness levels in couples (Kersten & Himle, 1991).

A quantitative survey combined of New Sexual Satisfaction Survey and the Sexual Self-

Disclosure conducted to gather data from legally married non-heterosexual and heterosexual

adults, show .99% variance between, sexual self-disclosure (Rehman et al., 2011), and sexual

satisfaction, in the two groups of intimate partnership. This is an indicator of how the

understanding of sexual intensity balances relationships (Miller, 2020).

Sexual intelligence referring to sexual health signifies the quality of intimate

communication, relationship satisfaction (Byers, 2005), and sexual satisfaction (Byers &

Macneil, 2006). Lack of sexual intelligence and satisfaction leads to sexual frustration which is

termed as the ‘blue balls theory or terrorism’ (Caluya, 2013). Sexual satisfaction refers to a

positive evaluation of the overall sexual relationship (Offman & Matheson, 2005).

Sexual Intelligence is comprised of multiple attitudes and behaviors. It is a compilation of

one’s sexual attitudes (Petersen & Hyde, 2010), sexual frequency (Yucel & Gassanov, 2010),

their orgasmic consistency (Basson et al., 2005), the quality and balance of sexual relationships

and activities in relationship (Bodenmann et al., 2007), the intensity of communication (Alberts

et al., 2005), the efficiency of sexual functioning (Suschinsky et al., 2019), and their expectations

to sexual fulfilment (McClelland, 2010).

 19

Emotional Intelligence.

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize, understand, interpret, and manage

one's own emotions and the emotions of others. It plays a crucial role in interpersonal

relationships, including marriage (Issah, 2018). Emotional intelligence provides insight to

oneself and how to manage other people’s emotional reactions by understanding your own (A. S.

Drigas & Papoutsi, 2018).

Emotional intelligence works at involving and engaging an individual’s higher cognitive

functions, including attention (Wootton & Roets, 2013), reasoning (Schneider et al., 2023;

Sivanathan & Cynthia Fekken, 2002), memory (Mavrou, 2021), monitoring (Grover & Furnham,

2022; S et al., 2011), self and critical awareness (Rafieyan et al., 2014), and one’s ability of

decision making (Ran et al., 2022; Vaughan et al., 2019).

Emotional intelligence is strongly linked to narcissism in self-efficacy using the Dark

Triad (Grover & Furnham, 2022). In maintaining marital satisfaction, emotional intelligence

plays a big role (Hajihasani & Sim, 2019). It focuses on the importance of empathy (De Jesus

Cardona-Isaza et al., 2022), understanding (Rodrigues et al., 2019), and effective communication

(BULUT, 2022; Sinha & Sinha, 2017) in building a strong and fulfilling marriage. Having

emotional skills and emotional awareness defines Emotional Intelligence (Fossier, 2022).

A meta-analysis shows there is a significant positive correlation between emotional

intelligence and subjective well-being (Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). Emotional intelligence has

a partially significant role in determining the level of marital satisfaction, especially the mood

dimension of emotional intelligence (Grieco, 2002). The majority of married couples are found

to have moderate levels of both, marital satisfaction and attachment styles, with emotional
 20

stability being the strong predictors of marital satisfaction (Hajihasani & Sim, 2019). Emotional

intelligence and multi-tasking abilities are positively correlated in marital adjustment factors,

along with emotional regulation, emotional awareness, and interpersonal skills (Kalsoom &

Kamal, 2018).

In a study observing marital satisfaction within infertile Indian couples, a regression

model shows that gender, emotional intelligence, resilience, and the factors involving infertility

emerged as major predictors of marital satisfaction; with infertile Indian woman being more

unsatisfied than infertile Indian males (Barani Ganth et al., 2013). More emotionally intelligent

individuals are more stable in their happiness (Kanazawa, 2014). Emotional intelligence and

spousal emotional intelligence are found to significantly predictors of all five conflict resolutions

styles, including withdrawal, dysfunctional conflict resolution style, compliance, conflict

engagement, and positive problem solving (Dwyer, 2005).

Psychological disorders like borderline, depressive, avoidant, paranoid, passive-

aggressive, dependent, and self-defeating personalities show deficits in emotional intelligence,

whereas, histrionic, psychopathy, and narcissistic styles exhibit higher positive relation with

perceived emotional intelligence (Ruiz et al., 2012). Increase in emotional intelligence abilities

increases the chances of job satisfaction with low levels of burnouts, particularly public service

workers (H. J. Lee, 2018). Higher emotional intelligence is directly linked to group effectiveness

and better work performance as it facilitates emotional self-awareness among peers (Ashkanasy

& Jordan, 2006). Single fathers in college showcase signs of being positive role models for their

children, and having high emotional intelligence which allow them to be present for their

children both, emotionally and physically (Johnson & Wood, 2016). Maternal love is found to be
 21

positively associated with perceived love and adult happiness when mediated by emotional

intelligence and self-esteem (Sillick & Schutte, 2006).

Emotional intelligence is predicted to play a role in romantic love among newlywed

couples. (Zeidner & Kaluda, 2008). By using the Emotional Intelligence Scale, it is found that

emotional intelligence is significantly higher in men as compared to woman, with significantly

positive correlation of emotional intelligence to social intelligence, age, and education (Husain et

al., 2022). Drivers with high emotional intelligence and emotional self-regulation face driving

issues more calmly, with higher level of driving safety (Zhou et al., 2022)

Social Intelligence.

Social intelligence refers to the ability to understand and navigate social interactions

effectively (Lubinski, 2009). Social intelligence involves the capacity to perceive (Swain et al.,

2022), interpret (Danziger, 2022), and respond to the emotions (BULUT, 2022; Segrin & Flora,

2019), intentions (Eketu & Ogbu Edeh, 2019; Hussain et al., 2021), and behaviors (Praditsang et

al., 2015) of others , as well as to manage one's own emotions and behavior (Silver et al., 2021)

in social situations.

Social intelligence is comprised of different key components including, social perception

(Silver et al., 2021; Swain et al., 2022) which is the capacity to accurately perceive and interpret

social cues (Harteveld et al., 2019; C. Lee & Lew-Williams, 2023), nonverbal behaviors, and

verbal cues, allowing individuals to understand others' emotions, intentions, and attitudes (Hu &

Yao, 2022). Social skills make up another component of social intelligence. Higher social

intelligence positively relates to strong social skills, which includes the ability to effectively

communicate (Sternberg & Kostić, 2020; Williams et al., 2022), express oneself clearly
 22

(Özdemir & Adıgüzel, 2021; Pachalska et al., 2012), listen actively (Doyle, 2019), and engage in

appropriate and respectful social behavior. Social skills involve the ability to initiate and

maintain conversations (Pachalska et al., 2012), resolve conflicts (Carreras et al., 2014; Rahim et

al., 2018), negotiate (Wawra, 2009; Yaseen & Ahmed, 2021), and cooperate (Lim, 2016) with

others.

Social intelligence highlights perspective-taking (Job et al., 2021), a capability of

understanding and accepting others’ view point by putting oneself in their shoes; fostering

empathy and cooperation (Barber et al., 2010; Vonk et al., 2013). With social intelligence,

individuals expand their social means of interaction and relationships, their social connections

lead to social influence, especially in academics, students maintain their position through socially

interacting with their peers (Portela-Pino et al., 2022).The capacity to influence and persuade

others in a positive manner, utilizing effective communication, persuasion techniques, and

interpersonal skills to achieve desired outcomes (Hackworth & Brannon, 2006; Praditsang et al.,

2015).

Marital satisfaction is significantly influenced by social intelligence. Couples with higher

levels of social intelligence experience greater relationship satisfaction due to effective

communication, emotional support, and conflict resolution skills (Karney & Bradbury, 2005).

Social intelligence plays a crucial role in providing emotional support to one's spouse.

Individuals high in social intelligence demonstrate empathy, understanding, and responsiveness,

creating a supportive marital environment (Bodenmann & Widmer, 2000).

 23

Cognitive Intelligence.

