Republic of the Philippines

Tarlac State University

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
CENTER OF DEVELOPMENT
Lucinda Campus, Tarlac City
Tel. No. (045) 493-0182; Fax No. (045) 982-0110
Re-accredited Level III by the
Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACUP),
Inc.

Name: Angelina G. Alberto & Erlyn

Alfaro
Year and Section: BSED English 2B

Review of Theories of Development

I. Learning Objectives

 Understand the concept of theories of development and their significance in explaining human
growth and behavior
 Identify and describe key theories of development, including their main proponents and core
principles
 Apply theories of development to real-life situations and contexts to gain a deeper understanding of
human development.
.

II. Discussion Proper

Developmental theories provide a framework for thinking about human growth and learning. But why do we
study development? What can we learn from psychological theories of development? If you have ever
wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful
insight into individuals and society.

An understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive,
emotional, physical, social, and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early
adulthood. Why is it important to study how children grow, learn, and change? An understanding of child
development is essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social,
and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.
The study of human development is a rich and varied subject.

We all have personal experience with development, but it is sometimes difficult to understand how and why
people grow, learn, and act as they do.
Why do children behave in certain ways? Is their behavior related to their age, family relationships, or
individual temperaments? Developmental psychologists strive to answer such questions as well as to
understand, explain, and predict behaviors that occur throughout the lifespan.

In order to understand human development, a number of different theories of child development have arisen
to explain various aspects of human growth.
There are many child development theories that have been proposed by theorists and researchers. Some of the
major theories of child development are known as grand theories; they attempt to describe every aspect of
development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as mini-theories; they instead focus only on a
fairly limited aspect of development such as cognitive or social growth

 Piaget's stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget's stages of cognitive development theories propose that children go through four distinct stages of
learning and development. These stages are:

Sensorimotor stage: This stage occurs from birth to around 2 years of age. During this stage, infants and
toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. They learn about the
world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening. They also develop object
permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Preoperational stage: This stage occurs from ages 2 to 7. Children in this stage begin to think symbolically
and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. However, they tend to be egocentric and struggle to
see things from the perspective of others. They also think in very concrete terms and may have difficulty
understanding the concept of constancy.

Concrete operational stage: This stage occurs from ages 7 to 11. Children in this stage begin to think logically
about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation. They become more organized in their
thinking and use inductive logic, reasoning from specific information to a general principle. However, their
thinking is still very concrete, and they may struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

Formal operational stage: This stage occurs from age 12 and up. Adolescents and young adults in this stage
can think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems. They start to think more about moral,
philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning. They also use
deductive logic, reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

Piaget's theory emphasizes that children actively construct their understanding of the world through
interactions and experiences. It suggests that cognitive development involves qualitative changes in how
children think, rather than just accumulating more information. Piaget's observations of children's cognitive
development led him to propose these stages as a framework for understanding how children's thinking
evolves.

 Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory is a theory proposed by Erik Erikson, a renowned

developmental psychologist. This theory suggests that individuals go through eight stages of development,
each with its own unique challenge and resolution. These stages span from infancy to old age and encompass
various aspects of an individual's life, including physical, cognitive, and social development. Understanding
Erikson's theory can help us better understand ourselves and others, and navigate the challenges of life with
greater ease.

Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development:

Infancy (birth to 18 months): Trust vs. Mistrust

 The main challenge in this stage is developing trust in the world based on the dependability and
quality of caregivers.
 If caregivers provide adequate care and love, the child will develop a sense of trust and feel safe and
secure. However, inconsistent or unavailable caregivers can lead to feelings of mistrust and fear.

Early Childhood (2 to 3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 The focus of this stage is developing a sense of personal control and independence.
  Children start to gain independence and make simple decisions. Allowing them to make choices and
gain control helps foster a sense of autonomy.
 Potty training plays a significant role in developing a sense of autonomy.
 Success in this stage leads to feelings of autonomy, while failure results in shame and doubt.

Preschool (3 to 5 years): Initiative vs. Guilt

 In this stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through play and social
interactions.
 They need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
 Success leads to a sense of purpose, while failure results in guilt and self-doubt.

School Age (6 to 11 years): Industry vs. Inferiority

 This stage involves coping with new social and academic demands.
 Children develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
 Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Adolescence (12 to 18 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion

 This stage is crucial for developing a sense of personal identity.
 Teens explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
 Success leads to an ability to stay true to oneself, while failure results in role confusion and a weak
sense of self.

Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with others.
 Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation

 Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, such as having children or making
positive changes in the world.
 Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.

Maturity (65 to death): Ego Integrity vs. Despair

 This stage involves reflecting on life and accepting its meaning and purpose.
 Success leads to a sense of wisdom and fulfillment, while failure results in despair and regret.

 Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become
very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn
actively and through hands-on experiences.

Vygotsky’s Theory of Social Development argues that community and language play a central part in
learning. While Jean Piaget concluded that children’s cognitive development happens in stages, Vygotsky
rejected his ideas and believed that children develop independently of specific stages as the result of social
interactions.

Vygotsky claimed that we are born with four ‘elementary mental functions’: Attention, Sensation,
Perception, and Memory. It is our social and cultural environment that allows us to use these
elementary skills to develop and finally gain ‘higher mental functions.

This development ideally happens in “The Zone of Proximal Development “. First, there is what
we can do on our own. Then there is the Zone of Proximal Development, which represents what we
can do with the help of an adult, a friend, technology or what Vygotsky called the More

Knowledgeable Other. Last, there is what’s beyond our reach.