Cognitive intelligence, which is also referred to as the general intelligence or "g-factor"

(Otero et al., 2022), represents an individual's grasp on reasoning (Wang et al., 2016), learning

(Iqbal et al., 2022; Pratama & Corebima, 2016), problem-solving (Johnson-Ulrich et al., 2022),

and abstract thinking skills (Evans, 2003; Kao, 2022).

A meta-analysis on Cognitive intelligence using meta-analytic model shows that

Cognitive intelligence and its combination with numerical ability accounts for 69% of Cognitive

reflection (CR) variance. Cognitive intelligence and numerical ability are directly and indirectly

correlated (Otero et al., 2022).

Cognitive intelligence is a common assessor when using standardized tests, along with

the widely recognized intelligence quotient (IQ) tests (Wechsler, 2008) All these tests are used to

measure various cognitive abilities including verbal comprehension (Johann et al., 2020),

perceptual reasoning (Ramchandran et al., 2020) , working memory (Evans, 2003; Manard et al.,

2014; Otero et al., 2022), and processing speed (Kizina et al., 2021), to provide an overall score

representing an individual's cognitive intelligence (Suwartono et al., 2014).

Cognitive intelligence comprises both fluid and crystallized intelligence. Fluid

intelligence represents the capacity for abstract reasoning, problem-solving, and adaptive

thinking, while crystallized intelligence reflects acquired knowledge, skills, and expertise

through education and experience (Kao, 2022; Solomon & Steyn, 2017). Individuals with higher

cognitive intelligence demonstrate superior problem-solving skills and decision-making abilities.

They excel in analyzing complex situations, generating alternative solutions, and evaluating the

potential outcomes of their choices (Stanovich & West, 2003).

 24

Children with good cognitive functioning at pre-term birth have socioeconomic status,

psychological functioning, and health-related quality of life consistent with those born at term

(Dalziel et al., 2007). Cognitive intelligence is being used with wireless communication to

improve the functioning of smart healthcare systems (Barua et al., 2020). Being a female with a

certain number of children positively affects life satisfaction but the cognitive intelligence

competencies are observed to negatively affect it, which may showcase that thinking systems are

negative (Amdurer et al., 2014). Cognitive cultural intelligence positively correlates to life

satisfaction and the mediator of this relationship is career engagement (Le et al., 2018). Adaptive

cognitive coping strategies are partially linked to the relationship between emotional regulation

abilities and well-being (Extremera et al., 2020).

Older and more mature adults are better at coping with age-related impairments if their

cognitive intelligence (particularly verbal domains) are sufficient (Puccioni & Vallesi, 2012).

Higher cognitive and psychological intelligence is associated with better problem-solving skills

and development phases (Demetriou & Spanoudis, 2017). Meta-analysis shows that Cognitive

intelligence is influence by the development of personality traits (von Stumm & Ackerman,

2013). Cognitive emotional regulation improves emotional intelligence of students with hearing

impairments or disorders (Ashori & Rashidi, 2020). Cognitive intelligence and emotional

intelligence correlate with each other on the basis of time preference and risk preference (Ackert

et al., 2020). Structural equation model shows that cognitive intelligence is the strongest

predictor of job performance (Dhliwayo & Coetzee, 2020).

Cognitive intelligence is researched to strongly associate with emotional intelligence but

negatively related to religiosity (Łowicki et al., 2020). Employees who complete emotional and

cognitive intelligence surveys, recording higher association in their mental and emotional
 25

regulation, are better at their job tasks (Côté & Miners, 2006). Humor abilities includes both

emotional and cognitive intelligence (Ogurlu, 2015).

Religious Intelligence.

Religious intelligence is a way of assessing how sacred rituals and symbols act as a

source of force multipliers that result in motivating or constraining the effectiveness of combat

operations (White, 2006). A study done by Howells showed that intelligent students are less

likely to link to religious belief and there is a negative correlation between intelligence and

religious understanding (Cribari-Neto & Souza, 2013). Religious intelligence is defined as an

individual's ability to understand, interpret, and apply religious principles and teachings to their

lives (White, 2006). It is a multidimensional construct that encompasses knowledge of religious

texts, beliefs, and practices, as well as the ability to think critically about these topics and apply

them in daily life (Ganzach et al., 2013). There are several measures of religious intelligence,

including the Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI-24), the Religious Orientation

Scale (ROS), and the Religious and Spiritual Intelligence Scale (RSIS) (RUBIN, 2017). These

measures assess different aspects of religious intelligence (White, 2006), such as knowledge of

religious texts, understanding of religious symbols (O’Sullivan, 2017), and the ability to

integrate religious teachings (Hussein et al., 2022) into one's life.

Religious intelligence has several applications, including personal growth (Kwilecki,

2000), leadership (Adnan et al., 2019), and education (Sidi et al., 2022). Individuals with high

levels of religious intelligence are more likely to experience personal growth and well-being, as

they are able to apply religious principles to their lives (Andrei, 2023).

Shared religious practices and a sense of spiritual connection can promote a sense of

unity, shared purpose, and a common moral framework, which can positively impact relationship
 26

satisfaction (Moghadam, 2016). Multiple regression shows that spiritual intelligence and

religious faith strongly predict self-regulation (Utami et al., 2022). Intrinsic religious orientations

tends to be significantly positive in its association with emotional intelligence while extrinsic

religious orientation has a negative relation with emotional intelligence (Liu, 2010). The level of

spiritual and religious intelligence affects or predict an individual’s state of emotional

intelligence (Ng & Prihadi, 2020). The net effect of religious disbelief in atheists in United states

is continuing to increase which effects the average intelligence level in US (Cribari-Neto &

Souza, 2013). Religious beliefs and functioning disrupts marital satisfaction among older couples

when their cultural perspectives conflict with their religious ideas within marriage (Mullins,

2016).

Linear regression confirms that in marital relationships, the strength of the husband/s

religious intelligence and faith determines the wife’s martial satisfaction among Christian

couples (Sauerheber et al., 2021). Joint religious communication is positively associated with

martial satisfaction in mixed faith couples than same faith couples (David & Stafford, 2015).

Religious understanding and resources allow individuals in feeling more stable, secure, and

happy (Kim, 2003). Faith based couples, who are in tune with their religious beliefs have a

strong nurturing play in their marital life, as it enhances the quality of intimacy among couples

(Lichter & Carmalt, 2009).

Moral Intelligence.

Moral intelligence focuses on the ability to apply moral principles in ethical decision-

making, encompassing a set of cognitive (Bostyn et al., 2020; Killgore et al., 2007), emotional

(Beißert & Hasselhorn, 2016; Koven, 2011), and behavioral competencies (Engelbrecht &
 27

Hendrikz, 2020; Walsh, 2011) to enable individuals to navigate complex moral situations and act

in ways consistent with their values and principles (Al-Adamat et al., 2020).

Moral intelligence involves the ability to perceive moral issues, reason morally, and

regulate one's behavior based on ethical principles (Lapsley & Narvaez, 2004). There is a four-

component model of moral functioning that includes, moral sensitivity (understanding ethical

issues), (Dehghani et al., 2020; Taylan et al., 2021), moral judgment (aware of right and wrong)

(Malti & Ongley, 2013), moral motivation (motivated to follow the order of right and wrong)

(Anas Ramadan Al-Masri et al., 2020; Bostyn et al., 2020), and moral character (demonstrating

virtuous traits) (Mestvirishvili et al., 2020; Saroglou et al., 2020).

Meta analysis on the effects of sleep deprivation om moral intelligence shows that

individuals with two days less of sleep lacked in moral judgements than those who were well

rested (Killgore et al., 2007). Dark humour increases chances of moral violation especially when

these violations benefit oneself (Brigaud & Blanc, 2021). Characters like moral sensitivity,

emotional intelligence, and empathy are positively correlated to caring behaviours found in

intensive care nurses and those working for the welfare of others (Taylan et al., 2021).

The MCI, developed by Lind, Wakenhut, and Brdar, is one of the widely used self-report

measures of moral intelligence. It assesses moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation,

and moral character (Khodarahimi & Amiri, 2017; Martin & Austin, 2010).

Leaders with higher moral intelligence are more trustworthy, just, and efficient (“Moral

Intelligence 2.0: Enhancing Business Performance and Leadership Success in Turbulent Times,”

2011). Moral intelligence in leaders is demonstrated through ethical leadership behaviors and

acts including, justice, empathy, and being morally strong (Lennick & Kiel, 2005). Moral

intelligence is positively related to various leadership outcomes, including employee satisfaction,

 28

commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior (Beheshtifar et al., 2011; Lennick & Kiel,

2006). Factors such as moral education, role modeling, and ethical organizational practices

contribute to the development of moral intelligence in individuals (Beheshtifar et al., 2011).

Spiritual Intelligence.

Spiritual intelligence is the need of self-fulfilling need to find one’s purpose, meaning of

existence, and the importance of life (B. Smith, 2012). It is a form of intelligence that involves

the ultimate level of human need – self-transcendence (Dalvand et al., 2021), mostly found in

leaders, scholars, individuals with a higher purpose (Mathews, 2021), that benefits others more

than just the self. Spiritual intelligence has been found to increase the leadership qualities in

people, by expanding their vision and giving them freedom to benefit others over their own

desires (Samul, 2020). Spiritual intelligence is determined by certain competences within in

individual including, consciousness (A. Drigas & Mitsea, 2020; Fry & Wigglesworth, 2013),

transcendence (Dalvand et al., 2021), love (Rindt-Hoffman et al., 2019; Ulluwishewa, 2018),

forgiveness (Emmons, 2000; Mcelroy et al., 2016), freedom (Blouin, 2022; Porus, 2022), pain-

suffering (Asadi-Piri et al., 2021; Ferreira-Valente et al., 2020), meaning (Medeiros et al., 2020;

Morgan Consoli et al., 2018), gratitude (Loi & Ng, 2021; Ms. Alvita de Souza & Dr. Shanmukh

V. Kamble, 2016), and effects (Ferreira-Valente et al., 2020; Martin-Sanchez et al., 2021).

Spiritual intelligence is defined and measured by different theories including

Transpersonal psychology, which emphasizes the idea that individuals have the ability to

transcend from their ordinary sense of self (Lancaster et al., 2020) to experience higher states of

self-consciousness or ‘expanded’ awareness (Humphrey, 2015). This can include experiences

such as peak experiences, spiritual awakenings, or mystical encounters (Cunningham, 2019;

Lattuada, 2021). Transpersonal psychology recognizes that spiritual development is a natural

 29

aspect of human life and involves the cultivation of qualities such as compassion (Anderson &

Braud, 2011), wisdom (Menon et al., 2018), and interconnectedness (Friedman, 2018; Ross,

2022), (Bowers, 2020).

Path analysis result showcase emotional and spiritual intelligence having a significant

positive impact on communication competence and employee performance (Rahmawaty et al.,

2021). A statistical population of 338 nurses show a significant positive relationship between the

scores of empathy and spiritual intelligence when caring for patients during the COVID19

pandemic (Aliabadi et al., 2021). A systematic review confirms that there is a relatively high

positive level of spirituality and spiritual intelligence among nurses in their professional nursing

practice (Sharifnia et al., 2022). Data analysis by using SPSS confirms a positive and significant

association of spiritual intelligence and spiritual health among medical students (Badrudin et al.,

2021). Spiritual intelligence, a relatively new form of intelligence, connects one’s mental,

physical, and spiritual life to their performance and functioning (Ma & Wang, 2022).

Statistically significant relationships have been found on four dimensions related to

spiritual intelligence from Islamic perspective, including transcendental awareness, forgiveness,

patience, meaning of life, emotional intelligence (Anwar et al., 2020). Spiritual intelligence in

accordance to Qur'anic framework uses spiritual consciousness as a source of belief, worship,

morality and social responsibility, which shapes a Muslim spiritual health effectively (Bensaid et

al., 2014). Spiritual intelligence is defined as the ability to draw on and embodying different

spiritual qualities to enhance one’s daily means of functioning and well-being. (Amram, 2022).

Spiritual intelligence is indicated to leading in improved spiritual health and reducing

occupational stress, particularly in an Islamic environment (Aini et al., 2023).

 30

Spiritual intelligence enhances quality of care, and provides better coping mechanism to

deal with hardiness in professional life (Pinto & Pinto, 2020). Spiritual intelligence and mental

health relate significantly in art and science students, with male and female students having

separate relationship with spiritual intelligence (Pant & Srivastava, 2019). Family education is

the most critical foundation for the development of children’s spiritual intelligence (Sholehuddin

et al., 2023).

Earlier studies of intelligence on gender-based differences.

A quite influential study by Janet Shibley Hyde examines an extensive range of cognitive

abilities and it finds males and females overall, tend to exhibit surprisingly similar levels of

intelligence. This study challenges the theory or notion that there are substantial differences in

gender based cognitive abilities (Hyde, 2005, 2014). Another study gives a comprehensive

review examining gender differences in mathematical and scientific capabilities. It concludes

that apart from very average differences in specific areas like spatial abilities, male and female

overlap in their mathematical abilities (Halpern et al., 2007).

A meta-analysis was conducted from various studies on university students and its

analyzed data found that there is a very small but overall consistent male advantage when it

comes to performance on the Raven’s Progressive Matrices, for abstract reasoning. Nonetheless,

what is worth noting is that the study only focused on only specific cognitive ability

measurements, thus not providing comprehensive overview of gender differences in intelligence

(Irwing & Lynn, 2005).

Earlier studies of intelligence on age-based differences.

A study, conducted by Schaie based on the Seattle Longitudinal Study, tends to be one of

the most detailed investigations of intellectual development during adulthood, explores age-
 31

related changes in various cognitive abilities, including reasoning, memory, verbal ability, and

spatial orientation, across the adult lifespan (Schaie, 1996). Horn and Cattell's study examines

the distinction between two types of intelligence: fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.

Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to solve new problems, while crystallized

intelligence refers to knowledge and skills acquired through experience. The study explores how

these two forms of intelligence change with age (Horn & Cattell, 1967). Salthouse's work

focuses on theoretical perspectives regarding cognitive aging. It discusses various theories and

models that attempt to explain the changes in cognitive abilities with age, such as information

processing theories, speed of processing, and cognitive resources (Salthouse, 2016). Baltes and

Baltes presents the model of selective optimization with compensation (SOC) as a framework for

understanding successful aging. The SOC model suggests that individuals can maintain high

levels of functioning in old age by selectively focusing on important goals, optimizing their

resources, and compensating for declines in other areas (Baltes & Baltes, 2010).

Earlier studies of intelligence on marital-based differences.

“Marital satisfaction and intelligence: A quantitative review" by Furnham, A., & Cheng,

H. (2000) is a meta-analysis reviewing several studies exploring the association between

intelligence and marital satisfaction. The researchers examines the collective effect of

intelligence on marital satisfaction and identifying moderators or factors that potentially may

influence this relationship (Aspara et al., 2018; Z.N. et al., 2014).

"Spousal similarity in intelligence and educational aspirations: Evidence from India" by

Lersch, P. M., & Lersch, K. M. (2013) focuses on the spousal similarity in intelligence along

with the educational aspirations by using data from India only. The study investigates the extent
 32

to which spouses were deemed similar in terms of their intelligence levels to how this similarity

influences their educational aspirations within their marital arrangements (Watson et al., 2004).

"Intelligence in Relation to the Outcome of Marriages" by Terman, L. M., & Oden, M. H.

(1947) examines the authenticity of the relationship between intelligence and marital outcomes.

The researchers follow a large sample of individuals carrying from childhood to adulthood, to

investigate the correlation between their intelligence levels to marital satisfaction (Plomin & Von

Stumm, 2018).

Cognitive abilities and marital satisfaction" by Blanchard-Fields, F., & Hertzog, C.

(1994) focuses on the relationship between cognitive abilities and marital satisfaction,

particularly in older couples. The researchers have found how different aspects of cognitive

functioning, such as memory or problem-solving skills, affects the marital quality and

satisfaction (Dufouil & Alpérovitch, 2000).

Earlier studies of intelligence on education-based differences.