 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development is a theory proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, an American

psychologist, that focuses on how individuals develop morality and moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg,
moral development occurs in a series of stages, with each stage building upon the previous one. Here is an
overview of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development:

Preconventional Morality:

Stage 1: Avoiding Punishment - Individuals at this stage view rules as fixed and absolute. They obey rules to
avoid punishment. Moral reasoning is based on direct consequences.

Stage 2: Self-Interest - Individuals consider their own needs and interests when making moral decisions.
They may engage in reciprocal behavior if it benefits them.

Conventional Morality:

Stage 3: Good boy attitude - Individuals at this stage focus on meeting social expectations and maintaining
positive relationships. They value conformity and being "nice".

Stage 4: Law & Order Morality - Individuals consider societal norms and rules when making moral
judgments. They prioritize maintaining law and order, doing their duty, and respecting authority.

Postconventional Morality:

Stage 5: Social Contract - Individuals at this stage recognize the importance of social contracts and
individual rights. They consider differing values and opinions and believe that rules should be agreed upon
by society.

Stage 6: Universal Principles - Individuals at this final stage follow internalized principles of justice, even if
they conflict with laws and rules. They base their moral reasoning on universal ethical principles.

 Sigmund Freud’s Personality and Psychosexual development

Sigmund Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five
psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.

During each stage, sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different body parts.

Oral Stage (Birth To 1 Year)

The Oral Stage is the first stage of Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, occurring from
birth until approximately 18 months. During the oral stage, a baby’s libido, or innate pleasure-seeking
energy, is focused on the mouth.

Anal Stage (1 To 3 Years)

The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development happens between the ages of 18 months and
three years. During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great
pleasure from defecating. An example of this stage would be a child who takes pleasure in controlling and
releasing their bowels.

Phallic Stage (3 To 6 Years)

The phallic stage, which spans ages three to six, is the third phase of psychosexual development, identified by
Sigmund Freud. This period is marked by the child’s libido (or desire) focusing on their genitals as the
primary source of pleasure. In this stage, children become increasingly aware of their bodies, exhibiting a
heightened interest in their own genitals and those of the opposite sex.

Latency Stage (6 Years to Puberty)

The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six years to puberty. The libido
is dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden).
In this stage, Freud believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of relative calm.
During this stage, children’s sexual impulses become suppressed (the libido is dormant), and no further
psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden).

Genital Stage (Puberty to Adult)

The Genital Stage is the fifth and final phase of Freud’s psychosexual development theory, beginning at
puberty and lasting into adulthood. During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is
directed towards peers of the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality.
During this stage, individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and
desires more maturely and responsibly. This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading
to the formation of intimate relationships. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-
pleasure, like during the phallic stage.

 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or
her environment. Bronfenbrenner’s theory defines complex “layers” of environment, each having an effect on
a child’s development. This theory has recently been renamed “bioecological systems theory” to emphasize
that a child’s own biology is a primary environment fueling her development. The interaction between factors
in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape
fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To
study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also
at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

The microsystem – this is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has
direct contact. The microsystem encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has with her
immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000). Structures in the microsystem include family, school, neighborhood,
or childcare environments. At this level, relationships have impact in two directions - both away from the
child and toward the child. For example, a child’s parents may affect his beliefs and behavior; however, the
child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional influences,
and he shows how they occur among all levels of environment. The interaction of structures within a layer
and interactions of structures between layers is key to this theory. At the microsystem level, bi-directional
influences are strongest and have the greatest impact on the child. However, interactions at outer levels can
still impact the inner structures.
The mesosystem – this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem
(Berk, 2000). Examples: the connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between his church and
his neighborhood, etc.

The exosystem – this layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly. The
structures in this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure in her microsystem
(Berk, 2000). Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources are examples. The child may
not be directly involved at this level, but he does feel the positive or negative force involved with the
interaction with his own system.

The macrosystem – this layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment. While not
being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). The
effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence throughout the
interactions of all other layers. For example, if it is the belief of the culture that parents should be solely
responsible for raising their children, that culture is less likely to provide resources to help parents. This, in
turn, affects the structures in which the parent’s function. The parents’ ability or inability to carry out that
responsibility toward their child within the context of the child’s microsystem is likewise affected.

The chronosystem – this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments.
Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s death, or internal, such as
the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child. As children get older, they may react
differently to environmental changes and may be more able to determine more how that change will influence
them.

III. Generalization

Theories of development are explanations that help us understand how people grow, learn, and change over
time. These theories provide general ideas about how development happens and what factors influence it.

IV. References

Mcleod, S., PhD. (2024). Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

DiPietro, J. A., Hodgson, D. M., Costigan, K. A., & Johnson, T. R. (1996). Fetal antecedents of infant
temperament. Child Development, 67(5), 2568-2583.

Divino, Cynthia L., and Mary Sue Moore. “Integrating neurobiological findings into psychodynamic
psychotherapy training and practice.” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 20.3 (2010): 337-355.

MSEd, K. C. (2023, March 13). 7 main developmental theories. Verywell Mind.

https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068

Koblin, J. (2020, February 28). Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Social Relationships –
Sprouts – learning Videos – Social Sciences. https://sproutsschools.com/vygotskys-theory-of-cognitive-
development-in-social-relationships/