Early studies attempt to understand how genetics and environmental factors contribute to

intelligence and the educational differences found within individuals (Hambrick & Burgoyne,

2019). The researches have conducted twin and adoption studies so they can estimate the

heritability of intelligence, which reveals that genetic factors play a significant role in

manifesting individual differences in intelligence (Cherry, 2021).

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in the early 20th century developed the Stanford-Binet

test, which is one of the first ever intelligence tests (Becker, 2003a). The main aim is to identify

intellectual abilities by assessing cognitive strengths and weaknesses found within both, in

children and adults. This test has been used to explore the relationship between intelligence and

educational achievement (Becker, 2003b).

 33

The Coleman Report that was first published in 1966 and commissioned by the U.S.

Department of Education, investigated different types of educational opportunities and outcomes

for different racial and socioeconomic groups found within the United States. (Kantor & Lowe,

2017) The conclusion of this report shows that the family background along with socio-

economic status factors played a significant role on how the educational outcomes look like than

just the school resources (Downey & Condron, 2016).

James Flynn observed a substantial increase in average intelligence test scores over time,

known as the Flynn Effect (Bratsberg & Rogeberg, 2018). This effect suggests that

environmental factors, such as improved education and nutrition, have contributed to rising

intelligence levels and educational performance (Baker et al., 2015). Since then, there have been

multiple studies on the Flynn effect, including its negative aspects to its positive ones in terms of

education and intelligence (Dutton et al., 2016).

Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in 1980s, suggesting that

intelligence is not a unitary trait but in fact it is a collection of distinct abilities (Karaduman &

Cihan, 2018). Gardner also identifies multiple types of intelligence, including linguistic, logical-

mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic

intelligence (“Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice,” 1993).

Throughout research there has been significant approach towards the Black and White

individual theory of intelligence (Colman, 2016). Several studies and reports show how there are

potential causes to the gap we observe that may include socioeconomic differences, cultural

biases when it comes to testing, and the role of environment (J. Smith, 2018). These all factors

produce an average intelligence gap.

 34

Earlier studies of intelligence on profession-based differences.

The field of intelligence testing gained momentum in the early 20th century with the

development of IQ tests. Psychologists like Alfred Binet and Lewis Terman conducted studies to

measure intelligence and its potential relationship to various professions (Ryan & Stoskopf,

2008). These studies aimed to identify individuals with high intellectual potential for specific

occupations, such as identifying children with high IQ scores for advanced academic programs

(Siegler, 1992; Simpson, 2022).

In the mid-20th century, researchers began examining the cognitive abilities associated

with different professions. The Differential Psychology approach focused on identifying and

measuring specific abilities relevant to job roles (Deary, 2012). A few studies explored how

cognitive skills are necessary for success in fields like engineering, medicine, law, and other

professions (Kanazawa, 2010). These investigations often involved administering tests to assess

specific abilities like numerical reasoning, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, and

problem-solving (McCrae & Costa, 2021; Steingroever et al., 2019).

Initiated by K. Warner Schaie in the 1950s, The Seattle Longitudinal Study aims to

understand the age-related changes in cognitive abilities across various professions (Schaie &

Willis, 2010). It involves assessment of a broad spectrum of cognitive domains, including verbal

ability, numerical reasoning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, and memory, all in

individuals that come from different professional backgrounds (Schaie, 1996; Schaie et al.,

2004).

Many studies focused on developing occupational aptitude tests so specific skills and

abilities could be assessed that are required in different professions since early 1900s (Bingham,
 35

1937). Some tests have been created to evaluate mechanical understanding in engineering fields,

and management and strategic thinking for business positions, and spatial visualization for

architecture and design careers (Rosen & Ghiselli, 1967). These assessments help match

individuals' cognitive abilities to the demands of specific occupations (BEMIS, 1968).

Earlier studies of intelligence on cultural-based differences.

Charles Spearman proposed a two factor theory in early 20th century that suggests

intelligence is composed of two factors: the general factor (g) and specific factors (s) that are

specific to particular tasks or domains (Garrett, 1935). This theory focused primarily on the

universal aspects of intelligence and does not explicitly consider cultural differences (Lovie &

Lovie, 1995).

In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell expanded on Spearman's theory and introduced the

concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence (Boyle et al., 2016). Fluid intelligence refers to the

ability to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, while crystallized intelligence

represents acquired knowledge and skills from one's cultural environment (Nenty & Dinero,

1981). This theory recognized the influence of culture on intelligence by acknowledging the role

of crystallized intelligence (Brown, 2016). Howard Gardner proposed a theory in 1980s, of

"multiple intelligences,". This theory recognized the potential for cultural variation in. the

manifestation of these multiple intelligences (Helding, 2009).

Researchers have developed culture-fair or culture-free intelligence tests to measure

cultural bias. All these tests aim to minimize the impact of cultural background on test

performance by focusing on more universal cognitive abilities (Nenty & Dinero, 1981). Cultural
 36

and contextual models of intelligence argue that intelligence should be viewed as a dynamic

interaction between individuals and their cultural contexts (Gonthier, 2022; Hartini et al., 2019).

Rationale of the current study

This study is motivated by the recognition of the enduring impact of patriarchal norms

and gender inequality in numerous societies. Despite advances in women's rights and

empowerment, patriarchal oppression continues to influence the lives of women, including their

intellectual development within the institution of marriage. Understanding the effects of

internalized patriarchal oppression and autonomy on the intelligence of married women is crucial

for several reasons.

This study seeks to shed light on how deeply ingrained societal norms and expectations

can affect women's cognition, learning, and intellectual pursuits by examining the impact of

internalized patriarchal oppression. Internalized oppression is the approval and incorporation of

oppressive beliefs and attitudes, which can limit the confidence, self-esteem, and academic

aspirations of women. Examining this phenomenon within the context of marriage reveals the

ways in which oppressive ideologies manifest and influence the intellectual capacities of married

women.

The second objective of the research is to investigate the role of autonomy within

marriage and its implications for the intellectual development of women. Autonomy refers to the

agency, decision-making ability, and life control of women. The ability of women to make

independent decisions within their marriages impacts their cognitive abilities, educational

opportunities, and intellectual development. This study seeks to demonstrate the importance of
 37

autonomy in nurturing women's intellectual development and challenging patriarchal power

dynamics.

In addition, by investigating the effects of internalized patriarchal oppression and

autonomy on the intellect of married women, this study seeks to contribute to the existing body

of knowledge on gender and intellectual development. It endeavors to provide empirical

evidence and insights regarding the intricate relationship between societal norms, individual

experiences, and cognitive outcomes. This research's findings can inform efforts to dismantle

oppressive structures, design interventions promoting women's empowerment, and advocate for

policies that promote equal opportunities for women's intellectual development within marriage.

In conclusion, the purpose of this study is to fill in the gaps in our comprehension of the

effects of internalized patriarchal oppression and autonomy on the intelligence of married

women. By investigating these factors, the study aims to contribute to the larger discourse on

gender inequality, challenge oppressive norms, and provide insights that can inform

interventions and policies promoting women's empowerment and equal access to educational and

intellectual opportunities.
 38

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD
 39

CHAPTER TWO

Method

Objectives

1. To investigate the relationship between internalized patriarchal oppression and the

intelligence of married women:

2. To investigate the role of autonomy in the intellectual development of married women.

3. To identify the mechanisms by which patriarchal oppression and autonomy influence the

intelligence of married women.

4. To provide empirical evidence for the development of interventions and policies.

5. To contribute to a broader comprehension of gender and intellectual development.

Research Design

The current paper is based on a Quantitative, cross-sectional study, with empirical

evidence to support the relation of patriarchal oppression with women’s intellectual

development. Relevant sample Questionnaires were distributed among married and unmarried

women. The data was mostly collected through Online Surveys and Paper surveys.

Sample

A sample of 249 women participated with an age range from 15 years to 53 and above.

The sample contained both, married and unmarried women, with varying educational, social, and

religious backgrounds. Most of the participants were educated and mature enough to understand

and respond to the instruments. The majority of women participants were from Islamabad and

Rahimyarkhan.
 40

Measures/Instruments

The study made use of multiple instruments to measure the different constructs. Sukoon

scales were used (Husain et al., 2022, 2023a). Women's Psychosocial Autonomy Scale consisted

of 18 items and had good internal consistency (α = .753). It aimed to assess the level of

autonomy experienced by married women. Cognitive Intelligence Scale comprised 15 items and

demonstrated good internal consistency (α = .842). It measured cognitive intelligence in married

women. Social Intelligence Scale consisted of 8 items and had satisfactory internal consistency

(α = .806). It assessed the social intelligence of married women. Emotional Intelligence Scale

included 15 items and demonstrated high internal consistency (α = .867). It aimed to measure the

emotional intelligence of married women. Sexual Intelligence Scale (SIS) comprised of 8 items

and exhibited good internal consistency (α = .799). It assessed the sexual intelligence of married

women. Religious, Moral, and Spiritual Intelligence Scale consisted of 10 items and

demonstrated excellent internal consistency (α = .957). It aimed to measure religious, moral, and

spiritual intelligence in married women. Moral Intelligence Scale included 4 items and exhibited

good internal consistency (α = .758). It assessed the moral intelligence of married women.

Spiritual Intelligence Scale comprised 6 items and demonstrated high internal consistency (α =

.904). It aimed to measure the spiritual intelligence of married women.

Procedure

The study is conducted through a quantitative approach using purposive sampling

technique. The data was collected with the agreement of the participants. To reach the relevant

sample both Online Survey (through Google Forms) and Paper Survey (Paper-Pencil Approach)

was used to collect the data from the housewives and unmarried women belonging to different

households, educational backgrounds, socioeconomic status, employment, and family dynamics.

 41

Participants were briefed about the rationale of the study beforehand. All participants were free

to volunteer or reject to perform in the study. Volunteers’ participation and their confidentiality

was firmly established. The responses of the participants were analyzed through IBM Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.

Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and percentage

distributions, were computed for each item within the scales. Item analysis was conducted to

evaluate the psychometric properties of the items, including item-total correlations. Reliability

analysis using Cronbach's alpha was performed to assess the internal consistency of each scale.

Furthermore, correlations were examined between Women’s Autonomy and other variables of

interest.

Analysis Scheme

The data that was collected was analyzed through IBM Statistical Package for Social

Sciences (SPSS), version 20. Before obtaining results, all data was cleaned through the

removal of incomplete responses, any missing values, and outliers. Pearson Correlation

Coefficient, t-test and descriptive statistics was used to gather the findings. Descriptive

statistics used mainly to measure the Mean, Frequency and Standard deviation. To identify the

differences and relationship of patriarchal oppression and married women’s intellect, T- test

was applied. Pearson Correlation was used to identify the relationship between the variables.

The statistical significance was set at p<0.01.

 42

CHAPTER THREE

RESULTS
 43

CHAPTER THREE

Results

This section presents the Statistical Analysis and Results of the study with N=249.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics, reliability, and data accuracy (N=249)

Variable Items α M SD % Range Skewness Kurtosis

Potential Actual

Women Autonomy 18 .753 68.730 15.329 54.55 18-126 18-111 -0.189 0.844

Cognitive Intelligence 15 .842 75.363 15.367 71.77 15-105 21-105 -0.466 0.327

Social Intelligence 8 .806 36.907 10.185 65.91 8-56 8-56 -0.197 -0.327

Emotional Intelligence 15 .867 66.074 17.462 62.93 15-105 15-105 -0.092 0.088

Sexual Intelligence 8 .799 31.808 8.568 56.80 8-56 8-55 -0.217 0.424

Religious Intelligence 10 .957 59.475 12.780 84.96 10-70 10-70 -1.912 3.752

Moral Intelligence 4 .758 21.372 4.905 76.33 4-28 4-28 -1.174 1.622

Spiritual Intelligence 6 .904 30.564 8.367 72.77 6-42 6-42 -0.721 0.079

Note: N=Number of items; α =Cronbach’s Alpha; M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation

This table provides descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients, and data accuracy

measures for several variables.

Women Autonomy consists of 18 items with a Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of

.753. The mean (M) is 68.730, and the standard deviation (SD) is 15.329. The scores range from

18 to 126, with an actual range of 18 to 111. The variable exhibits a negative skewness (-0.189)

and positive kurtosis (0.844). Cognitive Intelligence includes 15 items with a Cronbach's alpha

of .842. The mean is 75.363, and the standard deviation is 15.367. The scores range from 15 to
 44

105, with an actual range of 21 to 105. The skewness is -0.466, indicating a slightly left-skewed

distribution and the kurtosis is 0.327.

Social Intelligence variable of eight items, has a Cronbach's alpha of .806. The mean is

36.907, and the standard deviation is 10.185. The scores range from eight to 56, and both the

potential and actual ranges are the same. The skewness is -0.197, indicating a slightly left-

skewed distribution and the kurtosis is -0.327. Emotional Intelligence comprises 15 items with a

Cronbach's alpha of .867. The mean is 66.074, and the standard deviation is 17.462. The scores

range from 15 to 105, and the actual range is also from 15 to 105. The skewness is -0.092,

indicating a slightly left-skewed distribution and the kurtosis is 0.088.

Sexual Intelligence consisting of eight items, has a Cronbach's alpha of .799. The mean is

31.808, and the standard deviation is 8.568. The scores range from 8 to 56, with an actual range

of 8 to 55. The skewness is -0.217, indicating a slightly left-skewed distribution and the kurtosis

is 0.424. Religious Intelligence includes 10 items with a high Cronbach's alpha of .957,

indicating excellent internal consistency. The mean is 59.475, and the standard deviation is

12.780. The scores range from ten to 70, with an actual range of ten to 70. The skewness is -

1.912, indicating a highly left-skewed distribution and the kurtosis is 3.752.

Moral Intelligence with 4 items, has a Cronbach's alpha of .758. The mean is 21.372, and

the standard deviation is 4.905. The scores range from four to 28, with an actual range of four to

28. The skewness is -1.174, indicating a moderately left-skewed distribution and the kurtosis is

1.622.

Spiritual Intelligence consists of six items with a Cronbach's alpha of .904. The mean is

30.564, and the standard deviation is 8.367. The scores range from six to 42, and both the
 45

potential and actual ranges are the same. The skewness is -0.721, indicating a slightly left-

skewed distribution and the kurtosis is 0.079.

 46

Table 2: Correlations (N=249)

Women Autonomy

Cognitive Intelligence .275**

Social Intelligence .408**

Emotional Intelligence .349**

Sexual Intelligence .172**

Religious Intelligence .305**

Moral Intelligence .348**

Spiritual Intelligence .301**

Age .283**

Education .190**

. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

 47

The correlations between Women Autonomy and other variables in the study are

presented in Table 2. The strength and direction of the relationships between these variables are

indicated by the correlations.

Women Autonomy and Cognitive Intelligence have a correlation coefficient of .275**.

This positive correlation suggests that as Women's Autonomy increases, Cognitive Intelligence

tends to increase by a small amount. The correlation is statistically significant at the 0.01 level,

indicating that it is highly unlikely that this relationship is the result of random coincidence. The

correlation coefficient between Women's Autonomy and Social Intelligence is .408. This

positive correlation suggests that as Women Autonomy increases, the positive association with

Social Intelligence tends to strengthen. At the 0.01 level of statistical significance, the

correlation is significant. Women Autonomy and Emotional Intelligence have the same

correlation coefficient .349**. This positive correlation suggests that as Women Autonomy

rises, there is a moderately positive relationship with Emotional Intelligence. At the 0.01 level

of statistical significance, the correlation is significant. Women Autonomy and Sexual

Intelligence have the same correlation coefficient.172**. This correlation suggests that there is a

weak positive relationship between Women's Autonomy and Sexual Intelligence. At the 0.01

level of statistical significance, the correlation is significant.

Women Autonomy and Religious Intelligence have the same correlation coefficient

.305**. This positive correlation suggests that as Women Autonomy increases, a moderately

positive association with Religious Intelligence tends to emerge. At the 0.01 level of statistical

significance, the correlation is significant. Women Autonomy and Moral Intelligence have the

same correlation coefficient .348**. This positive correlation suggests that there is a moderately
 48

positive association between Women's Autonomy and Moral Intelligence as Women's

Autonomy increases. At the 0.01 level of statistical significance, the correlation is significant.

Spiritual Intelligence: Women Autonomy and Spiritual Intelligence have a correlation

coefficient of .301**. This correlation suggests that as Women Autonomy increases, there is a

moderately positive relationship with Spiritual Intelligence. At the 0.01 level of statistical

significance, the correlation is significant. The correlation coefficient between women's

independence and age is .283**. This positive correlation suggests that Women's Autonomy and

Age have a moderately positive association. Women's autonomy tends to increase marginally

with increasing age. At the 0.01 level of statistical significance, the correlation is significant.

The correlation between Women's Autonomy and Education is.190. This positive correlation

suggests that there is a faint positive association between Education and Women's Autonomy.

At the 0.01 level of statistical significance, the correlation is significant. These results indicate a

positive correlation between Women Autonomy and Cognitive Intelligence, Social Intelligence,

Emotional Intelligence, Sexual Intelligence, Religious Intelligence, Moral Intelligence, Spiritual

Intelligence, Age, and Education. Higher levels of Women Autonomy are generally associated

with higher levels of these variables, suggesting that autonomy may have positive effects on

various aspects of intelligence, social skills, and personal development.

 49

Table 3: Table 3: Differences between single and married (N=249)

Variables Single Married t(247) p Cohen’s

(n=124) (n=125) d

M SD % M SD %

Women Autonomy 64.561 14.378 51.24 72.866 15.173 57.83 4.433 0.000 .562

Cognitive Intelligence 74.744 15.613 71.18 75.977 15.157 72.36 0.632 0.528 -

Social Intelligence 35.563 10.570 63.51 38.239 9.647 68.28 2.087 0.038 .264

Emotional Intelligence 63.622 17.725 60.59 68.506 16.918 65.24 2.224 0.027 .282

Sexual Intelligence 31.557 8.427 56.35 32.056 8.732 57.24 0.458 0.647 -

Religious Intelligence 58.527 13.294 83.61 60.416 12.229 86.31 1.167 0.244 -

Moral Intelligence 20.325 5.365 72.59 22.411 4.170 80.04 3.427 0.001 .434

Spiritual Intelligence 30.462 8.706 72.53 30.666 8.050 73.01 0.192 0.848 -

Note. M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation; T=T-test value; p=Level of significance

Table 3 shows the variables between unmarried and married participants in the study are

being compared. It compares the means and standard deviations of various variables between

single and married individuals.

Women Autonomy demonstrates that married women have substantially greater

autonomy than single women (M = 72.866, SD = 15.173). The t-value of 4.43 is statistically

significant (p 0.001), indicating that married women experience greater autonomy in their

relationships than unmarried women. Cohen's d indicates a moderate difference between the

categories.

Cognitive Intelligence shows no statistically significant difference between single (M =

74.744, SD = 15.613) and married (M = 75.977, SD = 15.157) participants in terms of cognitive

intelligence. The t-value of 0.63 indicates that the observed difference is not statistically
 50

significant (p = 0.528). The table demonstrates that married participants have substantially higher

levels of social intelligence than single participants (M = 35.563, SD = 10.570). The t-value of

2.087 indicates a statistically significant difference (p = 0.038), indicating that individuals who

are married are more likely to exhibit higher social intelligence. The effect size (Cohen's d) is

0.264, which indicates a modest difference between the categories. Emotional Intelligence

reveals that married participants have substantially higher emotional intelligence than single

participants (M = 63,622, SD = 17,725). The t-value of 2.224 indicates a statistically significant

difference (p = 0.027), indicating that individuals who are married tend to have greater emotional

intelligence. Cohen's d indicates a small difference between the categories. Sexual Intelligence,

Religious Intelligence, Moral Intelligence, and Spiritual Intelligence indicate there is no

statistically significant differences between single and married participants for these variables, as

shown in the table. Sexual intelligence, religious intelligence, moral intelligence, and spiritual

intelligence all have t-values that fall below the significance threshold of 1.96, indicating that

there are no significant differences between the categories. Table 3 demonstrates that married

participants have higher levels of women autonomy, social intelligence, and emotional

intelligence than their unmarried counterparts. There were no significant differences in cognitive

intelligence, sexual intelligence, religious intelligence, moral intelligence, or spiritual

intelligence between single and married participants. These results shed light on the potential

effects of marital status on aspects of intelligence and social functioning. It's worth noting that

the effect sizes (Cohen's d) for the significant differences are generally small to moderate,

ranging from .264 to .562. These effect sizes indicate the magnitude of the differences between

the groups.
 51

Overall, these tables provide valuable information about the descriptive statistics,

reliability, correlations, and differences between single and married individuals in various

intelligence and autonomy measures. The findings can be used to further investigate the

relationships between these variables and potentially inform future research or interventions in

the relevant domains.

 52

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSION

 53

CHAPTER FOUR

Discussion

The primary objective of the study is to examine the effect of internalized patriarchal

oppression and autonomy on the intelligence of married women. The purpose of this study is to

examine the relationship between these factors and various aspects of intellectual functioning

among married women. The researchers specifically examine the correlations between women's

autonomy and their cognitive, social, emotional, sexual, religious, moral, and spiritual

intelligence. By focusing on internalized patriarchal subjugation, the study recognizes the impact

of societal gender norms and power dynamics on the experiences of married women. It attempts

to comprehend how the internalization of these oppressive beliefs and expectations may impact

the cognitive functioning of women.

In addition, the study investigates the role of autonomy, which refers to the agency and

decision-making power of married women. It examines whether higher levels of autonomy are

associated with improved intellectual abilities in a variety of domains. This research contributes

to the existing body of knowledge by casting light on the relationships between internalized

patriarchal oppression, autonomy, and women's intelligence.

A total of 249 married and unmarried women were included in the sample, with diverse

age, educational qualifications, socioeconomic status and family structures. There have been

different studies that have investigated the impact of patriarchy on women and their functioning,

but no study has been conducted on this particular topic. A study was conducted by Naheed

Qasim that investigates the link between patriarchal oppression and women’s mind in madness

(Qasim et al., 2015).

 54

Cognitive, social, emotional, religious, moral, and spiritual intellect were found to be

positively associated with women's autonomy in this study. These findings indicate that married

women with higher levels of autonomy tend to manifest greater intellectual abilities across

multiple domains. This finding is consistent with theories that emphasize the significance of

autonomy and agency in fostering individual growth and development. Previous studies have

focused on the effects of abuse and domestic violence on women (Appleton, 1980).

The significant impact of internalized patriarchal oppression on women's intelligence is

another significant finding. Higher levels of internalized patriarchal oppression were associated

with inferior cognitive and social intelligence, according to the study. These results indicate that

the internalization of oppressive beliefs and gender norms may have negative effects on the

intellectual functioning of married women. A study examined the nature of perceived collective

efficacy and its centrality in the lives of individuals. Perceived collective efficacy promotes

groups' mission-driven motivation, resiliency, and performance achievement (Bandura, 2000).

The results of this study that because of greater autonomy, married women tend to

manifest higher intellectual abilities in these domains. These results demonstrate the empowering

nature of autonomy, as it enables individuals to investigate their intellectual potential, engage in

meaningful social interactions, navigate emotional experiences, and develop a sense of their own

values and beliefs. An article emphasizes on issues concerning the sexual autonomy of women in

Pakistan. The central topic in discussions about women's autonomy is whether an adult woman

or her family should be ultimately responsible for her decision to marry. Such issues of women's

autonomy have sparked an acrimonious debate between the constitutional authority of the

Pakistani state and the traditional patriarchal authority granted by Sharia law (Otis, 2006).
 55

In this context, power can be defined as the capacity to exercise autonomy, make

decisions, and exert control over one's life and choices. Autonomy, on the other hand, refers to

the extent to which individuals are empowered to make independent decisions, act in accordance

with their own values and beliefs, and control their own lives (Holohan, 2022). Higher levels of

autonomy are associated with improved intellectual functioning, whereas internalized oppression

can hinder the intellectual development of women within patriarchal systems (Morley, 2005).

By highlighting the relationships between autonomy, internalized patriarchal oppression,

and intelligence, the study emphasizes the significance of empowering women and challenging

oppressive gender norms. It emphasizes the need to create environments that foster women's

autonomy, agency, and access to resources, thereby enabling them to reach their maximum

intellectual potential.

In the study, the emotional intelligence levels of the participants were evaluated using a

specific measurement instrument, which presumably consisted of items or subscales designed to

capture various aspects of emotional intelligence. The study provided the mean, standard

deviation, and range of participants' emotional intelligence scores. Correlation between the

autonomy of women and their emotional intelligence was found. Although the specific

correlation coefficient was not provided in the information you provided, the finding suggests

that greater autonomy was associated with greater emotional intelligence among married women.

This suggests that as women gain autonomy within their marriages, they may become

more competent at perceiving and comprehending their own emotions, effectively managing

them, and navigating relationships with others. Other studies have focused on the emotional

development stages in marital satisfaction and how external factors influence this process,
 56

measuring the levels of emotional intelligence by using Emotional Intelligence Scale (Kaur &

Sokhey, 2011).

By incorporating emotional intelligence into the study, the researchers acknowledged the

significance of emotional abilities for the intellectual functioning of married women as a whole.

Emotional intelligence is recognized as a valuable set of skills that contributes to a variety of

aspects of well-being and interpersonal interactions (Fossier, 2022). It contributes to the

development of effective communication, empathy, problem-solving, and decision-making. By

examining the connection between women's autonomy, internalized patriarchal oppression, and

emotional intelligence, this study emphasizes the potential impact of power dynamics and

societal influences on women's emotional abilities within the context of marriage.

By incorporating sexual intelligence into the study, the researchers acknowledged the

significance of understanding the role of sexual knowledge and attitudes in women's overall

cognitive functioning. Sexual intelligence incorporates a variety of facets, including

understanding one's own sexual desires and boundaries, having knowledge of sexual health and

contraception, and engaging in consensual, satisfying sexual experiences. By investigating the

association between women's autonomy, internalized patriarchal oppression, and sexual

intelligence, this study sheds light on the potential influence of power dynamics and societal

norms on women's sexual knowledge and attitudes within the context of marriage. Sexual

intelligence has been analyzed and measured in various studies using the Wechsler’s Sexual

Scale (Gervasio et al., 2022).

By including moral intelligence in the study, the researchers acknowledged the

significance of moral reasoning and ethical decision-making to women's intellectual functioning

 57

as a whole. Moral intelligence is essential for directing the behavior of individuals, cultivating

empathy, promoting ethical conduct, and navigating complex moral dilemmas. By examining the

connection between women's autonomy, internalized patriarchal oppression, and moral

intelligence, this study casts light on the potential impact of power dynamics and societal

influences on women's moral reasoning in the context of marriage. Different studies have

focused on moral intelligence and it’s development throughout the stages of an individual’s life

using the Moral Intelligence Scale (Khampa, 2019).

By involving spiritual and religious intelligence in the study, the researchers

acknowledged the importance of these dimensions to women's intellectual functioning as a

whole. Spiritual intelligence includes self-awareness, transcendence, and a sense of meaning and

purpose, whereas religious intelligence requires knowledge of religious doctrines, rituals, and

practices. By examining the relationship between women's autonomy, internalized patriarchal

oppression, and spiritual and religious intelligence, this study sheds light on the potential

influence of power dynamics and societal norms on the spiritual and religious development of

women within the context of marriage. Other studies have used religious and spiritual

intelligence to find out the effects of religious and spiritual ideologies on marital satisfaction and

connection by making use of Spiritual Intelligence scale and Marital satisfaction scale (Ansari

Ardali et al., 2019).

The findings revealed that married women had substantially greater autonomy than single

women. This finding suggests that marriage may afford women opportunities to exercise and

experience a higher sense of personal autonomy and decision-making authority within their

relationships.
 58

There were no significant differences in Cognitive Intelligence between unmarried and

married women. This suggests that marital status may not affect cognitive abilities or general

intellectual functioning significantly.

Regarding Social Intelligence, married women had substantially higher scores than single

women, according to the study. This indicates that marriage may provide opportunities for social

interaction, relationship building, and the development of interpersonal skills.

In terms of Emotional Intelligence, married women scored substantially higher than

single women, according to the study. This finding suggests that marriage may help women

develop emotional awareness, emotional regulation, and interpersonal sensitivity.

There were no significant differences between unmarried and married women regarding

Sexual Intelligence. This suggests that marital status may not have a significant influence on

women's sexual knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors.

The study then examined intelligence dimensions associated with spirituality and

religion, namely Religious Intelligence and Spiritual Intelligence. The findings revealed no

statistically significant differences between unmarried and married women on these dimensions.

This indicates that marital status may not significantly influence women's religious or spiritual

knowledge and understanding.

The study contributes to our understanding of the intricate relationship between power

dynamics, autonomy, and the intellectual functioning of married women. The findings highlight

the significance of fostering women's intellectual development, well-being, and empowerment

by promoting their autonomy and challenging patriarchal norms and practices. This study
 59

provides valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners who work towards

gender equality and women's rights by underscoring the significance of autonomy in multiple

dimensions of intellectual functioning.

Limitations

While the study provides important insights in the effects of patriarchal oppression and

autonomy on the intelligence of married women, it is essential to recognize certain limitations

that may affect the generalizability and interpretation of the results. Firstly, the study's sample

was comprised of a specific population of married women, which may not have been

representative of the general population. The results may be influenced by the cultural, social,

and demographic characteristics of the participants, thereby limiting their applicability to other

contexts or populations. Secondly, the research utilized self-report measures to evaluate variables

such as women's autonomy and different dimensions of intellectual functioning. Self-report

measures are susceptible to potential biases, such as social desirability and response bias, which

may affect the veracity of the collected data. The study employed a cross-sectional design,

which provides a snapshot of the variables at a particular juncture in time. This design limits the

capacity to establish causal relationships and draw conclusions regarding the temporal order or

direction of observed associations. To examine the changes and effects of patriarchal oppression

and autonomy over time, longitudinal studies are required. To evaluate the variables of interest,

the study employed specific measurement instruments, such as Likert scales and standardized

questionnaires. While these instruments are commonly used in research, they are incapable of

conveying the complexity and subtleties of the constructs being measured. Alternate or

additional measures could provide a more complete understanding of the investigated variables.
 60

Thirdly, participants may have provided responses they perceived to be socially

desirable, as opposed to their actual thoughts, emotions, or behaviors. This bias may have an

effect on the validity of the data, especially in sensitive areas involving gender roles, autonomy,

and intellectual functioning.

Moreover, the study may have neglected to account for external factors or confounding

variables that could have affected the relationships between variables. The lack of explicit

consideration of cultural norms, socioeconomic status, and individual differences may limit the

ability to attribute the observed effects solely to patriarchal oppression and autonomy. While the

study examined various dimensions of intellectual functioning, it may have neglected other

relevant variables that could have impacted women's intelligence or patriarchal oppression.

Additional variables, such as educational background, occupational status, and social support,

could contribute to a more complete understanding of the topic.

Recommendations

Expand the sample to include a wider variety of participants, considering factors such as

ethnicity, socioeconomic status, cultural backgrounds, and location. This would provide a

broader perspective and enhance the findings' generalizability.

Secondly, conduct longitudinal studies to examine the long-term effects of patriarchal

oppression and autonomy on the intelligence of married women. This would enable the

investigation of causal relationships and the identification of possible changes over time.

Thirdly, combine quantitative measures with qualitative methods, such as interviews or

focus groups, to acquire a deeper understanding of the experiences and perspectives of married
 61

women. Qualitative data can offer abundant insights into the complexities of marital power

dynamics, autonomy, and intellectual development.

Consider the impact of contextual factors such as cultural norms, social structures, and

support systems on the autonomy and cognitive functioning of women. Understanding the

interplay between these factors and the investigated variables can contribute to a more nuanced

comprehension of the topic. Expand the assessment instruments to encompass a broader range of

dimensions associated with the autonomy and intelligence of women. This may involve

investigating additional facets of intelligence, such as creative intelligence or practical

intelligence, and incorporating measures that assess the quality of conjugal relationships or the

impact of gender roles.

Conduct comparative studies that include other relationship statuses, such as cohabiting

or divorced women, to investigate how autonomy and intellectual functioning may differ across

relationship contexts. This would result in a more comprehensive comprehension of the role of

marriage in relation to the investigated variables. Design and implement interventions aiming at

promoting the autonomy and empowerment of married women. Assess the impact of these

interventions on various aspects of intelligence and well-being in order to identify effective

strategies for supporting the personal development and empowerment of married women.

Furthermore, explore the intersectionality of gender with other social identities, such as

race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability, to comprehend how multiple forms of oppression

and privilege influence the autonomy and cognitive functioning of women.

 62

Future Implications

The findings can be used as evidence for advocacy initiatives aimed at empowering

women, fostering their autonomy, and dismantling oppressive structures that impede their

intellectual development and well-being. Educators and educational professionals can use these

findings to design interventions that foster critical thinking, assertiveness, and decision-making

skills among married women, thereby promoting their intellectual development and

empowerment.

The results of this study can inform relationship counseling and therapy by highlighting

the importance of confronting power dynamics and promoting autonomy in marital relationships.

The findings can be used by therapists to facilitate conversations and interventions that promote

healthy communication, negotiation of roles, and shared decision-making, ultimately improving

the intellectual health of married women. The findings of this research can inform the

development of policies aimed at promoting gender equality and women's rights. Policymakers

can use the evidence to develop policies that challenge patriarchal norms, safeguard women's

autonomy within marital relationships, and foster women's intellectual development and

empowerment by creating supportive environments.

Curriculum Development Educational institutions can incorporate the findings of the

study into curriculum development in order to address the role of power dynamics, gender roles,

and autonomy in relationships. Future Research Directions can investigate additional variables,

such as the role of social support networks, cultural influences, and the impact of interventions,

to obtain a deeper understanding of the subject.

 63

Conclusion

The study examined the effects of patriarchal oppression and autonomy on married

women's intellect. The findings shed light on the intricate relationship between power dynamics,

women's autonomy, and various dimensions of intellectual functioning. The study demonstrated

that higher levels of women's autonomy were associated with greater cognitive, social,

emotional, sexual, religious, moral, and spiritual intelligence.

The results underscore the importance of promoting gender equality and challenging

patriarchal norms within marital relationships. Enhancing women's autonomy within these

contexts can positively impact their intellectual development and overall well-being. These

findings have implications for advocacy efforts, educational interventions, relationship

counseling, policy development, and curriculum design, all aimed at empowering women,

fostering critical thinking skills, and promoting decision-making autonomy.

However, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of the study, such as sample bias,

reliance on self-report measures, and the cross-sectional design. Future research should consider

diverse samples, employ longitudinal designs, incorporate mixed methods approaches, and

explore the role of contextual factors and intersectionality.

In conclusion, this study contributes to the growing body of literature on gender

dynamics, autonomy, and intellectual functioning. By addressing the complexities of patriarchal

oppression and promoting women's autonomy, we can strive towards a more equitable and

empowering society that values the intellectual growth and well-being of all individuals,

irrespective of gender.
 64

CHAPTER 5

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Appendix
Research Questionnaire
We are conducting a study to analyze the levels of autonomy women have in our society. We thank you for your valuable time and input. Please be
very honest in replying to this questionnaire. Your identity is not asked at all, so please reply very truly. The information gathered through this
questionnaire will be used for research-related purposes only. Thank you.

1. Your Profession? Student  Working Woman  Housewife 

2. Your Age: ________ years
3. What is your marital status? Unmarried  Married 
4. What is your educational qualification so far?
Primary  Middle  Matric  FA/FSc  BA/BSc  BS  MPhil/MS  PhD 

Please apply the following statements on yourself and tick  only one of the seven options given under each statement:
1 I am free in making decisions about my life
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
2 My family respects my opinions
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
3 I am fully independent in doing my hobbies
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
4 I am encouraged for my personal growth
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
5 I am fully independent to choose my career
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
6 No one in my family pressurizes me
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
7 I am considered as an important person in my family
 110

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
8 I am fully independent in decorating my house the way I wish
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
9 I am fully independent to go out of my house whenever I need
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
10 Women must be submissive to men
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
11 Women must be obedient to men
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
12 Success of women depends on how well they obey men
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
13 Women are inferior to men
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
14 Men can lead better than women
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
15 Men can handle the finance better than women
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
16 Men have better intellectual capacities than women
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
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17 I have a fear of losing my honor in my family
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
18 I have a fear of being labeled as shameless
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

Please respond to the following statements about your sexual intelligence by a tick  for only one of the 7 options for each statement:

1. Sexual fantasies improve sex.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
2. New ways of sex increase sexual desires.
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Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
3. Sharing sexual fantasies with the partner can also be enjoyable.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
4. Sexually provoking talks are always exciting.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
5. Feeling sexual desires is important for a healthy life.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
6. Talking about sex is always satisfying to me.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
7. My behavior toward others is mostly seductive.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
8. I easily become sexually aroused when I fantasize about sex.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

Please respond to the following statements about your emotional intelligence by a tick  for only one of the 7 options for each statement:

1 I am happy with my life.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

2 I am usually relaxed.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

3 I can sleep well.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

4 I consider myself fully capable of expressing my emotions anywhere and anytime.

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Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

5 I always want to express my emotions freely.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

6 I can express my emotions in words.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

7 I can control my mood the way I wish.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

8 I can control my anger easily.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

9 I never get sad because of others.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

10 I can understand the feelings of others the way they feel.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

11 I can understand the emotions of others around me.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

12 People interact with me comfortably.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

13 The best people are the ones who are extremely emotional.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

14 Satisfying emotions is a basic purpose of life.

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Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

15 I prefer those people who express their emotions on the spot.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

Please respond to the following statements about your social intelligence by a tick  for only one of the 7 options for each statement:

1 I usually don’t care of the comments others make about me.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

2 “What others say” does not bother me at all.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

3 I think well before I act.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

4 I can understand what others expect from me.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

5 I keep my promises.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

6 I organize my daily tasks well.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

7 My friends are happy with me.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

8 I can manage my social relations well.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
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      

Please respond to the following statements about your religious, moral, and spiritual intelligence by a tick  for only one of the 7 options for
each statement:

1 Religion gives meaning to life.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

2 Religion makes us better human beings.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

3 Religion is essential for life.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

4 There is a life after this life.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

5 Religions teach peace and love.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

6 I strongly believe in my religious beliefs.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

7 I practice my religion wholeheartedly.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

8 I have a strong interest in understanding my religion.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
9 Life is a test.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
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      

10 Religions do not provoke violence.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

11 I always take interest in spirituality.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

12 I love spirituality.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

13 Humans are basically spiritual beings.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

14 I want to have metaphysical experiences in my life.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

15 I try to purify my spiritual self.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

16 I feel myself harmonized with the entire universe.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

17 I treat all humans equally.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

18 I am a kind person.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
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19 I respect my elders.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

20 I obey the authorities.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

Please respond to the following statements about your cognitive intelligence by a tick  for only one of the 7 options for each statement:

1 I do not ignore my feelings

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

2 I have a sharp memory

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

3 I do not forget things easily

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

4 I can write stories by my own

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

5 I can write poetry by my own

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

6 I love to be creative
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

7 I can manage my stress easily

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
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8 I can solve my problems easily

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      
9 I can talk with strangers easily
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

10 I like to discover myself

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

11 Reasoning is important in decision making

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

12 I like to know the nature deeply

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

13 I do not believe in anything until I am not completely sure about its accuracy
Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

14 I do not agree to everything that is said by others

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

15 I do not do anything without a valid reason

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Not Sure Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree
      

Thank you for your valuable time and input.